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65-588: Cape Guardafui is located at 11°49′N 51°15′E  /  11.817°N 51.250°E  / 11.817; 51.250 , next to the Guardafui Channel. The archipelago of Socotra lies off the cape in the north of the Somali Sea. Fifteen leagues (45 miles) west of Guardafui is Ras Filuk , a steep cliff jutting into the Gulf of Aden from flatland. The mountain is believed to correspond with

130-469: A seminary in Palermo , where he studied classical subjects. The rector of the institute was Giuseppe Crispi , his uncle. Crispi attended the seminary until 1834 or 1835, when his father, after becoming mayor of Ribera , encountered major difficulties in health and finances. In the same period, Crispi became a close friend of the poet and doctor Vincenzo Navarro, whose friendship marked his initiation to

195-472: A bellicose authoritarian prime minister and an ally and admirer of Bismarck. He was indefatigable in stirring up hostility toward France. His career ended amid controversy and failure: he got involved in a major banking scandal and fell from power in 1896 after the devastating loss of the Battle of Adwa , which repelled Italy's colonial ambitions over Ethiopia. Due to his authoritarian policies and style, Crispi

260-538: A close friend and supporter of Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi , and one of the architects of Italian unification in 1860. Crispi served as Prime Minister of Italy for six years, from 1887 to 1891, and again from 1893 to 1896, and was the first prime minister from Southern Italy . Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Otto von Bismarck , William Ewart Gladstone , and Lord Salisbury . Originally an Italian patriot and democrat liberal, Crispi went on to become

325-572: A diplomat and patriot, to prepare the revolution against the Bourbon monarchy and King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies . The revolution started on 12 January 1848, and therefore was the very first of the numerous revolutions to occur that year. Three revolutions had previously occurred on the island of Sicily starting from 1800 against Bourbon rule. The uprising was substantially organized from, and centred in, Palermo. The popular nature of

390-514: A firm in Marseilles , but the deal subsequently fell through. Britain ceded to Italy sovereignty over the disputed region where Cape Guardafui is located in 1894. Starting in 1899, the Italians undertook detailed studies and surveys to build a lighthouse and the first concrete project came out in 1904. Italy wanted the construction and maintenance costs of the future lighthouse to be shared by

455-644: A letter repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont in the Italian unification . He proclaimed himself a republican and a partisan of national unity. He travelled around Italy under various disguises and with counterfeit passports. Twice in that year he went the round of the Sicilian cities in disguise preparing the insurrectionist movement of 1860. Crispi briefly visited Greece in October 1859. He helped persuade Giuseppe Garibaldi to sail with his Expedition of

520-448: A move until the end of the war. Cavour's envoy, Giuseppe La Farina , was arrested and expelled from the island. He was replaced by the more malleable Agostino Depretis , who gained Garibaldi's trust and was appointed as pro-dictator. During the dictatorial government of Garibaldi, Crispi secured the resignation of the pro-dictator Depretis, and continued his fierce opposition to Cavour. In Naples , Garibaldi's provisional government

585-413: A parliamentary assembly. This proposal was also supported by the federalist Carlo Cattaneo . Garibaldi announced that the decision would have been taken by the two pro-dictators of Sicily and Naples, Antonio Mordini and Giorgio Pallavicino, who both opted for the plebiscite. On 13 October Crispi resigned from the government of Garibaldi. The general election of 1861 took place on 27 January, even before

650-578: A precedent for making agreements with the Somalis, who seemed ready to enter into relations with all comers." Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo , which also controlled a portion of the coast, later granted concessions to an Aden-based French hotel proprietor and a former French Army officer to construct a lighthouse in Cape Guardafui. Capital for the project was raised by

715-593: A reformist leader, but his political style provoked many protests from his opponents, who accused him of being an authoritarian Prime Minister and a strongman . True to his initial progressive leanings he moved ahead with stalled reforms, abolishing the death penalty, revoking anti-strike laws, limiting police powers, and reforming the penal code and the administration of justice with the help of his Minister of Justice Giuseppe Zanardelli , reorganising charities and passing public health laws and legislation to protect emigrants that worked abroad. He sought popular support for

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780-465: A revolutionary conspirator and continued his close friendship with Mazzini, involving himself in the exile politics of the national movement, abandoning Sicilian separatism. On 10 January 1856, he moved to Paris , where he continued his work as a journalist. On 22 August, he was informed that his father had died and that three years earlier also his mother had died, but that news had been hidden by his father who did not want to increase his sorrows. On

845-524: A struggle began between Garibaldi's government and the emissaries of Cavour on the question of timing of the annexation of Sicily by Italy. It established a Sicilian Army and a fleet of the Dictatorship Government of Sicily. The pace of Garibaldi's victories had worried Cavour, who in early July sent to the provisional government a proposal of immediate annexation of Sicily to Piedmont . Garibaldi, however, refused vehemently to allow such

910-522: A success and concluded with a plebiscite that brought Naples and Sicily into the Kingdom of Sardinia , the last territorial conquest before the creation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861. The sea venture was the only desired action that was jointly decided by the "four fathers of the nation" Giuseppe Mazzini , Giuseppe Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II , and Camillo Cavour , pursuing divergent goals. Crispi utilized his political influence to bolster

975-547: A supporter of the House of Savoy . Pallavicino immediately stated that Crispi was unable and inappropriate to hold the office of Secretary of State. Meanwhile, Cavour stated that Southern Italy would not accept anything but the unconditional annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia by plebiscite. Crispi, who still had the hope to continue the revolution to rescue Rome and Venice , strongly opposed this solution, proposing to elect

1040-478: A unitary monarchy. Moreover, during his term as minister, Crispi tried to unite the many factions which were part of the Left , at that time. On 9 January 1878, the death of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and the accession of King Umberto enabled Crispi to secure the formal establishment of a unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the title of Umberto I of Italy instead of Umberto IV of Savoy. On 7 February 1878,

1105-576: Is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands , or sometimes a sea containing a small number of scattered islands. Archipelagos are sometimes defined by political boundaries. For example, while they are geopolitically divided, the San Juan Islands and Gulf Islands geologically form part of a larger Gulf Archipelago. The word archipelago is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄρχι-( arkhi- , "chief") and πέλαγος ( pélagos , "sea") through

1170-600: Is often regarded as a strongman and seen as a precursor of the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini . Crispi's paternal family came originally from the small agricultural community of Palazzo Adriano , in south-western Sicily . It had been founded in the later fifteenth century by Orthodox Christian Albanians ( Arbëreshë ), who settled in Sicily after the Ottoman conquest of Albania . His grandfather

1235-520: The Bari region, it consists of four districts ( Baargaal , Bereeda , Alula , and Gumbah ) and has its capital at Alula . It has the longest coastline of Puntlands 9 regions (on both the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden). Archipelago An archipelago ( / ˌ ɑːr k ə ˈ p ɛ l ə ɡ oʊ / AR -kə- PEL -ə-goh ), sometimes called an island group or island chain ,

1300-714: The Great Eastern Crisis Crispi was offered Albania as possible compensation by Bismarck and the British Earl of Derby if Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia , however, he refused and preferred the Italian Alpine regions under Austro-Hungarian rule. In December 1877 he replaced Giovanni Nicotera as Minister of the Interior in the cabinet of Depretis. Although his short term of office lasted just 70 days, they were instrumental in establishing

1365-564: The Gulf of Aden with the Somali Sea. A sighting of Ras Asir represents a milestone for passing vessels, due to a sharp westerly change in direction and a changing contrast between the hazardous currents to Ras Asir's east, and the comparatively calm seas to its north, especially during the south-west monsoon. On April 8, 2013, the Puntland government announced the creation of a new region coextensive with Cape Guardafui named Gardafuu . Carved out of

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1430-432: The Italian unification project. The various groups participated in the expedition for a variety of reasons: for Garibaldi, it was to achieve a united Italy; for the Sicilian bourgeoisie, an independent Sicily as part of the kingdom of Italy, and for the mass farmers, land distribution and the end of oppression. After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed First Secretary of State in the provisional government; shortly

1495-517: The Romanticism . In 1835 he studied law and literature at the University of Palermo receiving a law degree in 1837; in the same year, he fell in love with Rosina D'Angelo, the daughter of a goldsmith . Despite his father's ban, Crispi married Rosina in 1837, when she was already pregnant. In May Crispi became the father of his first daughter, Giuseppa, who was named after his grandmother. It

1560-546: The British signed an agreement with sultan Osman Mahamuud of the Majeerteen Sultanate , which controlled much of the northeastern Somali seaboard during the 19th century. The agreement stipulated that the British would pay annual subsidies to protect shipwrecked British crews and guard wrecks against plunder. The agreement, however, remained unratified, as the British feared that doing so would "give other powers

1625-524: The Chamber of Deputies . During the autumn of 1877, as President of the Chamber, he went to London , Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial personal relationships with British prime minister William Ewart Gladstone and Foreign Minister Lord Granville and other English statesmen, and with Otto von Bismarck , by then Chancellor of the German Empire . In 1877 during

1690-593: The Defence Committee; during his tenure, he supported the separatist movement that wanted to break ties with Naples. Thus Sicily survived as a quasi-independent state for sixteen months, with the Bourbon army taking back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force. The effective head of state during this period was Ruggero Settimo . On capitulating to the Bourbons, Settimo escaped to Malta where he

1755-688: The Garibaldian invasion of the papal states, foreseeing the French occupation of Rome and the disaster of Mentana . By methods of the same character as those subsequently employed against himself by Felice Cavallotti , he carried on the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which sundry conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused of corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War , he worked energetically to impede

1820-594: The Interior in the Depretis cabinet. Following Depretis's death on 29 July 1887 Crispi, abandoned the Dissident Left and became the leader of the Left group; he was also appointed, by the King, Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs . On 29 July 1887 , Francesco Crispi was sworn in as the new prime minister. He was the first one from Southern Italy . Crispi immediately distinguished himself, for being

1885-775: The Italian arcipelago . In antiquity , "Archipelago" (from Medieval Greek * ἀρχιπέλαγος and Latin archipelagus ) was the proper name for the Aegean Sea . Later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea has a large number of islands). Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland, which form an archipelago. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots , but may also be

1950-562: The Thousand , which disembarked on Sicily on 11 May 1860. The Expedition was formed by a corps of volunteers led by Garibaldi, who landed in Sicily in order to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , ruled by the Bourbons . The project was an ambitious and risky venture aiming to conquer, with a thousand men, a kingdom with a larger regular army and a more powerful navy. The expedition was

2015-581: The ancient Elephas Mons or Cape Elephant ( Ras Filuk in Arabic ) described by Strabo . Referred to as Aromata promontorium ( Greek : Αρώματον ἄκρον) by the ancient Greeks , Guardafui was described as early as the 1st century CE in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , along with other flourishing commercial settlements on the northern Somali littoral. The name Guardafui originated during

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2080-442: The attacks and this was one of the reasons that prompted the authorities to build a stronger, stone and reinforced concrete lighthouse, which was inaugurated in 1930. The striking new lighthouse was built in the shape of an Italian fascist "Fascio littorio". The lighthouse, which is no longer in use, still has the huge stone axe blade characteristic of fascist symbolism . A stone lighthouse and radio station were eventually built in

2145-517: The capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia, where he worked as a journalist. During this period he became a friend of Giuseppe Mazzini , a republican politician, journalist and activist. In 1853 Crispi was implicated in the Mazzini conspiracy and was arrested by the Piedmontese policy and sent to Malta . Here, on 27 December 1854, he married Rose Montmasson. Then he moved to London where he became

2210-421: The carriage. The second bomb wounded the animals and smashed the carriage glass. The third bomb landed under the carriage and seriously wounded a policeman who was hurrying to protect the occupants. Eight people were killed and 142 wounded, though the emperor and empress were unhurt. Orsini himself was wounded on the right temple and stunned. He tended his wounds and returned to his lodgings, where police found him

2275-440: The centrality of Parliament in the government of the state. Vincenzo Fardella was elected president of Sicilian Parliament . The idea was also put forward for a confederation of all the states of Italy . The constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of an Italian confederation of states. Crispi was appointed a member of the provisional Sicilian Parliament and responsible for

2340-539: The death of Pope Pius IX necessitated a conclave , the first to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped by Mancini and Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII ), persuaded the Sacred College to hold the conclave in Rome, establishing the legitimacy of the capital. The statesmanlike qualities displayed on this occasion were insufficient to avert the storm of indignation of Crispi's opponents when he

2405-675: The evening of 14 January 1858, as the Emperor Napoleon III and the Empress Eugénie de Montijo were on their way to the theatre in the Rue Le Peletier , the precursor of the Opera Garnier , to see, rather ironically, Rossini 's William Tell , the Italian revolutionary Felice Orsini and his accomplices threw three bombs at the imperial carriage. The first bomb landed among the horsemen in front of

2470-647: The first monograph on the Albanian language . A philhellene , Crispi wrote in an 1859 diary entry he was Greek due to Greek–Albanian ancestry and attributed part of his origins to Greece . In an 1885 telegram on the Albanian question, Crispi stated he was "an Albanian by blood and heart" and an Italo–Albanian from Sicily. At the age of five, he was sent to a family in Villafranca , where he could receive an education. In 1829, at 11 years old, he attended

2535-539: The formal birth of the Kingdom of Italy , which took place on 17 March. Francesco Crispi was elected as a member of the Historical Left , in the constituency of Castelvetrano ; he would retain his seat in all successive legislatures until the end of his life. Crispi acquired the reputation of being the most aggressive and most impetuous member of his parliamentary group. He denounced the Right for "diplomatising

2600-457: The headland, with the former named after Francesco Crispi in 1930. The lighthouse has an original "Fascio littorio" exterior stone as a decoration, that is typical of fascist architecture promoted by Benito Mussolini . Italian authorities have requested a study to declare the lighthouse an "historical monument" of Somalia and a proposed World Heritage Site. Ras Asir holds resonance among Puntites and other Horn Africans because it represents

2665-516: The late Middle Ages by sailors using the Mediterranean Lingua Franca : "guarda fui" in ancient Italian means "look and escape", as a reference to the danger of the cape. In the early 19th century, Somali seamen barred entry to their ports along the coast, while engaging in trade with Aden and Mocha in adjacent Yemen using their own vessels. Due to the frequency of shipwrecks in the treacherous seas near Cape Guardafui,

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2730-481: The law was to give the cabinet the right to decide on the number and functions of the ministries. The prospect was also to keep the King (as well as provide the Albertine Statute ) free to decide on the organization of the various ministries. Moreover, the reform provided the establishment of secretaries, who were supposed to help ministers and, at the same time, do them as spokesmen in parliament. The reform

2795-536: The leaders of the Left, Agostino Depretis, and the Right, Marco Minghetti , formed an alliance based on a flexible centrist coalition of government which isolated the extremes of the left and the right ; these politics was known as Trasformismo . Crispi, who was a strong supporter of two-party system , strongly opposed it and founded a progressive and radical parliamentary group called Dissident Left . The group

2860-561: The maritime powers which would benefit most from the new lighthouse but Britain, which suspected that Italy also intended to build a coaling station that would compete with Aden, finally refused to contribute. Thus, it is only in the early 1920s that the authorities of Italian Somaliland finally made good on their promise to build a lighthouse. The first one, inaugurated in April 1924 as the Francesco Crispi Lighthouse,

2925-524: The necessity to educate poor people, about the huge damage caused by the excessive wealth of the Catholic Church and regarding the need for all citizens, including women, to be equal before the law. In 1845 Crispi took up a judgeship in Naples , where he distinguished himself for his liberal and revolutionary ideas. On 20 December 1847, Crispi was sent to Palermo along with Salvatore Castiglia,

2990-463: The next day. Of the five conspirators, only one remained unidentified. In 1908 (seven years after Crispi's death) one of them, Charles DeRudio , claimed to have seen, half an hour before the attack, a man approaching and talking with Orsini, and recognized him as Crispi. But no evidence has ever been found regarding Crispi's role in the attack. Anyway on 7 August 1858, he was expelled from France. In June 1859 Crispi returned to Italy after publishing

3055-483: The projected alliance with France, and to drive the Giovanni Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death of Urbano Rattazzi in 1873 induced Crispi's friends to put forward his candidature to the leadership of the Left; but Crispi, anxious to reassure the crown, secured the election of Agostino Depretis . After the general election in 1876 , in which the Left gained almost 70% of votes, Crispi was elected President of

3120-465: The result of erosion , deposition , and land elevation . Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands , continental fragments , or continental islands . Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and widely separated from any adjacent continent. The Hawaiian Islands and Galapagos Islands in the Pacific , and Mascarene Islands in

3185-445: The revolt is evident in the fact that posters and notices were being handed out a full three days before the substantive acts of the revolution occurred on 12 January 1848. The timing was deliberately planned, by Crispi and the other revolutionaries, to coincide with the birthday of Ferdinand II. The Sicilian nobles were immediately able to resuscitate the constitution of 1812, which included the principles of representative democracy and

3250-425: The revolution". Personal ambition and restlessness made him difficult to cooperate with and he earned himself the nickname of Il Solitario (The Loner). In 1864, he finally deserted Mazzini and announced he was a monarchist, because as he put it in a letter to Mazzini: "The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us." In 1866 he refused to enter Baron Bettino Ricasoli 's cabinet; in 1867 he worked to impede

3315-670: The shelf. The islands of the Inside Passage off the coast of British Columbia and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago are examples. Artificial archipelagos have been created in various countries for different purposes. Palm Islands and The World Islands off Dubai were or are being created for leisure and tourism purposes. Marker Wadden in the Netherlands is being built as a conservation area for birds and other wildlife. The largest archipelago in

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3380-432: The south Indian Ocean are examples. Continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. The Farallon Islands off the coast of California are an example. Sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf, when those islands are above-water extensions of

3445-523: The state with a programme of orderly development at home and expansion abroad. One of the most important acts was the reform regarding the central administration of the State, with which Crispi strengthened the role of the Prime Minister. The bill aimed to separate the roles of the government from those of parliament, trying to untie the first by the political games of the second. The first point of

3510-688: The tip of the Horn of Africa peninsula and because it is the African region nearest to many rapidly developing economies in Asia. Many nomads that traverse here are also fisherman due to the abundance of fish off its shores. With the usage of binoculars, the vessels that traverse the Guardafui Channel can sometimes be seen. Six miles south of Ras Asir there are mimosa trees with water streams called Wadi Tuhom. The offshore Guardafui Channel connects

3575-541: The world by number of islands is the Archipelago Sea , which is part of Finland . There are approximately 40,000 islands, mostly uninhabited. The largest archipelagic state in the world by area, and by population, is Indonesia . Francesco Crispi Francesco Crispi (4 October 1818 – 11 August 1901) was an Italian patriot and statesman. He was among the main protagonists of the Risorgimento ,

3640-578: Was a brief marriage: Rosina died on 29 July 1839, the day after giving birth to her second son, Tommaso; the child lived only a few hours and in December, also Giuseppa died. Between 1838 and 1839, Crispi founded his own newspaper, L'Oreteo , from the name of the Sicilian river Oreto . This experience brought him into contact with a number of political figures including the Neapolitan liberal activist and poet, Carlo Poerio . In 1842 Crispi wrote about

3705-568: Was a simple, functional metal-framed lighthouse built atop the headland. Simultaneously, a wireless station to monitor maritime traffic, which had been built in the nearby village of Tohen , was activated. A large-scale rebellion against Italian rule in that part of Italian Somaliland was underway at the time and troops guarding the new lighthouse and the wireless station repelled two attacks by several hundred rebels in November 1925 and January 1926. The lighthouse had suffered some damages during

3770-414: Was accused of bigamy . When he remarried, a woman he had married in 1853 was still living. But a court ruled that Crispi's 1853 marriage on Malta was invalid because it was contracted while another woman he had married yet earlier was also still alive. By the time of his third marriage, his first wife had died and his marriage to his second wife was legally invalid. Therefore, his marriage to his third wife

3835-533: Was also known as "The Pentarchy", due to its five leaders, Giuseppe Zanardelli , Benedetto Cairoli , Giovanni Nicotera , Agostino Magliani , Alfredo Beccarini and Crispi. The party supported authoritarian and progressive internal policies, expansionism and Germanophile foreign policies, and protectionist economy policies. After the general elections in May 1886 , in which the Dissident Left gained almost 20% of votes, Crispi returned to office as Minister of

3900-569: Was an Arbëreshë Orthodox priest; the parish priests were married men, and Arbëreshë was the family language down to the lifetime of the young Crispi. Crispi himself was born in Ribera , Sicily, to Tommaso Crispi, a grain merchant and Giuseppa Genova from Ribera; he was baptised as a Greek Catholic . Belonging to a family of Arbëreshë descent, he spoke Italian as his third or fourth language, alongside Arbëresh (variant of Albanian ), Greek and probably Sicilian . His uncle Giuseppe wrote

3965-597: Was heavily criticized by the Rightist opposition but also by the Far Left . On 9 December 1887, it was approved by the Chamber of Deputies. In 1889 Crispi's government promoted a reform of the magistracy and promulgated a new penal code , which unified penal legislation in Italy, abolished the death sentence and recognised the right to strike. The code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. The code

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4030-426: Was largely controlled by Cavour. Crispi, who arrived in the city in mid-September, tried to increase his power and influence, at the expense of Cavour's loyalists. However, the revolutionary impulse that had animated the Expedition was fading, especially after the Battle of Volturnus . On 3 October 1860, to seal an alliance with King Victor Emmanuel II , Garibaldi appointed pro-dictator of Naples, Giorgio Pallavicino,

4095-429: Was named after Giuseppe Zanardelli , then Minister of Justice , who promoted the approval of the code. Another important reform was that of local government, or comuni , which was approved by the Chamber in July 1888, in just three weeks. The new reform almost doubled the local electorate, incrementing the suffrage. But the most controversial part of the law was related to the mayors, who were previously appointed by

4160-440: Was received with the full honours of a head of state. Unlike many, Crispi was not granted amnesty and was forced to flee the country. After leaving Sicily, Crispi took refuge in Marseille , France , where he met the woman who would become his second wife, Rose Montmasson , born five years after him in Haute-Savoie (which at that time belonged to the Kingdom of Sardinia ) in a family of farmers. In 1849, he moved to Turin ,

4225-414: Was ruled valid and not bigamous. He was nevertheless compelled to resign office after only three months in March 1878, bringing down the whole government with him. For nine years Crispi remained politically under a cloud, leading the "progressive" opposition. In 1881 Crispi was among the main supporters of the universal male suffrage , which was approved by the government of Agostino Depretis . In 1883

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