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47-612: The Cane River Creole National Historical Park was established in 1994 to preserve the resources and cultural landscapes of the Cane River region in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana . Located along Cane River Lake , the park is approximately 63 acres and includes two French Creole cotton plantations , Oakland and Magnolia . Both plantations are complete in their historic settings, including landscapes, outbuildings, structures, furnishings, and artifacts; and they are

94-639: A National Historic Landmark and Bicentennial Farm. Open to the public as a unit of Cane River Creole National Historical Park, a unit of the National Park System, Oakland's outbuildings, sheds, store houses, and tenant cabins illustrate the daily life of a working cotton plantation. The site offers a window into the Creole colonial culture, maintained by ethnic French such as the Prud'homme family, along with generations of blacks and Creoles of color in

141-455: A freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as civil servants in the Roman bureaucracy . In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered. The emperor was criticized for using freedmen in

188-486: A land grant from the Spanish government, who ruled Louisiana during that time. Emmanuel was one of the first planters to grow cotton in the area. During this period, Emmanuel began to purchase enslaved workers to labor in the fields and build the structures needed on the plantation. In 1818, Prud'homme began construction of his plantation home. In the late 1820s, Emanuel's son, Pierre Phanor Prud'homme, took over management of

235-468: A slave was called manumissio , from manus , "hand" (in the sense of holding or possessing something), and missio , the act of releasing. After manumission , a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (libertas) , including the right to vote. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus ("freed person", feminine liberta ) in relation to his former master, who

282-517: Is a caricature of such a freedman. The term "Eastern slave trade" refers to the Arab slave trade that supplied the early Muslim conquests throughout the Arab - Muslim world from the 7th to the 20th centuries, peaking in the 18th and 19th centuries. This term, which covers the Arab-Muslim slave trade, is symmetrical with the term "Western slave trade", which refers to the triangular trade on

329-579: Is included as a site on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail . A defining characteristic of the park is the conservation and interpretation of Creole culture. In colonial Louisiana the term "Creole" was used to indicate New World products derived from Old World stock, and could apply to people, architecture, or livestock. Regarding people, Creole historically referred to those born in Louisiana during

376-491: Is the last of its kind still standing in its original location. The lives of the diverse people associated with Magnolia are being represented to reflect the resilience, resourcefulness, dedication, and continuous interaction of families and communities along Cane River. Oakland Plantation was started in the 18th century with a land grant to the French Creole Prud'homme family. In 1789, Emanuel Prud'homme received

423-580: The American Civil War . They supported the Confederacy during the war, supplying some warriors in the West, as they were promised their own state if the Confederacy won. After the end of the war, the U.S. required these tribes to make new peace treaties, and to emancipate their African slaves. They were required to offer full citizenship in their tribes to those freedmen who wanted to stay with

470-842: The Civil War . During the Civil War, Magnolia's main house was burned to the ground by Union troops during the Red River Campaign . In addition, crops and plantation structures were destroyed by both Confederate and Union armies. After the Civil War, the LeComte-Hertzog family rebuilt their plantation along with the main house. They converted much of their land to be worked by the new labor system of sharecropping by freedmen . In addition, they leased some acreage to tenant farmers, who were mostly Creoles of color . The system of sharecropping required an agreement between

517-512: The Eurasian steppes . The offspring of Mamluks were regarded as Muslim freedmen, and hence excluded from the Arab-Muslim slave trade; they were known as the awlād al-nās ("sons of respectable people"), who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops, serving the ruling Arab and Ottoman dynasties in the Muslim world . In

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564-641: The Horn of Africa , and the islands of the Indian Ocean . For centuries, Arab-Muslim slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million native Africans to slavery throughout the Arab - Muslim world . They also enslaved Europeans (known as Saqaliba ), as well as Caucasian and Turkic peoples, from coastal areas of the Mediterranean Region , the Balkans , Central Asia , and

611-858: The Western coasts of Africa that supplied the European colonization of the Americas , and which includes the Atlantic slave trade . The slaves of the Eastern slave trade came mainly from Sub-Saharan Africa , Northwestern Africa , Southern Europe , Slavic countries , the Caucasus , and the Indian subcontinent , and were imported by the Arab-Muslim slave traders into the Middle East and North Africa ,

658-571: The history of the United States , the terms "freedmen" and "freedwomen" refer chiefly to former African slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War by the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . African slaves freed before the war (usually by individual manumissions , often in wills ) were generally referred to as "free Negroes" or "free Blacks". In addition, there

705-539: The "Civil War Amendments" or the " Reconstruction Amendments ". To help freedmen transition from slavery to freedom, including a free labor market, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln created the Freedmen's Bureau , which assigned agents throughout the former Confederate states. The Bureau also founded schools to educate freedmen, both adults and children; helped freedmen negotiate labor contracts; and tried to minimize violence against freedmen. The era of Reconstruction

752-408: The 1850s Ambrose and his wife Julia (Buard) retired to their Natchitoches townhouse, where Ambrose could focus on his lucrative race horse business. By 1852 management of the plantation was turned over to Ambrose's son-in-law, Matthew Hertzog. The name Hertzog would eventually become inextricably linked with the plantation. This prosperous period for the planter family would come to an abrupt halt with

799-640: The Civil War. During these years the enslaved population continued to perform a variety of skills: from cultivating the land and processing the cotton, to constructing the buildings, managing livestock, and making most of the goods needed by the plantation's occupants. The Civil War brought destruction to the Cane River region. During the Red River Campaign both the Union and Confederate armies destroyed plantation buildings, crops, and livestock. At

846-539: The Confederacy —states in rebellion and not under the control of the Union —to be permanently free. It did not end slavery in the four border states that had stayed in the Union. African slavery elsewhere was abolished by state action or with the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in December 1865. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 , passed over the veto of U.S. President Andrew Johnson , gave

893-550: The French and Spanish periods, regardless of their ethnicity. Today, as in the past, Creole transcends racial boundaries. It connects people to their colonial roots, be they descendants of European settlers, enslaved Africans , or the many of mixed heritage, which may include African, French, Spanish, and American Indian influences. The Prud'hommes of Oakland and the LeComtes of Magnolia were considered French Creole. As with others in

940-654: The Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy. The brothers who owned House of the Vettii , one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii , are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche . Trimalchio , a character in the Satyricon of Petronius ,

987-405: The Prud'homme plantation, the cotton gin was burned. The facts relating to the survival of the plantation home and Phanor's fate have become clouded by several unconfirmed stories and legends. One family legend states that Phanor was arrested by Union soldiers. He became ill as he was moved from his plantation to Natchitoches, where he died in a cousin's home. At war's end, Phanor's two sons divided

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1034-399: The Prud'hommes opened a store and post office at Oakland to provide supplies and services for sharecroppers and tenant farmers. The plantation store operated until 1983, serving the larger community when the number of farm workers declined. Low cotton prices in the late 19th century and a boll weevil infestation in the early 20th century resulted in mostly lean times for the planter family and

1081-550: The South via military districts enacted by the Reconstruction Acts ; they protected freedmen in voting polls and public facilities from violence and intimidation by white Southerners, which were common throughout the region. The Cherokee Nation , Choctaw Nation , Chickasaw Nation , Seminole Nation of Oklahoma , and Creek Nation were among those Native American tribes that held enslaved Africans before and during

1128-491: The South was the cycle of poverty created through the constant flow of debt and repayment owed to the plantation store. There was often little money left to live on. During the 20th century, the old plantation world was fading. Mechanization replaced many black workers on the cotton fields by the 1960s. Yet many of the community's old ways persisted. At Magnolia, workers and planters still enjoyed baseball games and horse races, and celebrated Juneteenth . The last black family left

1175-491: The Spanish, and became one of the most successful landowning families in Natchitoches Parish . By the early 19th century the LeComte family was producing cotton and expanding their landholdings. In the 1830s, Ambrose LeComte II acquired the land that would come to form Magnolia Plantation. During this period, the LeComtes were extremely prosperous and began to build most of the structures that are still located on Magnolia. By

1222-521: The United Kingdom and Europe voluntarily, planning to settle in Australia, some as pastors and missionaries, others seeking to make a living by trade or farming. When convicts finished their sentence, they were freed and referred to as "freedmen" or "freed men". However, many of these who were freed wanted to claim the label "free men". But those who had come freely to Australia wanted to reserve

1269-727: The adjacent St. Augustine Parish (Isle Brevelle) Church. Melrose Plantation is a National Historic Landmark. In 1836, the Red River shifted into an eastern channel, known as the "Rigolette de Bon Dieu." Lyle Saxon wrote a short story titled "Cane River" published in 1926. The Cane River and Creoles also feature in Saxon's 1937 novel Children of Strangers . 31°44′35″N 93°05′10″W  /  31.7431°N 93.0861°W  / 31.7431; -93.0861 Freedmen Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens . The act of freeing

1316-611: The area, the homes and plantations of these families reflected the French Creole architectural style and way of life. The historic landscapes and dozens of structures preserved at Oakland and Magnolia plantations are the setting for the stories of workers (enslaved and free) and late post-Civil War tenant farmers who worked the same land for over two centuries, adapting to historical, economic, social, and agricultural change. Today their descendants carry on many of their traditions. The origins of Magnolia Plantation can be traced to

1363-550: The formation of the larger community culture and agricultural landscape. Cane River The Cane River (French: Rivière aux Cannes ) is a 30-mile-long (48 km) river in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana , originating from a portion of the Red River . In the 19th and 20th centuries, it gained prominence as the locus of a Creole de couleur (multiracial) culture, centered around the Melrose Plantation and

1410-404: The formerly enslaved peoples full citizenship in the United States , though this did not guarantee them voting rights. The 14th Amendment made "All persons born or naturalized in the United States" citizens of the United States. The 15th Amendment gave voting rights to all adult males; only adult males had the franchise among White Americans . The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments are known as

1457-430: The landowner and the tenant. The sharecropper agreed to farm a section of the owner's land in exchange for part of the crops or the money the crops generated. The plantation owner often supplied the seed and agricultural equipment required to cultivate the crop. On larger plantations, such as Magnolia and Oakland, a plantation store was opened to sell goods to the sharecroppers. A hardship faced by many sharecroppers across

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1504-672: The mid-18th century, when the French LeComte family received grants to the land, and are continued by the French Hertzog family. In 1753, Jean Baptiste LeComte received a French land grant in Natchitoches Parish. LeComte established the Shallow Lake plantation and focused mainly on tobacco as a commodity crop, and subsistence farming. The LeComte family pioneered through the colonial rule of the French and

1551-507: The most intact French Creole cotton plantations in the United States. In total, 65 historic structures and over a million artifacts enhance the National Park Service mission as it strives to tell the story of the evolution of plantation agriculture through the perspective of the land owners, enslaved workers, overseers , skilled workers, and tenant farmers who resided along the Cane River for over two hundred years. This park

1598-733: The national historical park's authorized boundary. But the Plantation Store, the Overseer's House, the Blacksmith Shop, the Slave/Tenant Quarters, the Gin Barn, Cotton Picker Shed, and Carriage House are all part of Cane River Creole National Historical Park, which was designated in 1994. They are open to visitors. The gin barn houses two types of cotton gins and a rare 1830s mule-powered cotton press, which

1645-720: The north of the island. Some went first to Spanish-ruled Cuba , from where they immigrated to New Orleans in 1808 and 1809 after being expelled when Napoleon invaded Spanish territories in Western Europe . Many brought slaves with them. Their numbers strengthened the French-speaking community of enslaved African peoples, as well as the free people of color. Other refugees from Saint-Domingue settled in Charleston , Savannah , and New York . The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared all enslaved peoples in

1692-685: The original group). In addition to arguing that the post-Civil War treaties gave them citizenship, the freedmen have argued that the Dawes Rolls were often inaccurate, recording as freedmen even those individuals who had partial Cherokee ancestry and were considered Cherokee by blood. The Choctaw freedmen and Creek freedmen have similarly struggled with their respective tribes over the terms of citizenship in contemporary times. The tribes have wanted to limit those who can benefit from tribal citizenship, in an era in which gaming casinos are yielding considerable revenues for members. The majority of members of

1739-418: The overseer and the enslaved people, as well as work sites, such as the wash house and the carpenter shop. An unusual building to modern eyes is the pigeonnière , where pigeons were raised to be enjoyed as a food delicacy. Although Pierre Phanor had managed the plantation since the 1820s, he did not become the owner until 1845 upon his father's death. Phanor continued to successfully manage the plantation until

1786-467: The plantation in 1968. The Hertzog family contracted with an agricultural company to work the land. In the early 21st century, Magnolia Plantation is recognized as a Bicentennial Farm and a National Historic Landmark . The main house at Magnolia and the farming acreage are owned by the Hertzog family and are not open to the public. On December 29, 2022, the main house and surrounding grounds were added to

1833-433: The plantation. As with Magnolia and most large plantations of the early 19th century, the Prud'homme plantation was a self-sufficient community that grew or made everything that was needed. Its commodity crop was cotton, but produce was grown for use on the plantation, as well as food for animals. Livestock structures were constructed to house mules, chickens, horses, and turkeys. In addition, housing had to be constructed for

1880-498: The plantation. Jacques Alphonse Prud'homme kept the land that included the main house and surrounding lands west of the Cane River. Pierre Emmanuel Prud'homme took the land on the east side of the river and established his own plantation, which he called Atahoe. Alphonse renamed his home as Oakland and began rebuilding his fortunes. He adapted to the free labor economy, hiring freedmen as sharecroppers ; some Creoles of color leased land separately as tenant farmers . During this era,

1927-540: The plantations in the Great Migration for employment in war industries. Lyle Saxon wrote a short story titled "Cane River" published in 1926. The Cane River and Creoles also feature in Saxon's 1937 novel Children of Strangers . John Isiah Walton created an artwork depicting a girl looking at her reflection titled "Cane River". Oakland Plantation is listed by the National Park Service as

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1974-455: The tribes have voted to limit membership. Descendants of freedmen, however, maintain that their rights to citizenship granted under the post-Civil War treaties should be restored. In 2017, the Cherokee freedmen were granted citizenship again in the tribe. Many convicted people from the United Kingdom were sentenced to be transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868. Also, many came from

2021-573: The tribes. Numerous families had intermarried by that time or had other personal ties. If freedmen left the tribes, they would become U.S. citizens. In the late 20th century, the Cherokee Nation voted for restrictions on membership to only those descendants of people listed as "Cherokee by blood" on the Dawes Rolls of the early 20th century, a decision that excluded most Cherokee Freedmen (by that time this term referred to descendants of

2068-430: The workers until after World War II . Modernization came fitfully to Cane River. Phanor Prud'homme II bought the family's first car in 1910, while most people in the area still traveled by mule-drawn wagon. By the 1960s the family adopted mechanization for agriculture, with machines doing more of the tasks long performed by mules and human workers. During World War II and after, many of the remaining black workers had left

2115-562: Was a population of African Americans born free. In addition, there were sizable communities of free peoples of African descent in the French Caribbean colonies , such as Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) and Guadeloupe . Due to the violence of the Haitian Revolution , many free people of color, who were originally part of the revolution, fled the island as refugees after being attacked by slave rebels , particularly in

2162-583: Was an attempt to establish new governments in the former Confederacy and to bring freedmen into society as voting citizens. Northern church bodies, such as the American Missionary Association and the Free Will Baptists , sent teachers to the South to assist in educating freedmen and their children, and eventually established several colleges for higher education. U.S. Army occupation soldiers were stationed throughout

2209-489: Was called his or her patron ( patronus ) . As a social class, freed slaves were liberti , though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to hold public office or state priesthoods , nor could they achieve legitimate senatorial rank . During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. Any future children of

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