The Canadian Aviation Corps (CAC) was an early attempt to create an air force for Canada at the beginning of the First World War . The unit was created in 1914 and was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force . The CAC had a maximum strength of three personnel and one aircraft which was delivered but never used. By May 1915, the unit had ceased to exist.
212-452: The idea of a Canadian Aviation Corps was conceived by Colonel Sam Hughes , Canada's Minister of Militia and Defence . Hughes had asked British authorities how Canada could help the war effort in the field of military aviation. Britain suggested that Canada could help by supplying military aviators. Hughes appointed Ernest Lloyd Janney as provisional commander and authorized him to spend up to $ 5000 on an aircraft. A Burgess-Dunne floatplane
424-596: A "curse upon Canada", which was followed up with the warning that the Orangemen would never vote Conservative again if Borden expelled Hughes. Hughes's ability to bring out the votes of the Orange Order for the Conservatives ensured that Borden did not expel him despite the way in which he kept sabotaging Borden's efforts to reach out to Catholic voters. Hughes, who claimed to have been offered but declined
636-402: A 2001 study deemed it as Canada's most creative neighbourhood because artists comprise 8% of its labour force. The neighbourhood of Mile End in the northwestern part of the borough has been a very multicultural area of the city, and features two of Montreal's well-known bagel establishments , St-Viateur Bagel and Fairmount Bagel . The McGill Ghetto is in the extreme southwestern portion of
848-679: A Catholic prime minister. During Thompson's time as prime minister, Hughes supported his efforts to find a compromise to the Manitoba Schools Question, though he notably stopped writing as often to the prime minister after Thompson decided in 1894 to pass a remedial bill to force Manitoba to abide by the Manitoba Act . When Thompson died in December 1894, Hughes supported the candidacy of Sir Charles Tupper against Senator Mackenzie Bowell , but Bowell prevailed and became
1060-585: A Crown Colony and that, as we paid the bill and furnished the goods, which in nearly every instance were better than the British, I would act." Hughes won his bureaucratic battle with Kitchener and ensured the CEF stayed together, mostly by arguing that since the Dominion was paying the entire costs of maintaining the CEF, the Dominion government should have the final say over its deployment. Berton wrote that ensuring
1272-758: A Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath , on August 24, 1915. In 1916 he was made an honorary lieutenant-general in the British Army. A Regimental and King's Colours display and plaque at Knox Presbyterian Church (Ottawa) is dedicated to the memory of those who served in the 207th (Ottawa-Carleton) Battalion, CEF during the First World War. The Regimental Colours were donated by the American Bank Note Company and presented by Hughes to
1484-579: A command position. By October 1914, the troops were mobilized and ready to leave for England. As the First Contingent embarked for Europe in Quebec City on 3 October 1914, Hughes sat astride his horse to deliver a speech that caused the men of the First Contingent to boo and jeer him. Borden wrote in his diary that Hughes's speech was "flamboyant and grandiloquent" and that "Everybody laughing at Sam's address." Despite Hughes's claims about
1696-517: A competent, and sometimes exceptional, front-line officer, boastfulness and impatience told strongly against him. Hughes's demand for a V.C. was refused, but as a consolation prize, his demand for to be knighted for his Boer War services was granted, albeit only belatedly in 1915, and therefore Hughes was proud to be known as "Sir Sam". By this time, Hughes had become convinced that he deserved not one, but two V.C.s for his service in South Africa,
1908-478: A daily average ranging from −10.5 to −9 °C (13.1 to 15.8 °F) in January. However, some winter days rise above freezing, allowing for rain on an average of 4 days in January and February each. Usually, snow covering some or all bare ground lasts on average from the first or second week of December until the last week of March. While the air temperature does not fall below −30 °C (−22 °F) every year,
2120-615: A defence minister. The first Canadian unit to see action was Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry , a regiment privately raised by a wealthy Montreal industrialist, Hamilton Gault , which arrived on the Western Front in December 1914, separately from the First Contingent. On 16 February 1915, the CEF arrived in France to head for the front lines, taking up position at the crucial Ypres Salient in Belgium. On 22 April 1915, at
2332-643: A demand that exasperated the War Office in London who patiently told Hughes one could not recommend oneself for the V.C., and his requests for a V.C. bar could not be considered. As the defence critic in the Conservative shadow cabinet, Hughes who was widely read on military history, current military trends, and issues in the Canadian militia proved a vigorous and effective shadow defence minister, accusing
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#17327825519272544-696: A garrison of 390 men 40 miles upriver in a garrison at Les Cèdres, Quebec , to defend Montreal against the British army. In the Battle of the Cedars , Bedel's lieutenant Isaac Butterfield surrendered to George Forster. Forster advanced to Fort Senneville on May 23. By May 24, Arnold was entrenched in Montreal's borough of Lachine . Forster initially approached Lachine, then withdrew to Quinze-Chênes . Arnold's forces then abandoned Lachine to chase Forster. The Americans burned Senneville on May 26. After Arnold crossed
2756-413: A media favourite, and journalists were always asking the defence minister for his opinions on any subject, secure in the knowledge that Hughes was likely to say something outrageous that would help to sell newspapers. Berton described Hughes as "...a staunch Britisher, but also a staunch Canadian nationalist, who was absolutely determined that Canada should not be a vassal of the mother country". Hughes saw
2968-459: A mission on his new seigneury. The colonists left France in 1641 for Quebec and arrived on the island the following year. On May 17, 1642, Ville-Marie was founded on the southern shore of Montreal island, with Maisonneuve as its first governor. The settlement included a chapel and a hospital, under the command of Jeanne Mance . By 1643, Ville-Marie had come under Iroquois raids. In 1652, Maisonneuve returned to France to raise 100 volunteers to bolster
3180-536: A mistake and would hold the power of promotion within the Canadian Corps; Byng in reply stated that as a corps commander he had the power of promotion, that he would inform Hughes before any making promotions as a courtesy, and would resign if Hughes continued his interference with his command in the same way he had with Alderson. When Hughes claimed "I am never wrong", Byng replied "What a damn dull life you must have had, Minister!" Byng wanted to give command of
3392-656: A new bureaucracy had to be created at the same time that thousands of young men flocked to the colors. Morton wrote that in August–September 1914 "...a sweating, swearing, sublimely happy Hughes pulled some kind of order from the chaos he had created." In the process, Hughes managed to insult everyone from the Governor-General, the Duke of Connaught, to the French-Canadian community. When the president of
3604-619: A new settlement at their former hunting grounds north of the Ottawa River. This became Kanesatake . In 1745, several Mohawk families moved upriver to create another settlement, known as Akwesasne . All three are now Mohawk reserves in Canada. The Canadian territory was ruled as a French colony until 1760, when Montreal fell to a British offensive during the Seven Years' War . The colony then surrendered to Great Britain. Ville-Marie
3816-588: A plan in the event of a war in Europe for mobilizing the militia that called for Canada to send an expeditionary force of one infantry division and an independent cavalry brigade together with artillery and support units from the Permanent Force that was to be assembled at Camp Petawawa outside of Ottawa. Much to everyone's surprise, Hughes disregarded the General Staff's plan and refused to mobilize
4028-447: A political liability, by 1913 but was afraid of his bellicose defence minister to whom he also owned some major political debts. Borden was a gentlemanly and mild-mannered lawyer from Halifax who was intimidated by Hughes, a huge blustering and combative Orangeman overtly fond of getting into brawls, who wrote "long, vituperative letters" at the slightest criticism, claimed to be "loved by millions" of voters, and often compared himself to
4240-401: A populist leader who was not aloof from the common soldiers, impatient with bureaucracy, forthright about expressing his opinions about everything, and who shared the hardships on war on the veld . Balfour wrote that Hughes was chivalrous towards Boer civilians, apologising to the wife of a man he arrested as a guerrilla for taking away her husband while Curtis stated that Hughes always paid for
4452-512: A practice that went back to the days of New France , and had been tolerated under British rule and since 1867 under Confederation. Hughes justified the move as upholding secularism, but Quebec newspapers noted that Hughes was an Orangeman, and blamed his decision as due to the anti-Catholic prejudices one could expect from a member of the Loyal Orange Order. Hughes's practice of pushing out experienced Permanent Force officers serving on
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#17327825519274664-433: A rage and began to loudly swear at Farthing, making liberal use of a number of four letter words not normally used to address an Anglican bishop, who was predictably shocked. Though Hughes worked hard at ensuring the construction of Camp Valcartier and trying to bring order to the chaos he caused by not calling out the militia, almost everyone who knew him was convinced he was in some way insane. The Duke of Connaught wrote in
4876-483: A remark that marked the beginning of Hughes's stormy service in South Africa as ironically the ultra-imperialist Hughes constantly clashed with the British Army. Hughes developed a strong contempt for the British military while in South Africa and came away with the idea that frontier living had made the Canadians tougher and hardier soldiers than the British. The Canadian historian Pierre Berton wrote that Hughes "hated
5088-405: A report to London that Hughes was "off his base". A Conservative MP from Toronto, Angus Claude Macdonell , told Borden "The man is insane", and that Canada needed a new defence minister at once. The deputy prime minister, Sir George Foster , wrote in his diary on 22 September 1914: "There is only one feeling about Sam. That he is crazy." The industrialist, Sir Joseph Flavelle , wrote that Hughes
5300-418: A row in 1904 and 1908. Hughes was by then a colonel in the militia, and he insisted on wearing his uniform at all times, including cabinet meetings. In 1912, Hughes promoted himself to the rank of major-general. An energetic minister, Hughes travelled all over Canada in his private luxury railroad car to attend parades and manoeuvres by the militia. His penchant for colourful and flamboyant statements made him
5512-409: A shameful state of things! By God, I don't want to be a Britisher under such conditions!" When it was pointed out that the British cabinet had called an emergency meeting to discuss the invasion of Belgium, Hughes replied: "They are curs enough to do it; I can read between the lines. I believe they will temporize and hum and haw too long-and by God, I don't want to be a Britisher under such conditions-it
5724-583: A simple damned nuisance". Despite his anti-Catholic stance, Hughes supported the claims of the Catholic John Thompson to be prime minister. Hughes's support for Thompson was based upon political expediency, namely that Thompson was the best man to beat the popular Wilfrid Laurier. Hughes used his influence with the Orange Order to try to keep them from inflaming the Manitoba Schools Question, and to convince them to accept Thompson as
5936-489: A train and his critics to dogs. Hughes himself often said that Borden was "gentle hearted as a girl". In 1839, a treaty had been signed by Prussia and Britain guaranteeing the independence and neutrality of Belgium . On 2 August 1914, Imperial Germany , which had assumed Prussia's commitment to Belgian neutrality and independence in 1871, invaded Belgium as the German chancellor Dr. Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg dismissed
6148-572: A wife and three children on his salary while teaching offered little prospect of promotion. In 1885, he moved his family to Lindsay , where he had bought The Victoria Warder , the local newspaper. He was the paper's publisher from 1885 to 1897. In his first editorial, Hughes accused the Roman Catholic Church of being behind the smallpox epidemic that was ravaging Montreal at the time and called French-Canadians "little better than brutes". Shortly after he began his proprietorship of
6360-419: Is around 1,000 mm (39 in), including an average of about 210 cm (83 in) of snowfall, which occurs from November through March. Thunderstorms are common from late spring through summer to early fall; additionally, tropical storms or their remnants can cause heavy rains and gales. Montreal averages 2,050 hours of sunshine annually, with summer being the sunniest season, though slightly wetter than
6572-465: Is believed to be due to outmigration, epidemics of European diseases, or intertribal wars. In 1611, Champlain established a fur trading post on the Island of Montreal on a site initially named La Place Royale . At the confluence of Petite Riviere and St. Lawrence River , it is where present-day Pointe-à-Callière stands. On his 1616 map, Champlain named the island Lille de Villemenon in honour of
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6784-519: Is bordered by the city of Laval to the north; Longueuil , Saint-Lambert , Brossard , and other municipalities to the south; Repentigny to the east and the West Island municipalities to the west. The anglophone enclaves of Westmount , Montreal West , Hampstead , Côte Saint-Luc , the Town of Mount Royal and the francophone enclave Montreal East are all surrounded by Montreal. Montreal
6996-498: Is classified as a warm-summer humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb). Summers are warm to hot and humid with a daily maximum average of 26 to 27 °C (79 to 81 °F) in July; temperatures in excess of 30 °C (86 °F) are common. Conversely, cold fronts can bring crisp, drier and windy weather in the early and later parts of summer. Winter brings cold, snowy, windy, and, at times, icy weather, with
7208-580: Is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 58.5% of the population able to speak both French and English. Historically the commercial capital of Canada, Montreal was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of art, culture , literature, film and television, music, commerce, aerospace, transport , finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education , tourism , food, fashion, video game development, and world affairs. Montreal
7420-580: Is the location of the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization , and was named a UNESCO City of Design in 2006. In 2017, Montreal was ranked the 12th-most livable city in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit in its annual Global Liveability Ranking , although its ranking slipped to 40th in the 2021 index, primarily due to stress on the healthcare system from
7632-691: Is the oldest complete building in the city, built between 1669 and 1671. In Point St. Charles , visitors can see the Maison Saint-Gabriel , which can trace its history back to 1698. There are many historic buildings in Old Montreal in their original form: Notre-Dame Basilica, Bonsecours Market , and the 19th‑century headquarters of all major Canadian banks on St. James Street (French: Rue Saint Jacques ). Montreal's earliest buildings are characterized by their uniquely French influence and grey stone construction. A few notable examples of
7844-637: Is too humiliating." Hughes asked if the Union Jack was flying in front of the Defence Department, and upon being told it was, shouted: "Then send up and have it taken down! I will not have it over Canada's military headquarters, when Britain shirks her plain duty-it is disgraceful!" The Union Jack was pulled down, and only put up again the next day, when it was announced that Britain had sent an ultimatum demanding that Germany pull out of Belgium at once, and upon its rejection, Britain had honoured
8056-704: The Afghan Frontier War , and the Transvaal War ". At the age of 20, he married his first wife, Caroline Preston, who died a year later. Subsequently, he married Mary Burk, and the new couple soon moved to Toronto. He was a teacher from 1875 to 1885 at the Toronto Collegiate Institute (now Jarvis Collegiate ), where he was noted for his eccentricities such as his habit of chewing on his chalk when delivering his lectures. Hughes abandoned teaching as he had trouble supporting
8268-640: The Allied forces , was furious over Houde's stand and held him in a prison camp until 1944. That year, the government decided to institute conscription to expand the armed forces and fight the Axis powers . (See Conscription Crisis of 1944 .) Montreal was the official residence of the Luxembourg royal family in exile during World War II. By 1951, Montreal's population had surpassed one million. However, Toronto's growth had begun challenging Montreal's status as
8480-487: The British Staff College for many years prior. Compounding the issue was Hughes' regular attempts to promote and appoint officers based upon patronage and Canadian nativism instead of ability, an act which not only created tension and jealousy between units but ultimately negatively affected the operating performance of the CEF as well. Lieutenant-General Julian Byng , who replaced Alderson as commander of
8692-643: The COVID-19 pandemic . It is regularly ranked as one of the ten best cities in the world to be a university student in the QS World University Rankings . In 2018, Montreal was ranked as a global city . Montreal has hosted numerous important international events, including the 1967 International and Universal Exposition , and is the only Canadian city to have hosted the Summer Olympics, having done so in 1976 . The city hosts
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8904-767: The Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One ; the Montreal International Jazz Festival , the largest jazz festival in the world; the Just for Laughs festival, the largest comedy festival in the world; and Les Francos de Montréal , the largest French-language music festival in the world. In sports , it is home to multiple professional teams, most notably the Canadiens of the National Hockey League , who have won
9116-731: The Great Lakes to the Atlantic. Montreal is defined by its location between the Saint Lawrence river to its south and the Rivière des Prairies to its north. The city is named after the most prominent geographical feature on the island, a three-head mountain called Mount Royal, topped at 232 m (761 ft) above sea level . Montreal is at the centre of the Montreal Metropolitan Community , and
9328-481: The Imperial Federation concept , as what Hughes wanted was for Canada to become an equal partner in running the British empire, instead of playing the more subordinate role that Milner and Chamberlain had envisioned. Hughes favoured a protectionist policy of Imperial Preference, but unlike Chamberlain, he insisted that Imperial Preference be tied to "equal partnership" with an Imperial cabinet of all
9540-577: The Imperial Munitions Board headed by the industrialist Sir Joseph Flavelle . Flavelle ended the corruption and increased efficiency in the munitions industry, reaching the point that by 1917 Canadian factories were turning out some $ 2 million worth of shells per day. Hughes was enraged at the way that Flavelle had taken over an important function from his department, and even more that the Imperial Munitions Board
9752-587: The Iroquois nations of the Haudenosaunee (then based in present-day New York), established the village of Hochelaga at the foot of Mount Royal two centuries before the French arrived. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at other locations in the valley since at least the 14th century. The French explorer Jacques Cartier visited Hochelaga on October 2, 1535, and estimated
9964-401: The Manitoba Act . The Manitoba Schools Question proved to be one of the most bitterly divisive issues of the 1890s, and Hughes emerged as a spokesman for those who urged the Dominion government not to intervene, arguing that if Manitoba did not wish to provide education in French, that was its right. Hughes justified his views under the grounds of secularism, writing in 1892 "all churches are
10176-536: The Montreal Biosphere , and Moshe Safdie 's striking Habitat 67 apartment complex. The Montreal Metro has public artwork by some of the biggest names in Quebec culture . In 2006, Montreal was named a UNESCO City of Design , one of only three design capitals in the world (the others being Berlin and Buenos Aires ). This distinguished title recognizes Montreal's design community. Since 2005,
10388-610: The Ottawa River in pursuit of Forster, Forster's cannons repelled Arnold's forces. Forster negotiated a prisoner exchange with Henry Sherburne and Isaac Butterfield, resulting in a May 27 boating of their deputy Lieutenant Park being returned to the Americans. Arnold and Forster negotiated further and more American prisoners were returned to Arnold at Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec , ("Fort Anne") on May 30 (delayed two days by wind). Arnold eventually withdrew his forces back to
10600-468: The Plains of Abraham , Montreal fell to American forces led by Richard Montgomery on November 13, 1775, after it was abandoned by Guy Carleton . After Arnold withdrew from Quebec City to Pointe-aux-Trembles on November 19, Montgomery's forces left Montreal on December 1 and arrived there on December 3 to plot to attack Quebec City , with Montgomery leaving David Wooster in charge of the city. Montgomery
10812-658: The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), which had been founded by Laurier in 1910, in large part because the Navy by its very existence required a full-time force of professionals, which did not fit in well with the Defence Minister's enthusiasm for citizen-soldiers. Furthermore, the Navy was under the Department of Naval Services, which made it rival to the Defence Department in terms of military spending. But at
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#173278255192711024-522: The Second Boer War . Upon boarding the ship SS Sardinian which left Quebec City for Cape Town on 31 October 1899, carrying 1,061 Canadian volunteers, Hughes announced that he was "free of all military authority" and would take no orders from any officer. Upon arriving in South Africa, Hughes told the press that the Boers "on their old plugs of horses" would out-ride the British on the veld ,
11236-557: The Shaughnessy Village / Concordia U area home to thousands of students at Concordia University . The borough also comprises most of Mount Royal Park , Saint Helen's Island , and Notre-Dame Island . The Plateau Mount Royal borough was a working class francophone area. The largest neighbourhood is the Plateau (not to be confused with the whole borough), which was undergoing considerable gentrification as of 2009, and
11448-672: The Stanley Cup a record 24 times. In the Ojibwe language , the land is called Mooniyaang or Moon’yaang which was "the first stopping place" in the Ojibwe migration story as related in the seven fires prophecy . In the Mohawk language , the land is called Tiohtià:ke . This is an abbreviation of Teionihtiohtiá:kon , which loosely translates as "where the group divided/parted ways." French settlers from La Flèche in
11660-585: The Toronto Normal School and the University of Toronto . In 1866 he joined the 45th West Durham Battalion of Infantry and served during the Fenian raids in the 1860s and 1870s. Throughout his life, Hughes was very involved in the militia, attending all of the drill practice sessions, and taking up shooting with a rifle in his spare time to improve his aim. A superb shot with a rifle, Hughes
11872-409: The Victoria Warder and was at least one assassination attempt against him when he was shot at while leaving his newspaper office. In 1885, Hughes tried to volunteer for the expeditionary force sent to put down the North-West Rebellion led by the Metis Louis Riel , but he was refused despite being a very active member of the militia. Hughes's younger brother, James, was part of the force sent to
12084-403: The Victoria Warder in July 1885, Hughes joined the local Liberal-Conservative Association. The Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald , often commented that Hughes's letters to him were "voluminous" and sometimes "impertinent" as he demanded patronage jobs for local Tories. Macdonald also noted in 1888 that "Sam Hughes is one of our best friends", as the Victoria Warder very strongly supported
12296-423: The kommandos . Hughes's biographer, Ronald Haycock noted that he naively assumed that all future wars would be like the Boer War, even right down to being fought in a place like the veld . Haycock also noted that Hughes seemed to have no interest in understanding why the commandos had been defeated, instead presenting the war as almost a Boer victory. It was also during the Boer war that Hughes become convinced of
12508-460: The ninth-largest in North America . Founded in 1642 as Ville-Marie , or "City of Mary", it is now named after Mount Royal , the triple-peaked mountain around which the early settlement was built. The city is centred on the Island of Montreal and a few, much smaller, peripheral islands, the largest of which is Île Bizard . The city is 196 km (122 mi) east of the national capital, Ottawa , and 258 km (160 mi) southwest of
12720-455: The prohibition movement in the United States led to Montreal becoming a destination for Americans looking for alcohol . Unemployment remained high in the city and was exacerbated by the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression . During World War II , Mayor Camillien Houde protested against conscription and urged Montrealers to disobey the federal government's registry of all men and women. The federal government, part of
12932-475: The veld from the Cape Colony into the Orange Free State. Outside of Hughes's own accounts of his Boer War service, most of what is known about his time in South Africa comes from the accounts written by Hitchens, and Curtis and their mutual friend, Leo Amery , the war correspondent of The Times of London, who first met Hughes in Cape Town in December 1899 together with another mutual friend, Max Balfour. Amery, Balfour, Curtis and Hitchens all described Hughes as
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#173278255192713144-561: The wind chill often makes the temperature feel this low to exposed skin. Spring and fall are pleasantly mild but prone to drastic temperature changes; spring even more so than fall. Late season heat waves as well as " Indian summers " are possible. Early and late season snow storms can occur in November and March, and more rarely in April. Montreal is generally snow free from late April to late October. However, snow can fall in early to mid-October as well as early to mid-May on rare occasions. The lowest temperature in Environment Canada's books
13356-434: The "mother country" in imperial affairs, and should not be talked down to. The same summer, it emerged that the Shell Committee had $ 170 million worth in orders to fulfill while it delivered only $ 5.5 million of its orders, with accusations being made that Hughes's friends were engaging in war profiting. With the support of Borden, the British Minister of Munitions, David Lloyd George stopped all orders until Canada created
13568-415: The "munitions scandal" of 1916 which exposed Hughes's flunky J. Wesley Allison as corrupt, Borden took away various functions from Defence Ministry to be handled by an independent board or commission headed by men who were not cronies of Hughes. Hughes was widely resented and disliked by the men of the CEF and when Hughes visited Camp Borden in July 1916, "his boys" loudly booed him, blaming the minister for
13780-410: The 1980s and early 1990s, Montreal experienced a slower rate of economic growth than many other major Canadian cities. Montreal was the site of the 1989 École Polytechnique massacre , one of Canada's worst mass shootings , where 25-year-old Marc Lépine shot and killed 14 people, all of them women, and wounded 14 other people before shooting himself at École Polytechnique . Montreal was merged with
13992-405: The 1st Canadian Division stepped up to hold the line on the night of 22–23 April and prevented the Germans from marching through the 4-mile hole in the Allied lines created when the French and Algerians fled. On 23 April, the Germans unleashed the chlorine gas on the Canadian lines, leading to "desperate fighting" as the Canadians used improvised gas-masks of urine-soaked rags while complaining about
14204-429: The 27 surrounding municipalities on the Island of Montreal on January 1, 2002, creating a unified city encompassing the entire island. There was substantial resistance from the suburbs to the merger, with the perception being that it was forced on the mostly English suburbs by the Parti Québécois. As expected, this move proved unpopular and several mergers were later rescinded. Several former municipalities, totalling 13% of
14416-487: The 2nd Division to Henry Burstall , who had greatly distinguished himself, over the objections of Hughes, who wanted to give command of the 2nd Division to his son Garnet, whom Byng regarded as a mediocrity unfit to command anything. Byng diplomatically told Hughes he had not appointed his son because the "Canadians deserved and expected the best leaders available". Byng wrote to Borden to say that he would not tolerate political interference in his corps, and he would resign if
14628-416: The 30 ships from U-boats was left unexplained. Hughes was determined that the CEF fight together and upon arriving in London, went dressed in his full ceremonial uniform as a major-general in the Canadian militia, to see Kitchener. Hughes clashed with Kitchener and insisted quite vehemently that the CEF not be broken up. In a telegram to Borden, Hughes wrote: "I determined that Canada was not to be treated as
14840-401: The British Army". Hughes always believed the part-time citizen soldiers of the Canadian militia were far better soldiers than the full-time professionals of the British Army, a viewpoint that did much to influence his later decisions in World War I. In this regard, the performance of the Boer kommandos (commandos) was used by Hughes to prove his point, as he argued that the citizen militias of
15052-468: The British War Secretary, Lord Kitchener , was planning on breaking up the CEF when it arrived in Britain to assign its battalions to the British Army. As Hughes took an ocean liner he arrived in Southampton several days before the CEF's arrival, and upon his landing, he told the British press that if it was not for him that the convoy of 30 ships taking the CEF across the North Atlantic would have been torpedoed by U-boats , though just how Hughes had saved
15264-566: The British answer to the call of duty, 'Ready, aye, ready'." Laurier's speech captured the mood of the nation in August 1914 and most Canadians wanted to aid the "mother country" as it faced its greatest challenge yet. On 7 August 1914, Borden announced to the House of Commons that the British government had just accepted his offer of an expeditionary force to Europe. In 1911, the General Staff under Major-General Sir Willoughby Gwatkin had drawn up
15476-633: The CAC had dissolved. A second attempt in creating an air force began with the creation of the Canadian Air Force in 1918. Personnel were army officers transferred to an air unit with minimal flight training. This unit was allied with the following: Sam Hughes Sir Samuel Hughes , KCB , PC (January 8, 1853 – August 23, 1921) was the Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence during World War I . He
15688-451: The CEF and assigned black Canadians to construction units. However, some black Canadians did manage to enlist as infantrymen, as Chartrand noted that in a painting by Eric Kennington of the 16th Canadian Scottish Battalion marching through the ruins of a French village, one of the soldiers wearing kilts in the painting is a black man. In marked contrast to his attitudes towards black Canadian and Asian Canadian volunteers, Hughes encouraged
15900-575: The CEF could offer, and many French-Canadian men preferred to support the war effort by working in a factory in Montreal rather than enlisting in the CEF. Granatstein noted that French-Canadians made up 30% of Canada's population, but only 4% of the CEF, and that French-Canadians living outside of Quebec, as the Acadians in New Brunswick , were more likely to enlist than those in Quebec. Over
16112-502: The CEF during the war, making them easily the largest ethnic group in the CEF at 48.5%, and not until conscription was introduced in 1917 did the majority of the CEF finally become Canadian-born. Even in 1918, the Canadian-born soldiers consisted of 51.4% of the total serving, with the majority of the rest being British immigrants. Hughes left for London at the same time as the First Contingent did, as he heard correct reports that
16324-567: The CEF from May 1916, eventually became so incensed with the continuous interference on the part of Hughes that he threatened to resign. Byng, an aristocrat and a career British Army officer who was modest in his tastes and known for his care for his men, was very popular with the rank and file of the Canadian Corps, who called themselves "the Byng boys". This in turn sparked Hughes's jealousy. On 17 August 1916, Byng and Hughes had dinner where Hughes announced in his typical bombastic way that he never made
16536-549: The CEF stayed together was Hughes's greatest achievement, as without his intervention in October 1914, what ultimately became the Canadian Corps of four divisions would never have existed. In the fall of 1914, Hughes created the Shell Committee to manufacture shells and bullets for both the Canadians and the British. By Christmas 1914, the Shell Committee had orders for 2 million shells and 1.9 million brass casings. As
16748-519: The CEF took up its training facilities on Salisbury Plain , Hughes wanted the 1st Canadian Division to be commanded by a Canadian general. He very reluctantly accepted a British officer, Lieutenant-General Sir Edwin Alderson , as the commander of the 1st Division when it turned out that there was no qualified Canadian officer. Hughes's insistence on supplying the CEF with Canadian-made equipment, regardless of its quality, made for difficult conditions for
16960-611: The Canadian Corps was created. Alderson was appointed the corps commander, while for first time, Canadians were given divisional command with Arthur Currie of Victoria taking command of the 1st Division and Richard Turner of Quebec City taking command of the 2nd Division. Hughes himself had wanted to take command of the Canadian Corps, but Borden had prevented this. In May 1915, Hughes first learned that Currie had embezzled some $ 10,000 from his militia regiment in Victoria in June 1914 and
17172-586: The Canadian government to give preference in handing out land in the Prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba to veterans of the British Army was accepted as policy. Like other English-Canadians at the time, Hughes believed that too many immigrants from Eastern Europe were being allowed to settle on the Prairies, and instead the Prairies should be settled by immigrants from Britain, with veterans in particular encouraged to settle. In 1907 Hughes told
17384-502: The Canadian victory in the Battle of Batoche , Hughes wrote in an editorial that "regular troops were all right for police purposes in times of peace and for training schools, but beyond that they are an injury to the nation". A recurring theme of Hughes's writing in the Victoria Warder was the fear that industrialization and urbanization might lead to a loss of masculinity, and that the best way to save traditional masculinity
17596-557: The Colonies , Joseph Chamberlain , sent Laurier a note thanking him for his offer of Canadian troops to South Africa, which confused the prime minister as he made no such offer. At the same time the October 1899 edition of the Canadian Military Gazette published the details of the plan to send 1,200 men to South Africa. When Laurier denied in the House of Commons having any plans to send troops, Chamberlain's note
17808-533: The Conservatives, making him a useful man for the Tories in the rural Victoria County, where most people got their news from his newspaper. At the time when Hughes arrived in Victoria County, it was a mostly forested area where lumbering was the chief industry, though agriculture was increasing as the trees were cut down. Most of the towns and villages in Victoria County were isolated settlements located on
18020-595: The Dominion prime ministers plus the British prime minister to decide policy for the entire empire. Hughes repeatedly objected to Chamberlain's concept of the British prime minister and cabinet deciding questions for the Dominions, and Haycock wrote what Hughes wanted sounds very similar to the British Commonwealth that emerged after 1931. In 1906, after repeatedly hammering the immigration minister, Clifford Sifton in debate, Hughes's motion calling for
18232-474: The Dominions as equal partners of the United Kingdom in the management of the British empire, making claims for powers for Ottawa that anticipated the 1931 Statute of Westminster , and fiercely fought against attempts on the part of London to treat Canada in a mere colonial role. In December 1911, Hughes announced that he was going to increase the militia budget and built more camps and drill halls for
18444-702: The English-allied Iroquois attacked Lachine on the Island of Montreal, committing the worst massacre in the history of New France. By the early 18th century, the Sulpician Order was established there. To encourage French settlement, it wanted the Mohawk to move away from the fur trading post at Ville-Marie. It had a mission village, known as Kahnewake , south of the St Lawrence River. The fathers persuaded some Mohawk to make
18656-550: The First Contingent were Anglo-Canadians. François-Louis Lessard , a Permanent Force officer with an outstanding record in the Boer War was denied by Hughes permission to join the First Contingent even through his record certainly merited such an appointment. Lessard was a Permanent Force man, a Catholic and a French-Canadian, and for all reasons, Hughes would not allow him to join the CEF. Recruitment of volunteers in Quebec might have yielded better results if Lessard had been given
18868-439: The French and Algerians, the Canadians did not flee when faced with the cloud of gas. Hughes was ecstatic at the news that the Canadians had won their first battle, which in his own mind validated everything he had done as defence minister. At the same time, Hughes attacked Alderson for the losses at Ypres, claiming that a Canadian general would have done a better job and was furious when he learned that Alderson wanted to replace
19080-536: The French-Canadian minority in Ontario, which caused much resentment in Quebec, being seen as an attempt by the Orange Order, which was powerful in Ontario, to stamp out the French culture and language. Recruiting efforts in la belle province also failed due to Quebec's status as the most industrialised province as Montreal at the time was Canada's largest and most wealthiest city. During the war, munitions and textile plants in Montreal offered higher wages than anything
19292-540: The House of Commons that Catholic immigrants from Europe were "a curse upon Canada". Despite being publicly censured by the Conservative leader Robert Borden for his "curse upon Canada" remark with Borden insisting that the Conservative Party was not a sectarian party, two months later in June 1907 at the Orange Order's national convention in Vancouver, Hughes repeated his thesis that Catholic immigrants were
19504-574: The Loire valley first named their new town, founded in 1642, Ville Marie ("City of Mary"), named for the Virgin Mary . The current form of the name, Montréal , is generally thought to be derived from Mount Royal ( Mont Royal in French), the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. There are multiple explanations for how Mont Royal became Montréal . In 16th century French,
19716-630: The Manitoba Schools Question, saying the issue was tearing the Conservative Party apart. Faced with certain defeat in the 1896 election, Hughes was one of the Conservative MPs who voted in March to depose Bowell in favour of Tupper. Hughes supported Tupper's "friendly means" compromise of secular education in Manitoba with religious instruction after the school day had officially ended. Wallace disregarded Hughes's advice and in 1896 stated that
19928-489: The New York fort of Ticonderoga by the summer. On June 15, Arnold's messenger approaching Sorel spotted Carleton returning with a fleet of ships and notified him. Arnold's forces abandoned Montreal (attempting to burn it down in the process) prior to the June 17 arrival of Carleton's fleet. The Americans did not return British prisoners in exchange, as previously agreed, due to accusations of abuse, with Congress repudiating
20140-761: The Northwest Territory (modern Saskatchewan ) and to compensate for being not able to fight, he gave the war extensive coverage in The Victoria Warder . Reflecting his life-long belief in the superiority of citizen soldiers over professional soldiers, Hughes presented the Northwest Rebellion as a triumph of the Canadian militia, proudly trumpeting the fact that almost all of the men sent to the Northwest had been civilians only weeks before donning their uniforms to head west. About
20352-593: The Orangemen would only support candidates who stood against the federal remedial bill against Manitoba, which in effect meant supporting the Liberals. Laurier, despite being a French-Canadian Catholic, supported Manitoba under the grounds of provincial rights, and had the Liberals filibuster Tupper's remedial bill. At a national meeting of the Orange Order in Collingwood in May 1896, Hughes spoke in favour of Tupper and
20564-802: The Prairies to select the route for the CNR. Amery, having first met Hughes in the Boer War, followed him on his second trip across the Prairies, writing about how he talked with great passion about his plans to build the "finest city" on the Prairies. In the 1904 election, the Liberals triumphed in a landslide, and even Hughes held on to his seat in Victoria County by a narrow margin. The Conservative leader, Robert Borden , lost his own seat in Halifax , and Hughes offered to resign to allow Borden to represent Victoria County. Though Borden chose another safe Conservative seat in Ontario to represent, he thanked Hughes for his "kindness" in offering up his own seat. Hughes
20776-514: The Prairies were indeed threatening the existence of the Catholic religion and French language of the Metis , with the only difference that what Riel saw as a tragedy, Hughes saw as a blessing. Victoria County had as a percentage of the population the largest number of Orangemen in Canada in the late 19th century, and Hughes who sat on the executive board of the local Lodge of the Loyal Orange Order in
20988-547: The Reverend C.S. Bullock, whom Hughes had appointed his chief recruiter for the American Legion, had also received from Hughes a colonel's commission in the CEF despite having no military experience. Between 1914 and 1916, Hughes raised in total about half million volunteers for the CEF, of whom only about 13,000 were French-Canadians. Hughes's hostility towards French Canada together with his decision not to call out
21200-590: The Ross rifles with Lee-Enfield rifles. In a telegram to Max Aitken , the Canadian millionaire living in London whom Hughes had appointed as his representative in Britain, Hughes wrote: "It is the general opinion that scores of our officers can teach the British officers for many moons to come." In September 1915, the Second Contingent arrived on the Western Front in the form of the 2nd Canadian Division, and
21412-422: The Ross rifles, which too often jammed up in combat. The Second Battle of Ypres was the first major battle for the Canadians, costing the 1st Division 6,035 men killed, wounded, or missing, while Princess Patricia's battalion lost 678 dead, and gave the CEF a reputation as a "tough force" that was to last for the rest of the war. The Canadians had held the line at Ypres in spite of appalling conditions and unlike
21624-624: The Somme on 10 October 1916. The 4th Division was commanded by David Watson , the owner of the Quebec Chronicle newspaper, who been personally chosen by Hughes, who thought highly of him. Hughes, an Orangeman prone to anti-Catholic sentiments and not well liked among French Canadians , increased tensions by sending Anglocentrics to recruit French Canadians, and by forcing French volunteers to speak English in training. He reluctantly accepted Japanese-Canadians and Chinese-Canadians for
21836-633: The Toronto chapter of the Humane Society visited Hughes to express concern about the neglect and mistreatment of horses at Camp Valcartier, Hughes called him a liar and personally picked him up and tossed him out of his office. Likewise, when John Farthing , the Anglican bishop of Montreal, visited Hughes to complain about the shortage of Church of England chaplains at Valcartier to tend to the spiritual needs of Anglican volunteers, Hughes burst into
22048-690: The Transvaal and the Orange Free State had out-fought the British Army for much of the war, though he ignored the fact that in the end it was the British Army that won the war. Hughes also used the performance of irregular cavalry units from Canada and Australia to support his theory, noting that the "cowboy" units recruited from the Australian Outback and the Canadian Prairies were the ones most effective at hunting down
22260-470: The Victoria County, talking about its forests and lakes in the same manner he praised the Highlands of Scotland and the rolling fields of Ulster. His grandson wrote that for Hughes Victoria County was his "spiritual home". Victoria County in the 19th century was considered to be a "rough" frontier area, and during his tempestuous time as editor, Hughes was sued for libel, there was an arson attempt against
22472-487: The Victoria Cross, had to be broken up owing to a lack of replacements for their losses. The remaining men from the 163rd and 189th went into the 22nd Battalion, the future "Van Doos", whose men won more decorations for valor than any of the other battalions of the CEF by the end of the war. However, the failure of the recruiting efforts were also due to an attempt by the Ontario government in 1916 to ban schools for
22684-536: The War of 1812; namely, he misrepresented Upper Canada as being saved from successive American invasions in 1812, 1813 and 1814 by the Upper Canada militia, instead of the British Army regulars, who in fact did most of the fighting. Another theme of Hughes's coverage of the Northwest Rebellion was the way in which he essentially agreed with Riel that the stream of English-speaking, Protestant settlers from Ontario into
22896-592: The Ypres salient, the German Army unleashed 160 tons of chlorine gas. From the German lines arose an ominous yellow cloud which floated across no-man's land to bring death and suffering to the Allied soldiers on the other side, killing 1,400 French and Algerian soldiers in the trenches, leaving another 2,000 blinded while the rest broke and fled in terror. Despite the dangers of the gas which blinded when it did not kill,
23108-470: The agreement at the protest of George Washington. Arnold blamed Colonel Timothy Bedel for the defeat, removing him and Lieutenant Butterfield from command and sending them to Sorel for court-martial. The retreat of the American army delayed their court martial until August 1, 1776, when they were convicted and cashiered at Ticonderoga. Bedel was given a new commission by Congress in October 1777 after Arnold
23320-487: The arch of responsible government by an inter-Imperial Parliament dealing only with Imperial affairs". Hughes's campaign for compulsory militia service as a form of moral reformation to save the alleged wayward young men of Canada from lives of debauchery and licentiousness made him into one of the better known and most controversial ministers in the Borden government. Borden himself wanted to sack Hughes, whom he regarded as
23532-630: The assault conviction would cause him to lose his seat, in the 1896 election, Hughes kept his seat. In 1870, when the province of Manitoba was created out of the North-West Territories as part of the political deal to end the Red River Rebellion, Manitoba had a French-speaking Métis majority, and it was declared in the Manitoba Act creating the province that French was one of Manitoba's official languages, and
23744-431: The battalion on Parliament Hill on November 18, 1916. In spite of mounting criticism from 1915 onward at the way in which Hughes ran the Defence Department in wartime, the politically indebted Borden kept Hughes on. To Borden, events seemed to prove that many of Hughes's opinions were right, as the prime minister visited the Western Front in the summer of 1915 and became convinced that much of what Hughes had to say about
23956-637: The best way of stamping out the consumption of alcohol in Canada. In a speech in Napanee in 1913, Hughes declared he wanted to : "To make the youth of Canada self-controlled, erect, decent and patriotic through military and physical training, instead of growing up to as under present conditions of no control, into young ruffians or young gadabouts; to ensure peace by national preparedness for war; to make military camps and drill halls throughout Canada clean, wholesome, sober and attractive to boys and young men; to give that final touch to imperial unity, and crown
24168-549: The border between French and English Canada, Ottawa was seen as a compromise between Montreal, Toronto, Kingston and Quebec City, which were all vying to become the young nation's official capital. Ottawa retained the status as capital of Canada when the Province of Canada joined with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to form the Dominion of Canada in 1867. An internment camp was set up at Immigration Hall in Montreal from August 1914 to November 1918. After World War I ,
24380-423: The borough, its name being derived from the fact that it is home to thousands of McGill University students and faculty members. The Southwest borough was home to much of the city's industry during the late 19th and early-to-mid 20th century. The borough included Goose Village and was historically home to the traditionally working-class Irish neighbourhoods of Griffintown and Point Saint Charles as well as
24592-606: The business arena. The October Crisis and the 1976 election of the Parti Québécois , which supported sovereign status for Quebec, resulted in the departure of many businesses and people from the city. In 1976, Montreal hosted the Summer Olympics . While the event brought the city international prestige and attention, the Olympic Stadium built for the event resulted in massive debt for the city. During
24804-472: The cabinet on 9 November 1916. In his letter dismissing him, Borden stated that he was fired because of his "strong tendency to assume powers which [he did] not possess", and because the prime minister no longer had the "time or energy" to keeping solving all of the problems he had created. Montreal Montreal is the largest city in the province of Quebec , the second-largest in Canada , and
25016-504: The cabinet, but as Hughes insisted on the defence portfolio, and Borden owed Hughes a political debt for his past loyalty, he received his wish to be appointed defence minister. This debt went back to Borden's days as the embattled Leader of the Official Opposition, when Hughes, then shadow defence minister, had been loyal to him at a time when many Conservative MPs wanted a new leader after Borden lost two general elections in
25228-631: The city has been home to the International Council of Graphic Design Associations (Icograda) and the International Design Alliance (IDA). The Underground City (officially RÉSO), an important tourist attraction, is an underground network connecting shopping centres, pedestrian thoroughfares, universities, hotels, restaurants, bistros, subway stations and more, in and around downtown with 32 km (20 mi) of tunnels over 12 km (4.6 sq mi) in
25440-582: The city's 20th-century architecture include Saint Joseph's Oratory , completed in 1967, Ernest Cormier 's Art Deco Université de Montréal main building, the landmark Place Ville Marie office tower, and the controversial Olympic Stadium and surrounding structures. Pavilions designed for the 1967 International and Universal Exposition, popularly known as Expo 67 , featured a wide range of architectural designs. Though most pavilions were temporary structures, several have become landmarks, including Buckminster Fuller 's geodesic dome U.S. Pavilion, now
25652-672: The city's earliest still-standing buildings date back to the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Although most are clustered around the Old Montreal area, such as the Sulpician Seminary adjacent to Notre-Dame Basilica that dates back to 1687, and Château Ramezay , which was built in 1705, examples of early colonial architecture are dotted throughout the city. Situated in Lachine, the Le Ber-Le Moyne House
25864-489: The city's history. Montreal annexed 27 other cities, towns and villages beginning with Hochelaga in 1883, with the last prior to 2002 being Pointe-aux-Trembles in 1982. The 21st century has brought with it a revival of the city's economic and cultural landscape. The construction of new residential skyscrapers, two super-hospitals (the Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal and McGill University Health Centre ),
26076-518: The city. As they lacked modern plumbing systems it was impossible to connect all buildings at once and it also acted as a conservation method. However, the population was not finished rising — it rose from 58,000 in 1852 to 267,000 by 1901. Montreal was the capital of the Province of Canada from 1844 to 1849, but lost its status when a Tory mob burnt down the Parliament building to protest
26288-427: The colonial population. If the effort had failed, Montreal was to be abandoned and the survivors re-located downriver to Quebec City . Before these 100 arrived in the fall of 1653, the population of Montreal was barely 50 people. By 1685, Ville-Marie was home to some 600 colonists, most of them living in modest wooden houses. Ville-Marie became a centre for the fur trade and a base for further exploration . In 1689,
26500-460: The commanders. In September 1899, Minto and Hutton first informed Frederick William Borden , the Minister of Militia and Defence , of the plan that they had drafted, though Laurier remained out of the loop. As Laurier continued to hesitate, Hughes offered to raise a regiment at his own expense to fight in South Africa, an offer which threatened to upset Hutton's plans as Hughes's offer gave Laurier
26712-501: The cost of 23 dead and 33 wounded. Afterwards, Hughes attacked Warren for "absolutely untrue" statements in his official report about the action at the Faber Pass such as his claim that he was not taken by surprise and the camp was well situated, criticism which Haycock described as very well merited. Hughes would continually campaign, unsuccessfully, to be awarded a Victoria Cross (V.C.) for actions that he had supposedly taken in
26924-497: The county was able to use the Orangemen to provide a reliable group of voters when seeking election to the House of Commons throughout his career. The combative Hughes enjoyed brawling with Irish Catholic immigrants on trips to Toronto. As the editor of the Victoria Warder , Hughes often attacked "Romanists" as he called Catholics. For an example in an editorial on 4 October 1889 he accused the "Romanists" of Lindsay of being "a disloyal murder-planning society". After Wilfrid Laurier ,
27136-480: The course of the war, the policies carried out by the Ministry of Defence and Militia were much marked by inefficiency and waste, largely caused by Hughes as Morton wrote: "Hughes's perennial contempt for military professionals, shared by his overseas agent, Max Aitken, became an excuse for chaos and influence-peddling in militia administration". As scandals continued from the exposure of wasteful purchasing in 1915 to
27348-592: The creation of the Quartier des Spectacles , reconstruction of the Turcot Interchange , reconfiguration of the Decarie and Dorval interchanges, construction of the new Réseau express métropolitain , gentrification of Griffintown , subway line extensions and the purchase of new subway cars, the complete revitalization and expansion of Trudeau International Airport , the completion of Quebec Autoroute 30 ,
27560-599: The defence minister, Sir Frederick Borden, of being ineffectual in handling his portfolio. Hughes was also well known for his attacks upon the immigration policy of the Laurier government, charging that Canada needed more immigrants of "good British stock". The subject of settling the Prairies much interested Hughes as he served as an agent between 1902 and 1905 for the Canadian Northern Railway headed by his friend, William Mackenzie , travelling twice to
27772-477: The deployment of equipment that was often inappropriate for the Western Front , or of dubious quality. Previous to 1917, this negatively affected the operational performance of the CEF. The Ross rifle, MacAdam Shield Shovel , boots and webbing (developed for use in the South African War ), and the Colt machine gun were all Canadian items which were eventually replaced or abandoned due to quality or severe functionality issues. The management of spending for supplies
27984-471: The economic capital of Canada. Indeed, the volume of stocks traded at the Toronto Stock Exchange had already surpassed that traded at the Montreal Stock Exchange in the 1940s. The Saint Lawrence Seaway opened in 1959, allowing vessels to bypass Montreal. In time, this development led to the end of the city's economic dominance as businesses moved to other areas. During the 1960s, there was continued growth as Canada's tallest skyscrapers, new expressways and
28196-447: The enlistment of First Nations volunteers into the CEF as it was believed that Indians would make for ferocious soldiers. The First Nations volunteers were generally assigned as snipers out of the belief that Indians were expert marksmen, and the most deadly sniper of the war with 378 kills was the Ojibwa Francis Pegahmagabow . Despite orders from the Governor-General not to, Hughes used Defence Department funds to buy newspaper ads in
28408-465: The evidence of electoral fraud presented by Hughes was overwhelming, and ordered a by-election, held on 11 February 1892. During the by-election, Barron twice tried to bribe Hughes to drop out. Hughes was elected to Parliament in the by-election. In January 1894, Hughes was involved in a brawl on Lindsay's main street with a Roman Catholic blacksmith named Richard Kylie, which led him to being convicted of assault and fined $ 500. Despite expectations that
28620-399: The example of Switzerland, failed to take into account the differences between Switzerland, a highly conformist society in Central Europe vs. Canada, a more individualistic society in North America. The reasons Hughes gave for a larger Swiss-style militia were moral, not military. A strong believer in temperance, Hughes banned alcohol from militia camps and believed that compulsory militia was
28832-424: The few MPs whose reputation had been enhanced by the Manitoba Schools Question. Hughes's position on the Question was based upon pragmatism, namely the need to keep the Conservatives united to win the next general election in face of the challenge from Laurier, whose "sunny ways" were winning over people all over Canada. Unlike other Conservative MPs like George Foster who argued that the Manitoba Act had guaranteed
29044-417: The fighting. The Canadian historian René Chartrand wrote that "...Hughes's character may be read from the fact that he had actually asked for the V.C. for his services in South Africa". Hughes's recommendation of himself for a V.C. was most unorthodox as normally one had to be recommended for the award. Hughes published most of his own accounts of the war, often saying that when he left, the British commander
29256-422: The food he had taken from farms out on the veld , saying he was no thief. Amery described Hughes as a hard-driving, aggressive commander whose cavalry covered vast distances across the veld , saying he was relentless in his pursuit of the enemy. In a promotion, in May 1900, Milner had Hughes made the intelligence officer and assistant adjutant general to Warren's Scouts commanded by Sir Charles Warren , which had
29468-451: The forms réal and royal were used interchangeably, so Montréal could simply be a variant of Mont Royal . In the second explanation, the name came from an Italian translation. Venetian geographer Giovanni Battista Ramusio used the name Monte Real to designate Mount Royal in his 1556 map of the region. However, the Commission de toponymie du Québec disputes this explanation. Historiographer François de Belleforest
29680-447: The general staff in favour of militia officers and his lavish spending were also the causes of controversy. Hughes used the Defence Department funds to give a free Ford Model T car to every militia colonel in Canada, a move which caused much criticism. In 1913, Hughes went on an all-expenses paid junket to Europe together with his family, his secretaries, and various militia colonels who were his friends and their families. Hughes justified
29892-430: The guarantee as a "mere scrap of paper". The question facing British leaders was whether the United Kingdom would honour the guarantee of Belgium by declaring war on Germany or not. On the morning of 3 August 1914, Hughes arrived at the Defence Department, visibly upset and angry, and according to those present cried out: "They are going to skunk it! They seem to be looking for an excuse to get out of helping France. Oh! What
30104-416: The guarantee of Belgium by declaring war on Germany, shortly after midnight on 4 August 1914. As Canada was part of the British Empire, the Dominion was automatically at war. In a speech (in French) to the House of Commons, Laurier, who had become the leader of the Official Opposition after losing the 1911 election, stated: "When the call comes, our answer goes at once, and it goes in the classical language of
30316-399: The inefficiency of the British Army was correct. Hughes's methods were unorthodox and chaotic, but Hughes argued he was merely cutting through the red-tape to help "the boys" in the field. Finally, Borden in his dealings with British officials often found them patronising and condescending, which led him to side with his nationalist defence minister who argued that Canadians were the equals of
30528-440: The issue might cause the Conservatives to lose the next general election, as indeed proved to be the case. Despite the fact that Wallace had campaigned against him, Hughes tried to rebuild the relationship between the Conservatives and the Orange Order, through it was not until Wallace died in 1901 that his efforts bore fruit. The returned Prime Minister Laurier had declared his support for the British policies in South Africa, but
30740-519: The issue, and instead issued an order-in-council on 14 October saying that Canada would provide a force of volunteers for South Africa. Hughes promptly volunteered for the contingent, but was vetoed by Hutton who had neither forgotten nor forgiven Hughes for his insubordination and his abrasive refusal to be silenced; however, perhaps as a form of revenge against Hutton, Laurier insisted that Hughes be allowed to go to South Africa. Having convinced Laurier to send Canadian troops, Hughes embarked to serve in
30952-413: The lakes and connected only by water and by primitive roads. The population of the county was overwhelmingly of British descent and Protestant. On the masthead of the Victoria Warder , Hughes put the following poem: "A Union of hearts, a Union of hands, A Union no man can sever, A Union of tongues, A Union of lands, And the flag-British Union forever". Hughes had much affection for the rugged landscape of
31164-564: The losses in the war required even more men. In August 1915, Hughes announced that any individual or group could form a "chum's battalion" (also known as a "pal's battalion") for the CEF, leading to the formation of various units such as Highland battalions for Scots-Canadians, Irish battalions for Irish-Canadians, "sports" battalions based upon men interested in common sport like hockey, American battalions for American volunteers, Orange battalions for Orangemen, "bantam" battalions for men shorter than 5′2″, and so forth. The "pal's battalion" campaign
31376-411: The men of the CEF, with many soldiers already complaining about the Ross rifle in training. Alderson replaced the Shield Shovels invented by Hughes's secretary, Ena MacAdam, with the standard British Army shovel, much to the relief of the CEF and to Hughes's fury. Hughes constantly sought to undermine Alderson's command, regularly involving himself in divisional matters that were not the normal concern of
31588-494: The mid-1840s, the City of Montreal installed a water system that would pump water from the St. Lawrence and into cisterns . The cisterns would then be transported to the desired location. This was not the first water system of its type in Montreal, as there had been one in private ownership since 1801. In the middle of the 19th century, water distribution was carried out by "fontainiers". The fountainiers would open and close water valves outside of buildings, as directed, all over
31800-450: The militia in 1914 contributed at least in part to the failure of recruiting in Quebec, despite the Defence Department spending $ 30,000 in Quebec in a campaign headed by Colonel Arthur Mignault in 1916 to recruit more volunteers. After the battle of Courcelette in 1916, two of the CEF's battalions from Quebec, the 163rd Poil-aux-pattes commanded by Olivar Asselin and the 189th, a group of hard-fighting Gaspésiens who included two winners of
32012-427: The militia, instead creating a brand new organization called the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) made up of numbered battalions that was separate from the militia. Instead of going to the existing Camp Petawawa, Hughes chose to build a new camp at Valcartier , outside of Quebec City, for the CEF. Hughes's sudden decision not to call out the militia and create the CEF threw Canadian mobilization into complete chaos as
32224-429: The militia. From 1911 to 1914, the defence budget rose from $ 7 million to $ 11 million per year. Hughes was openly hostile to the Permanent Active Militia , or Permanent Force, as Canada's small professional army was known, and praised the Non-Permanent Active Militia (often shortened to just "Militia") as reflecting the authentic fighting spirit of Canada. Taking the view that citizen soldiers were better soldiers than
32436-493: The most densely populated part of Montreal. The city is composed of 19 large boroughs , subdivided into neighbourhoods. The boroughs are: Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce , Le Plateau-Mont-Royal ( The Plateau Mount Royal ) , Outremont and Ville-Marie in the centre; Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve , Rosemont–La Petite-Patrie and Villeray–Saint-Michel–Parc-Extension in the east; Anjou , Montréal-Nord , Rivière-des-Prairies–Pointe-aux-Trembles and Saint-Léonard in
32648-423: The most neighbourhoods is Ville-Marie, which includes downtown, the historic district of Old Montreal, Chinatown , the Gay Village , the Latin Quarter , the gentrified Quartier international and Cité Multimédia as well as the Quartier des spectacles which is under development. Other neighbourhoods of interest in the borough include the affluent Golden Square Mile neighbourhood at the foot of Mount Royal and
32860-638: The negative side called him "a stubborn, pompous racist" and a "passionate Orange Order supremacist" who did little to disguise his dislike of Catholics in general and of French-Canadians in particular. Hughes's views later did much to put off French-Canadians and Irish-Canadians from supporting the war effort in World War I. Chartrand further wrote that Hughes was a megalomaniac with a grotesquely inflated sense of his own importance who "would admit no contradiction to his views". Hughes's own son, Garnet , wrote: "God help he who goes against my father's will". Borden had "profound misgivings" about appointing Hughes to
33072-402: The neutral United States recruiting for the American Legion that he planned to form within the CEF. Borden was unaware until early 1916 that Hughes had recruited a battalion of American volunteers, which he first learned of after receiving American complaints about Canadian violations of American neutrality. Borden was even astonished to learn that an American Unitarian clergyman living in Toronto,
33284-423: The new Liberal Leader of the Official Opposition, spoke in favour of free trade with the United States, Hughes accused him in an 1888 editorial of being in favour of having Canada annexed by the United States. To counter Laurier's argument that free trade with the United States meant prosperity, Hughes proposed an Imperial Federation with Great Britain as the best way to bring about prosperity, though he also held out
33496-401: The next Conservative leader to replace the ailing Sir John Abbott . As Thompson represented a more upper-class, urban wing of the Conservative Party, the support of Hughes who represented a more lower-class, rural wing of the Conservatives was instrumental in assuring Thompson became prime minister in November 1892 when Abbott finally resigned. He also tried to persuade the Orangemen to accept
33708-448: The next prime minister. As the debate intensified into a crisis in 1895–96 following a ruling by the Privy Council against Manitoba, Hughes took a generally moderate position on the Manitoba Schools Question, asking rhetorically in a letter to the editor of the Ottawa Journal "why should we plunge Canada into a religious war?" In a letter to Nathaniel Clarke Wallace , the Grand Master of the Orange Order, he advised against extremism on
33920-406: The northeast; Ahuntsic-Cartierville , L'Île-Bizard–Sainte-Geneviève , Pierrefonds-Roxboro and Saint-Laurent in the northwest; and Lachine , LaSalle , Le Sud-Ouest ( The Southwest ) and Verdun in the south. Many of these boroughs were independent cities that were forced to merge with Montreal in January 2002 following the 2002 municipal reorganization of Montreal . The borough with
34132-491: The others in terms of total precipitation—mostly from thunderstorms. For over a century and a half, Montreal was the industrial and financial centre of Canada. This legacy has left a variety of buildings including factories, elevators , warehouses , mills, and refineries , that today provide an invaluable insight into the city's history, especially in the downtown area and the Old Port area. There are 50 National Historic Sites of Canada , more than any other city. Some of
34344-430: The passage of the Rebellion Losses Bill . Thereafter, the capital rotated between Quebec City and Toronto until in 1857, Queen Victoria herself established Ottawa as the capital due to strategic reasons. The reasons were twofold. First, because it was located more in the interior of the Province of Canada, it was less susceptible to attack from the United States. Second, and perhaps more importantly, because it lay on
34556-441: The perfect excuse for doing nothing. When Hutton ordered Hughes as a subordinate militia officer to remain silent, Hughes responded with an angry outburst in public alleging an attempt by a British officer to silence a Canadian MP, creating what the Canadian historian Morton called a clash of "two like-minded, but out-sized egos". On 3 October 1899, the Transvaal Republic declared war on Great Britain. The Secretary of State for
34768-413: The police were recommending criminal charges be brought against him. One of Hughes's agents, Harold Daly, wrote after the war he had been ordered by the Defence Minister "to assure General Currie that his personal interests were being looked after and he was on no account to worry." In the spring of 1915, the Second Contingent had been raised and departed for training in England. Hughes was knighted as
34980-402: The population of the island, voted to leave the unified city in separate referendums in June 2004. The demerger took place on January 1, 2006, leaving 15 municipalities on the island, including Montreal. Demerged municipalities remain affiliated with the city through an agglomeration council that collects taxes from them to pay for numerous shared services. The 2002 mergers were not the first in
35192-418: The population of the native people at Hochelaga to be "over a thousand people". Evidence of earlier occupation of the island, such as those uncovered in 1642 during the construction of Fort Ville-Marie, have effectively been removed. In 1603, French explorer Samuel de Champlain reported that the St Lawrence Iroquoians and their settlements had disappeared altogether from the St Lawrence valley. This
35404-406: The possibility that the United States might one day join to create a union of the English-speaking peoples. In the 1891 election, Hughes ran as a Conservative to represent Victoria North , but was narrowly defeated by only 202 votes by the Liberal incumbent, Jack Barron. Charging electoral fraud, Hughes went to court to challenge the result. Two justices at the Queen's Bench in Toronto ruled that
35616-549: The post of Deputy Minister of Militia in 1891, was appointed Minister of Militia after the election of Borden in 1911, with the aim of creating a distinct Canadian army within the British Empire , to be used in case of war. He wrote a letter to the Governor General, the Duke of Connaught , about his longtime demand for the Victoria Cross. Connaught privately recommended that Borden get rid of him. Chartrand described Hughes as an individual endowed with "great charm, wit, and driving energy, allied with consummate political skills", but on
35828-464: The prime minister was gravely disappointed. In September 1916, Hughes acting on his own and without informing Borden, announced in London the formation of the "Acting Overseas Sub-Militia Council" to be chaired by Carson with Hughes's son-in-law to serve as the chief secretary. His historical reputation was sullied further by poor decisions on procurements for the force. Insisting on the utilization of Canadian manufactured equipment, Hughes presided over
36040-445: The professionals, Hughes cut spending on the "bar room loafers" as he called the Permanent Force to increase the size of the Non-Permanent Active Militia. Critics charged that Hughes favoured the Militia as it allowed him opportunities for patronage as he gave various friends and allies officers' commissions in the militia that did not exist with the Permanent Force, where promotion was based on merit. Hughes did not have much interest in
36252-399: The province was to provide Catholic education in French. By 1890, immigration from Ontario had changed the demographics of Manitoba drastically and in that year the Manitoba government passed a law making all education in English under the grounds that French-language education was costing too much money. This in turn led to demands for the Dominion government to intervene as this law violated
36464-405: The provincial capital, Quebec City . As of 2021, the city had a population of 1,762,949, and a metropolitan population of 4,291,732, making it the second-largest metropolitan area in Canada. French is the city's official language. In 2021, 85.7% of the population of the city of Montreal considered themselves fluent in French while 90.2% could speak it in the metropolitan area. Montreal
36676-404: The reconstruction of the Champlain Bridge and the construction of a new toll bridge to Laval are helping Montreal continue to grow. Montreal is in the southwest of the province of Quebec. The city covers most of the Island of Montreal at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. The port of Montreal lies at one end of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, the river gateway that stretches from
36888-401: The right to a Catholic education in French, and it was the duty of the Dominion government to uphold the law, Hughes had no interest in minority rights. Hughes felt that a secular education system was superior to a religious one, and that the language of instruction in Manitoba schools should be English. His moderate stance on the Manitoba Schools Question was motivated entirely by the fear that
37100-493: The same time, Hughes was opposed to Borden's plans to disband the Navy and instead have Canada contribute some $ 35 million directly to the British Royal Navy , preferring that Canada have its own navy. During the naval debates in 1912, Hughes supported retaining the "tin-pot navy" as the RCN was often called and helped to ensure its continued existence. In April 1912, Hughes caused much controversy when he forbade militia regiments in Quebec from taking part in Catholic processions,
37312-463: The shortages of water at Camp Borden. Hughes's policy of raising new battalions instead of sending the reinforcements to the existing battalions led to much administrative waste and ultimately led to most of the new battalions being broken up to provide manpower for the older battalions. To manage the Canadian Expeditionary Force in London, Hughes created a confusing system of overlapping authorities run by three senior officers, in order to make himself
37524-417: The sieur de Villemenon, a French dignitary who was seeking the viceroyship of New France. In 1639, Jérôme Le Royer de La Dauversière obtained the Seigneurial title to the Island of Montreal in the name of the Notre Dame Society of Montreal to establish a Roman Catholic mission to evangelize natives. Dauversière hired Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve , then age 30, to lead a group of colonists to build
37736-419: The soldiers did their best to guess what it was he wanted them to do, though Hughes seemed well satisfied. Volunteer morale was challenged by inadequate tents, shortages of greatcoats, and confusion regarding equipment and storage. However, Hughes was praised for the speed of his actions by Prime Minister Borden and members of the cabinet. All of the officers Hughes chose to command the brigades and battalions of
37948-424: The spring of 1915. The 3rd Division first saw action on 1 June 1916 in the Battle of Mount Sorrel , which was lost to the Germans and then taken back by 13 June. In September 1916, the Canadian Corps entered the Battle of the Somme , fighting on until the end of the battle in November, and suffered 24,029 casualties. The "chum's battalions" raised in 1915 were formed into the 4th Division, which first saw action on
38160-446: The spring offensive without persistent staffing interference. The creation of the Ministry of Overseas Military Forces to run the CEF was a major reduction in Hughes's power, causing him to rage and threaten Borden. After Hughes sent Borden an extremely insulting letter on 1 November 1916, the prime minister vacillated for the next nine days before making his decision. Borden's patience with Hughes finally broke, and he dismissed him from
38372-424: The subway system known as the Montreal Metro were finished during this time. Montreal also held the World's Fair of 1967, better known as Expo67 . The 1970s ushered in a period of wide-ranging social and political changes, stemming largely from the concerns of the French-speaking majority about the conservation of their culture and language, given the traditional predominance of the English Canadian minority in
38584-419: The superiority of Canadians over British soldiers, two-thirds of the First Contingent were British immigrants to Canada. The majority of the 1,811 officers of the First Contingent were Canadian-born men who had previously held commissions in the Militia or Permanent Force. The Canadian historian Jack Granatstein wrote that an "extraordinary" 228,170 of the about 470,000 British male immigrants in Canada enlisted in
38796-421: The task of advancing over the Orange river to neutralise a Transvaal force under the command of Commandant-General Piet de Villers . During the advance, de Villers attacked the British camp at the Faber Pass outside of Campbell on 27 May 1900, and a half-dressed Hughes who sprung into action after waking up at the sound of the shooting, was involved in leading the counterattack that drove the Transvaalers back at
39008-414: The thesis that the Ross rifle developed by a Scottish sportsman, Sir Charles Ross , and manufactured in Canada was the ideal weapon for infantrymen. The more that the British Army rejected the Ross rifle as unsuitable, the more it persuaded Hughes of its superiority, though Morton noted that the British objections to the Ross rifle were sound as it was a hunting rifle that overheated after rapid firing and
39220-425: The time the entire force was assembled. With the aid of 400 workmen, Hughes saw the completion of the camp. Unfortunately the camp was poorly organized. With approximately 33,000 recruits, training became a chaotic process. There was little time to train the volunteers, so the training system was rushed. Another problem was that the camp's population was constantly growing, which made planning a difficult task. Hughes
39432-438: The trip, which lasted several months, as necessary to observe military manoeuvres in Britain, France and Switzerland , but to many Canadians, it appeared more like an expensive vacation taken with the taxpayer's money. Hughes's intention was to make militia service compulsory for every able-bodied male, a plan that caused considerable public opposition. Chartrand wrote that Hughes's plan for compulsory militia service, based on
39644-488: The ultimate arbiter of every issue. The most important of the officers in England was Major-General John Wallace Carson, a mining magnate from Montreal and a friend of Hughes, who proved himself a skillful intriguer. While the officers in London feuded for Hughes's favour, what Morton called a "...burgeoning, wasteful, array of camps, offices, depots, hospitals, and commands spread out across England." Twice, Borden sent Hughes to England to impose order and efficiency, and twice
39856-409: The war continued on, began to tire of Hughes's tirades before the cabinet, and hinted more than once he was thinking about sacking him. However, it was not until Hughes' political isolation, with the creation of the Ministry of the Overseas Military Forces of Canada, overseen by George Halsey Perley , and subsequent forced resignation in November 1916, that the CEF was able to concentrate on the task of
40068-493: The war, 60% had joined by the end of 1915, and by the beginning of 1916 the number of volunteers fell off drastically with only 2,810 men volunteering between July 1916 – October 1917. In March 1916, a 3rd Division was formed by amalgamating Princess Patricia's Light Infantry, the Royal Canadian Regiment (a Permanent Force regiment, which previously guarded Bermuda against the unlikely threat of German invasion), and various mounted rifle units that had been stationed in England since
40280-483: The younger Hughes was given the command of the 2nd Division rather than Burstall, who did indeed receive the appointment. Criticism from Field Marshal Douglas Haig , King George V and from within his own party gradually forced Canadian Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden to tighten control over Hughes. The Toronto Globe in an editorial on 22 June 1916 attacked Hughes for his "swashbuckling" speeches that were damaging relations with Britain. Borden, becoming assertive as
40492-425: Was "mentally unbalanced with the low cunning and cleverness often associated with the insane." Borden in his memoirs wrote about Hughes that his behavior was "so eccentric as to justify the conclusion that his mind was unbalanced". Hughes encouraged the recruitment of volunteers following the First World War 's outbreak and ordered the construction of Camp Valcartier on August 7, 1914, demanding it to be finished by
40704-435: Was "sobbing like a child." In fact, Hughes was dismissed from Boer War service in the summer of 1900 for military indiscipline, and sent back to Canada. Letters in which Hughes charged the British military with incompetence had been published in Canada and South Africa. Hughes had also flagrantly disobeyed orders in a key operation by granting favourable terms to an enemy force which surrendered to him. Although Hughes had proved
40916-478: Was active in gun clubs and ultimately became president of the Dominion Rifle Association. Hughes liked to see himself as embodying the Victorian values of hard work, self discipline, strength and manliness. Tall, muscular, and broad-shouldered, Hughes excelled at sports, being especially talented at lacrosse. He later claimed, in the British Who's Who , to have "personally offered to raise" Canadian contingents for service in "the Egyptian and Sudanese campaigns,
41128-435: Was almost expelled from the Order. In the 1896 election, Hughes's main challenger was John Delemere, an independent candidate endorsed by Wallace. Hughes held on to his seat by arguing that the affairs of Manitoba were irrelevant to Victoria County and he understood local issues far better than his opponent. The election of 1896 resulted in a Liberal victory, and in the new, much smaller Conservative caucus, Hughes stood out as
41340-418: Was also active in the Imperial Federation movement , regularly corresponding with both Joseph Chamberlain and Alfred Milner on the issue, and every year from 1905 onward, introduced a resolution in the House of Commons calling for an "equal partnership union" of the Dominions with the United Kingdom. In this, Hughes often confounded Milner and Chamberlain, who thought he was the foremost Canadian champion of
41552-421: Was assigned to defend Rhode Island in July 1777 . Montreal was incorporated as a city in 1832. The opening of the Lachine Canal permitted ships to bypass the unnavigable Lachine Rapids , while the construction of the Victoria Bridge established Montreal as a major railway hub. The leaders of Montreal's business community had started to build their homes in the Golden Square Mile from about 1850. By 1860, it
41764-415: Was based upon the "chum's battalion" campaign launched in Britain in 1914. Though Hughes's "pal's battalions" campaign raised 170 new battalions by 1916, only 40 reached full strength, and many of the men who joined during the "pal's" campaign were underage, unfit, or too old, as recruiting colonels were more concerned about the quantity of volunteers than the quality. Of only those Canadians who saw combat in
41976-404: Was compulsory militia service for all Canadian men. Hughes equated masculinity with toughness, and argued that militia service would toughen up Canadian men who might otherwise go soft living in an urban environment full of labor-saving devices. As one of his arguments for the militia, Hughes played a key role in creating what the Canadian historian Desmond Morton called the "militia myth" around
42188-428: Was eventually taken away from Hughes and assigned to the newly formed War Purchasing Commission in 1915. It was not until Hughes' resignation in November 1916 that the Ross rifle was fully abandoned by the CEF in favour of the British standard Lee–Enfield rifle. Canadian staff officers possessed an extremely limited level of experience and competence at the start of the war, having been discouraged from passing through
42400-425: Was far more efficient and honest than the Defence Department had been. Despite the scandal caused by the Shell Committee, which led Borden to face very embarrassing questions in the House of Commons and to hopes on the part of Laurier that he might become prime minister again, Hughes was not sacked. Between October 1914 – September 1915, 71 battalions had been raised for the CEF by the existing militia regiments, but
42612-407: Was infamous for belligerently giving orders to troops and their officers and he publicly criticized officers in front of their men, telling one officer who was speaking too quietly for his liking "Pipe up, you little bugger or get out of the service!" When Hughes addressed one officer as a captain, only to be told by the man that he was a lieutenant, Hughes promoted him on the spot to captain. When it
42824-414: Was killed in the failed attack and Arnold, who had taken command, sent Brigadier General Moses Hazen to inform Wooster of the defeat. Wooster left Hazen in command on March 20, 1776, as he left to replace Arnold in leading further attacks on Quebec City. On April 19, Arnold arrived in Montreal to take over command from Hazen, who remained as his second-in-command. Hazen sent Colonel Timothy Bedel to form
43036-408: Was leaked to the press, and on 9 October 1899, Laurier received a note from editor of the Toronto Globe (which supported the Liberals) saying the prime minister must "either send troops or get out of office". As the Liberal caucus was badly divided between anti-war French-Canadian MPs and pro-war English-Canadian MPs, Laurier did not dare summon Parliament for a vote as the Liberals might split over
43248-404: Was non-committal about sending Canadian troops if war should break out. In the summer of 1899, the Governor General of Canada , Lord Minto , and the commander of the Canadian Militia , Colonel Edward Hutton , drafted a secret plan for a Canadian contingent of 1,200 men to go to South Africa, and decided that Hughes as one of the most outspokenly imperialist members of Parliament was to be one of
43460-421: Was notable for being the last Liberal-Conservative cabinet minister, until he was dismissed from his cabinet post. Hughes was born January 8, 1853, at Solina near Bowmanville in what was then Canada West . He was a son of John Hughes from Tyrone , Ireland , and Caroline (Laughlin) Hughes, a Canadian descended from Huguenots and Ulster Scots . He was educated in Durham County, Ontario and later attended
43672-448: Was pointed out that he did not have that power as minister of defence, Hughes shouted "Sir, I know what I'm talking about!" and said if he wanted to promote the officer to a captain, then the officer was a captain. Hughes insisted on riding around the camp surrounded by an honour guard of lancers and shouting out orders for infantry manoeuvres long since removed from the training manuals like "Form square!"; when presented with such commands,
43884-420: Was purchased in the United States, shipped to Vermont and then flown to Valcartier , Quebec where it was taken apart, crated, and shipped to England. Janney and the two other CAC members, Lieutenant W. F. Sharpe , a pilot, and Staff Sergeant H. A. Farr, a mechanic, accompanied the aircraft. The aircraft was left abandoned and damaged on Salisbury Plain , having never flown any combat operations. By May 1915,
44096-446: Was the first to use the form Montréal with reference to the entire region in 1575. Archaeological evidence in the region indicates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD 1000, they had started to cultivate maize . Within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. The Saint Lawrence Iroquoians , an ethnically and culturally distinct group from
44308-418: Was the largest municipality in British North America and the undisputed economic and cultural centre of Canada. In the 19th century, maintaining Montreal's drinking water became increasingly difficult with the rapid increase in population. A majority of the drinking water was still coming from the city's harbour, which was busy and heavily trafficked, leading to the deterioration of the water within. In
44520-460: Was the name for the settlement that appeared in all official documents until 1705, when Montreal appeared for the first time, although people referred to the "Island of Montreal" long before then. As part of the American Revolution , the invasion of Quebec resulted after Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga in present-day upstate New York in May 1775 as a launching point to Arnold's invasion of Quebec in September . While Arnold approached
44732-431: Was too easily jammed by dirt. However, despite his frequent clashes with British Army officers, Sir Alfred Milner , the British High Commissioner for South Africa, praised Hughes for his willingness to by-pass bureaucracy and to get things done. Two men who were later prominent in Milner's Kindergarten , William Hitchens and Lionel Curtis both served under Hughes's command from March 1900 onward as they advanced across
44944-414: Was −37.8 °C (−36 °F) on January 15, 1957, and the highest temperature was 37.6 °C (99.7 °F) on August 1, 1975, both at Dorval International Airport . Before modern weather record keeping (which dates back to 1871 for McGill), a minimum temperature almost 5 degrees lower was recorded at 7 a.m. on January 10, 1859, where it registered at −42 °C (−44 °F). Annual precipitation
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