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94-448: The earliest known inhabitants of the island were the Jola , the ethnic group which is still the most populous on the island. The Portuguese were active in the region from the 16th century onwards; however, they did not linger on "Mosquito Island", the mosquitoes and black flies convincing them to establish their trading post in the town of Ziguinchor instead in 1645. On January 22, 1836,

188-688: A central authority, a king, whose role resembles more that of a priest than of a traditional secular leader. The most prominent Jola kingdom is in Oussouye . Among the Muslim Jola, there is also the marabout , a religious leader and teacher. Traditional animist rituals are overseen by elders, who have an important role in Jola society. For Jola boys to attain manhood, they must take part in the initiation festival known as futamp , which takes place every 15 to 20 years in every Jola village. The word Jola

282-410: A council of elders make many of the daily decisions for the community and exert much influence. Despite the patriarchal nature of Jola society, many women played major roles in the community and were often members in village councils, religious leaders, and landowners. Women are also important as cultivators of wet rice fields in which they predominated. Polygamy and genital mutilation are not practiced by

376-522: A council. After consultation, the nomination of a leader is established by the prefect and approved by the Minister of the Interior . Under Senegalese law, the leader of the village has certain prerogatives, including law enforcement , tax collection, and keeping of vital records in the village. While this administrative structure was decreed by a government anxious to deal with interlocutors , such

470-597: A detachment of soldiers and several other ships from the governor. When these reinforcements arrived from Gorée, the conflict was successfully ended. A treaty was signed on March 25, establishing the sovereignty of France not only in Casamance, but also in Kagnout and Samatit . For his involvement in the conflict, Bertrand-Bocandé was accepted into the Légion d'honneur and was given a land concession . Bertrand-Bocandé left

564-514: A detailed map of the region would make clear, the channels of salt water are not easily navigated. A recent geological formation, Carabane consists of a shoal and alluvium . The alluvium has developed because of the saltwater streams that cut across the shoal. As pointed out by early French observers, soils in the region are generally composed of sand and clay, differing in mixture and layer according to natural and human factors. However, Carabane seems to be composed entirely of sand. The lack of clay

658-647: A fort was built by the French and Rufisque was annexed to the Colony of Senegal . The "Escale" commercial and administrative neighborhood along the waterfront was laid out in 1862—the African inhabitants being pushed out in the process. Rufisque became a "commune" in 1880 and its port was connected to the Dakar-Saint Louis railroad in 1885. In 1909 Galandou Diouf (died 1941) was elected to represent Rufisque in

752-843: A locally made farming tool called the kajando . Like some of the other indigenous ethnic groups of the Senegambian region—the Baga, the Balanta , the Konyagi, etc.—the Jola ethnic group did not develop a political scale that expanded beyond village level compared to ethnic groups that migrated to the region like the Soninke and the Mandinka. But this does not mean they did not develop a sophisticated political system. The egalitarian nature of their societies (rare in most societies), structured around

846-419: A long neck, today are nylon fishing line. Before, they were made of palm tree roots (Jola language: kuhall kata kubekel ). The neck is a bamboo stick (Mandinka language: bangoe ) that passes through the calabash to the other side. A hole is made in the sound box to allow the sound to escape. The bridge of the ekonting is not fixed to its skin as many lutes are. It is free, and can be moved back and forth on

940-417: A process which expands the island where the power of tidal race would normally have the opposite effect. Rising just over 2 m (6.6 ft), the southern portion of the island is partially flooded during the rainy season and totally submerged every few years. At low tide, mudflats are exposed so that boats with keels are forced to dock a considerable distance from the island. When arriving at Carabane,

1034-439: A restructuring has not taken place in Casamance. Jola society is devoid of any formal hierarchy. It has no leader with genuine permanent authority. Instead, there are village elders who meet when important decisions need to be made. According to Italian anthropologist Paolo Palmeri, the leader of the village has very little power in reality, as he is merely responsible for relations with the national administration. He simply allows

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1128-481: A resurgence of commercial and political activity. In 1852, the population surpassed 1,000 inhabitants. A cadastral map assigned tracts of 30 square metres (320 sq ft) to traders and contractors. Other tracts of 15 square metres (160 sq ft) were allotted for housing. Provisional concessions were granted to residents of Saint-Louis and Gorée. Other than settlers, the island was mainly inhabited by animist Jola farmers, whose practices were disconcerting to

1222-460: A roaming spirit with no respect from the other spirits. Some Jola religious festivals include the Samay , Kumpo and Niasse . Unlike most ethnic groups of the Senegambian region, the Jola do not have a caste system of Jewelers griots , slaves , nobility , leather workers, etc. Their communities are based on extended clan settlements normally large enough to be given independent names, including

1316-675: A specific function and where the queen is easily replaceable. In 2003, the village of Carabane's official population count stood at 396 people and 55 households, but it fluctuates with the seasons and sometimes reaches some 1,750 people, according to local sources. Most of the population is Jola. The Jola are very distinct from other major ethnic groups in Senegal by their language, egalitarian society, freedom from political hierarchy, and lack of slavery. Their traditions have persevered because of their independent spirit as well as their geographical isolation. This ethnic group accounts for 80 to 90% of

1410-486: A total area of 57 square kilometres (22 sq mi), Carabane is the last major island in the mouth of the Casamance River in south-west Senegal. It is situated 12° 32' N latitude and 16° 43' W longitude and is, by way of Elinkine, nearly 60 kilometres (37 mi) away from Ziguinchor , the capital of the region of the same name , and a little over 500 kilometres (310 mi) from Dakar,

1504-412: Is around 24 °C (75 °F). Temperatures of below 18 °C (64 °F) are quite rare. In September, the temperature of surface seawater is 26 °C (79 °F). At one time, the island was considered an arid location, where coconuts were the only useful plants likely to flourish and vegetables were difficult to produce. In what has become a tropical climate, vegetation is more abundant than in

1598-524: Is available at a reasonable depth for irrigation and domestic purposes. Until the installation of a pump in 2006, however, drinking water had to be sent by boat from Elinkine. The tropical climate of Basse Casamance cycles between a dry season and a wet season , which usually starts in June and ends in October. Because of the proximity to the ocean, the humidity of the air remains above 40% and contributes to

1692-419: Is divided into a variety of dialects which may not, at times, be mutually intelligible. These dialects correspond to the different Jola tribes: Overall, more than half of Jolas (54%) are Muslims. In Gambia, 90% of Jolas are Muslims. Some Jolas continue to follow their traditional religion and rituals in spite of the influence of Islam and Christianity in recent times. Even though some accepted Islam after

1786-657: Is now a suburb of Dakar. Rufisque is also the capital of the department of the same name . Originally a Lebou fishing village called Tenguedj ( Wolof : Tëngéej ), Rufisque became important in the 16th century as the principal port of the kingdom of Cayor , being frequented by Portuguese (who named it Rio Fresco , meaning "Freshwater River", hence the name of the modern city), Dutch, French and English traders. A Euro-African Creole , or Métis , community of merchants grew up there, in close contact with similar communities in Saint Louis , Gorée and other places along

1880-553: Is one of the sacred Serer sites . [REDACTED] Media related to Diola at Wikimedia Commons Rufisque Rufisque ( Arabic : روفيسك ; Wolof : Tëngeéj) is a city in the Dakar region of western Senegal , at the base of the Cap-Vert Peninsula 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of Dakar , the capital. It has a population of 295,459 (2023 census). In the past it was an important port city in its own right, but

1974-484: Is practised through fetishistic rituals and ceremonies. However, the Jola populations living in well-connected areas have become Islamized due to the influence of the nearby Mandinka people . As a result, many Jola no longer speak their own language and more than half are now Muslims. Unlike the dominant cultures of West Africa, most Jola communities lack any social or political stratification, being organised into families or neighbourhoods. However, some communities have

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2068-429: Is rice cultivation, which is tied closely to their religion and social organization. Jolas are also palm oil manufacturers and palm wine tappers in the Senegambian region. They farm cows, pigs, goats, chickens, sheep and ducks. Jola crafts include basket weaving, pottery, and building. Elders are considered very important in Jola society and are believed to possess occult powers and guard societal traditions. In villages,

2162-563: Is the Mandinka name for this ethnic group and means 'payback', since Jolas are renowned for doing back what has been done to them, be it a good or a bad deed. The name of the Jola tribe in their own language is Ajamat (singular) or Ajamataw (plural). Diola is the traditional transliteration in French , which is also very common in English sources. The Jola speak the Jola language , which

2256-409: Is the reason that architecture on the island employs straw wrapped around wooden frames more often than banco mud bricks. This type of architecture is also common in the villages of Mlomp and Seleki . In this flat and marshy area, the branches and roots of mangrove trees form dams where deposits of oyster shells naturally accumulate along with mud and plant detritus. These tangles help retain soil,

2350-560: The Bombax genus and Malvaceae family (all known as 'kapok' in English) are nonetheless present. Their grey wood is very light and easy to work, for which reasons it is used to construct many items, ranging from doors to dugouts . Jola canoes, which range from 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26 ft) in length, are carved by adzes entirely out of one tree each, unlike the traditional Senegalese pirogue. As for fruit trees, mangos and oranges are

2444-942: The Casamance Conflict , Carabane has been found to be very conducive to ornithological observation. A study in 1998 discovered the following species on the island: African darter ( Anhinga rufa ), Goliath heron ( Ardea goliath ), palm-nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ), black-tailed godwit ( Limosa limosa ), whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus ), Eurasian curlew ( Numenius arquata ), Caspian tern ( Sterna caspia ), blue-spotted wood-dove ( Turtur afer ), red-eyed dove ( Streptopelia semitorquata ), white-rumped swift ( Apus caffer ), woodland kingfisher ( Halcyon senegalensis ), grey-backed camaroptera ( Camaroptera brachyura ), red-bellied paradise-flycatcher ( Terpsiphone rufiventer ), pied crow ( Corvus albus ), black-rumped waxbill ( Estrilda troglodytes ) and yellow-fronted canary ( Serinus mozambicus ). Fish are plentiful in

2538-512: The Joola had to stop about 500 m (1,600 ft) north of the village in 8 to 10 m (26 to 33 ft) of water. The coastal erosion and salinization affecting the west of Senegal are also a source of concern on the island; signs of erosion have been observed in Carabane since 1849. The house of the government representative on the island has burned down twice; each time it was rebuilt,

2632-595: The Lower Casamance region. The main dialect of the Jola language, Fogni , is one of the six national languages of Senegal . Their economy has been based on wet rice cultivation for at least one thousand years. This system has been characterised "one of the most significant examples of 'agrarian civilizations' in West Africa ". However, the Jola probably reached the Lower Casamance region in

2726-407: The 14th century, assimilating the previous Bainuk people and their rice tradition. In colonial times, the Jola began to cultivate peanuts as a cash crop in the drier forests. Other activities include palm wine tapping, honey collecting, livestock rearing and the production of other crops such as sweet potatoes, yams and watermelon. The traditional religion of the Jola is animism , which

2820-436: The 21st century. Most of Carabane is covered in mangroves, forming an impassable jungle that can only be crossed in constructed passages. Mangroves are among the few species capable of adapting to the highly saline environment, where the quantity of oxygen in the soil is low. In recent decades there has been concern that the mangroves are less prevalent. There are various reasons for the degradation, including crustaceans and

2914-613: The Carabane school was one of the first in the region. It began as an all-boys school, but in 1898, three nuns belonging to the indigenous congregation of the Daughters of the Holy Heart of Mary began teaching classes for girls. Soon, there were 60 students. A school infrastructure description in the region in 1900 reveals that the boys' school in Carabane was open from December to August each year, and that holidays ran from September to November, when parents needed their children in

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3008-838: The French and the Portuguese began to show itself in the region during this period. Because the Portuguese-operated trading posts in Cacheu and Farim asked for higher prices than the French-operated trading posts in Carabane and Sédhiou, the Portuguese lost many traders to the French. This trend led to the ceding of Ziguinchor to France, which was negotiated in Carabane in April 1888 between Commissioner Oliveira and Captain Brosselard-Faidherbe . In 1901,

3102-538: The General Council of the colony in Saint Louis, being the first African elected to that position. Early in the 20th century the growth of neighboring Dakar, with its superior port facilities, signaled the decline of Rufisque. No longer an active port, Rufisque has experienced steep industrial decline. Relatively neglected compared to rest of Senegal's four historic communes , it has no tourism sector and

3196-555: The Governor decreed which buildings were authorized to practise Catholicism. While the Carabane church was one of the buildings selected, some members blamed the colonial administration for having facilitated the expansion of Islam in the country . In taking leadership of the diocese , Archbishop Le Hunsec noted that the island of Carabane, heavily populated when trading was concentrated there, had lost its influence and now had fewer than 500 inhabitants. He considered transferring

3290-500: The Jola Karon, Jola Mlomp, Jola Elinnkin, Jola Caginol, Jola Huluf, Jola Jamat, Jola Joheyt, Jola Bayot, Jola Brin, Jola Seleky, Jola Kabrouse, Jola Jiwat, and Jola Foni. Jolas are also able herbal medicine practitioners. Their high adaptation to nature and the environment allowed them to be able to create a civilisation centred on music, natural medicine, and most important of all, rice cultivation, which they do effectively by using

3384-445: The Jola although outside influence has made these more common in certain villages. The ekonting is a three-string gourd instrument, the folk lute of the Jola people. It has an internal pass through body dowel stick with a round gourd body and its sound box is made of a hemispherical calabash, with a nailed goatskin. Before the invention of nails, palm tree thorns or wood pegs were used as nails. The three strings, which are attached to

3478-510: The Jola people of Casamance and the Gambia. Below is a list of few Jola instruments. Note: The Jola language of Thionck Essyl is used to name them. Their names may differ somewhat in other villages ' languages . The Jola are widely considered the first inhabitants of the lower reaches of the Casamance and Gambia rivers . The megaliths and stone circles of the area may have been built by

3572-729: The Karoninka villages in March 1860, forcing them to submission. A period of calm ensued. While the Mandinka Muslims continued, illegally, to practice slavery and trade, non-Muslim villages tended to come together, accepting the Resident of Carabane as the arbitrator of their disagreements. In 1869, Carabane became autonomous, but it merged with Sédhiou in 1886. Its garrison of a dozen men was regularly stricken with tropical diseases such as malaria . In 1877, 527 people were counted on

3666-680: The Petite Côte ( Saly-Portudal , Joal ) south to the Gambia River . By the 1650s, the Dutch West India Company had consolidated control over the coastal trade and built a fortified factory at Rufisque. In 1840 a couple of Saint Louis merchants built warehouses on the waterfront to stock peanuts . Gorée merchants followed suit. There followed a period of commercial expansion as peanut production in Cayor boomed. In 1859

3760-691: The Soninke-Marabout war, they honour the traditional use of palm wine in their rituals. They have one God that they associate with the natural phenomena like sky, rain, and the year, Emit or Ata Emit, literally, "To Whom Belongs The Universe" or "The Master-Owner Of The Universe". They have charms and sacred precincts that they honour and with which they communicate (but do not worship). The Jola people believe that spirits called Bakin or Eneerti (Mandinka Jalang ) can protect their families, their villages, and their rice fields; and can even protect them from conversion to Islam and Christianity. Before

3854-498: The abundance of vegetation. With the trade winds from the Azores High , the island enjoys a pleasant climate year-round. In the north to north-east, these winds are cool and always wet. Their presence is appreciated by kitesurfers . Agricultural activities, including rice cultivation, depend entirely on rainfall. " Wah uŋejutumu, emit elaatut " is a Jola proverb which means "If a project will not be completed, it will be because

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3948-485: The administrative capital of Casamance was transferred from Carabane to Ziguinchor, a status which was transferred in turn to Oussouye two years later. By 1904, Carabane had lost several of its amenities, including its customs services, which were centralized. The island's trading houses were abandoned and the number of Christians dwindled from 1,000 to 300 by 1907. Despite the anti-clerical movement's growth in France at

4042-481: The ancestors of the Serer people or of the Jola. Around the 11th century, in response to a progressively drying climate, Jola farmers created a padi system for growing rice, impounding rain and stream water during the wet season in padis. The Serer and Jola people believe in a common ancestry and have a joking relationship with each other which they assign to their ancient shared cultural heritage. According to

4136-454: The arc's string, while the other hand holds one end of the arc and adjusts the tune with the thumb. The other end of the arc rests in the mouth of the player, who sings. The vibration from the player's song on the string of the arc and the beating with the fine flexible string leads to the pleasant and characteristic sound of the galire. The exile of young people to cities has led to the stark decline in usage of this traditional instrument among

4230-459: The conflict. In 1850, the island's economic growth was disturbed because of an extensive livestock raid which precipitated further incidents the following year. In response to this conflict with the former owners of Carabane, the residents of Kagnout, Bertrand-Bocandé convinced the governor of Senegal to send a warship to Carabane to frighten off the raiders. This single ship failed to faze the island's opponents, therefore Bertrand-Bocandé requested

4324-491: The conflict. Nonetheless, a few small incidents were reported around April 2000. The rebels may have wanted to take advantage of Carabane's reputation to attract media attention. The ceasefire of 2004 brought relative peace, but in the meantime, the sinking of the Joola in 2002 claimed the lives of many inhabitants of Carabane and curtailed much of its ability to engage in trade and accept tourists for several years. Considering

4418-401: The country's capital. " Il faut s'armer de patience pour rejoindre l'île de Carabane " is a common French phrase which means "One must have patience to reach the island of Carabane". While this adage continues to hold true, it was even more appropriate in the 19th century when, according to one traveller, a 26-hour boat trip from Rufisque (near Dakar ) to Carabane was deemed fairly short, and

4512-566: The daily life of the prisoners in the school which housed up to 22 boys, mostly convicted for theft but also occasionally for murder. Carabane's population continued to decline gradually after World War II . In 1950, the construction of a seminary was planned in Carabane, but it was transferred to a new building in Nyassia in 1959. The Carabane mission closed its doors during the wet season of 1953, 83 years after its inception. The nuns and their interns moved to Ziguinchor. Senegal's independence

4606-488: The fact that this village was the first French capital in Basse Casamance. According to other sources, the name comes from karam akam , which means "the other side of the river". These uncertainties are augmented by the instability of the spelling: Karabane with an initial K suggests a Jola or Wolof origin, while Carabane with a C would suggest a Latin derivation, most probably through Portuguese or French . With

4700-549: The fields to help cultivate rice. In 1903, when Carabane lost its status as capital, the school was instructing 63 boys and 102 girls. In 1914, it had only 56 boys and 26 girls, a situation similar to that in Bignona. Jola people The Jola or Diola ( endonym : Ajamat ) are an ethnic group found in Senegal , the Gambia , and Guinea-Bissau . Most Jola live in small villages scattered throughout Senegal, especially in

4794-444: The influence of Islam and Christianity in their ways of beliefs, all Jolas placed great respect in the proper observation of funeral ceremony, and still today some do, for they are of the belief that it enables the dead person's soul to go to its final destination to join his or her ancestors. It was and still is strongly accepted by those Jolas who still practice their ancestral religion that without performing these funeral sacred rites,

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4888-407: The inhabitants of Gorée were threatened with losing part of their resources with the imminent demise of the slave trade , and also because of their competition with Saint-Louis . On January 9, 1836, Lieutenant Malavois, who was in charge of Gorée, left for Casamance in search of a site for a trading post. The tip of Diogue , on the north shore, was first considered, but at the refusal of the Jola, it

4982-477: The island in 1857 for a leave of absence, but he abandoned his post as Resident in 1860. His tireless activity had a lasting effect on the island. Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the new French territory did not recognize the authority of the treaties imposed upon them. For this reason, rice farmers in Carabane experienced lootings and abductions by the Karoninka people . Troops led by Émile Pinet-Laprade attacked

5076-843: The island in order to recruit tirailleurs . Six inhabitants of the island accepted the position: a Christian, a pagan, and four Muslims. In the aftermath of the Great War, the Roman Catholic Church encountered great difficulties in the region. There was insufficient staffing, the cost of living was rising, and the harsh climate began to wear on the buildings. In 1920, the diocese had, in addition to Carabane, thirteen churches and approximately thirty-five chapels. The thirteen churches were located in Dakar, Saint-Louis, Gorée, Rufisque, Thiès , Ngazobil , Joal , Fadiouth , Foundiougne , Kaolack , Ziguinchor, Bignona and Banjul . In 1922,

5170-493: The island was ceded to France by the village leader of Kagnout in return for an annual payment of 196 francs. A series of treaties between the French and the leaders of the local peoples ensued; however, the inhabitants of Carabane did not recognize the authority of the treaties imposed upon them, resulting in lootings and abductions among French rice farmers by the Karoninka people . In 1869, Carabane became autonomous, but it merged with Sédhiou in 1886. Since World War II ,

5264-407: The island, but he served for only two years. The staff of the colonial administration was small: the manager of a customs post with four employees, a gunner , a corporal , and six European tirailleurs . There were approximately 250 Christians in Carabane, mostly mulattos. The priest built his house out of Palmyra palm trunks. He visited nearby villages and sometimes went to Sédhiou. The founding of

5358-486: The island, mostly Jola, but also some Wolofs , Muslims, and a few Manjacks from Portuguese Guinea . The first Catholic mission in Sédhiou was founded in 1875 and the first baptisms were celebrated that same year in Carabane. There were 17 people baptised in total, most of whom were residents of the island. The Holy Ghost Fathers ' mission in Carabane was founded in 1880 by Father Kieffer. On February 22, he settled on

5452-549: The largest centres. This rural community is located in the Kabrousse Arrondissement . It is part of Oussouye Department, the smallest and least central of the three departments in Ziguinchor Region. In a country which includes some 13,000 villages, the village is considered, by a 1972 decree, the elementary entity in the administrative body of the nation. Each is administered by a leader, assisted by

5546-451: The late 1820s, a mulatto trader from Gorée , Pierre Baudin, moved to Itou and began planting rice and producing lime by crushing the shells of mangrove oysters and cooking them in lime kilns . The French administration treated Baudin as their representative on the island and did not send others because few of the French wanted to live on the island. Being wet and marshy, Carabane had a reputation for its poor sanitation. The local economy

5640-503: The legend of Jambooñ and Againe (an ancient Serer and Jola legend ), two sisters boarded a pirogue with their parties. Due to act of nature , the pirogue broke into half at the Point of Sangomar . Those who headed south became the ancestors of the Jola (descendants of Agaire) and those who headed north became the ancestors of the Serer people (descendants of Jambooñ). The Point of Sangomar

5734-720: The limited village environment gave them the possibilities to develop a political system based on collective consciousness, which they worked through their initiation rites. In a sense, the Jolas' political achievement in the village was socialism. It was totally tied to their religious belief in the Bakin. This political achievement is not easy to reach if the society that runs it does not have well-defined rules of administration and penalties. Jolas have many traditional economic activities like fishing, farming groundnuts, tapping palm wine, and processing palm oil: their most intensive economic activity

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5828-448: The lives of the population. Palm oil and palm wine are very popular and traditional in the area. The fishery has long been dominated by artisan fishing , which supplies the daily needs of the island's population; however, broader economic possibilities have been exploited since the early 20th century. Although there have been attempts to cultivate a tourism industry on the island, the inhabitants have been reluctant to participate. Carabane

5922-563: The local peoples are unanimous in affirming that the oldest inhabitants of Casamance are the Bainuk people and that the left bank of the mouth of the river was first populated by the Jola. Portuguese sailors reached the west African coast in the 15th century, and in the 16th century, Portuguese traders became active in the Casamance region, mostly in search of wax , ivory , and slaves . They did not linger on "Mosquito Island", instead founding their first trading post at Ziguinchor in 1645. In

6016-462: The mission in Carabane was followed by others in Ziguinchor (1888), Elinkine (1891), and several nearby locations in the 20th century. In 1900, a Spiritan missionary, Father Wintz, wrote the first catechism in the Jola language. Temporarily transferred to Ziguinchor, the Carabane mission closed in 1888. Missionaries returned in 1890 and, although they immediately expanded the church building, it

6110-516: The mission to Oussouye, which became a reality in 1927. Starting in 1937, the mission in Oussouye also performed baptisms and funerals in Carabane. In the same year, a reform school was created on the island, operating until 1953, when it was replaced by another in Nianing . A report submitted in 1938 by an educational advisor to Marcel de Coppet, Governor General of French West Africa , detailed

6204-399: The most populous. Prickly pears , flamboyants , and colourful bougainvilleas brighten the scenery of hotels and camps on the island. Various organizations have contributed to the deforestation of the island. The wide variety of birds in Basse Casamance was noted by early explorers. While Basse Casamance National Park and Kalissaye Avifaunal Reserve have not been open for years due to

6298-541: The most widely held in Carabane. The 1988 census reported that Muslims account for 94% of the population of Senegal, but only 26.5% of the population of Oussouye Department, where Carabane is located. Still, this department is largely rural, while Carabane has historically supported great ethnic diversity. Islam has not been practiced by Wolof and Serer fishermen since the 19th century, but the colonial administration brought with it many translators, guides, and secretaries from Dakar , many of whom were Muslim. Founded in 1892,

6392-439: The most widely held in Carabane. The literacy rate is approximately 90%. Students attend a primary school on the island, but must move at least as far as Elinkine to continue their studies. The testimonies of explorers and colonial administrators demonstrate that Carabane has participated in rice cultivation, fishery, trade, and palm wine production for a long time. The rice cycle plays a central economic and religious role in

6486-545: The nearby Basse Casamance National Park, which has been closed for years, has seen a remarkable return of Nile crocodiles ( Crocodylus niloticus ), Senegalese manatees ( Trichechus senegalensis ), and breeding birds. On an island called Ilha dos Mosquitos (Portuguese for "Mosquito Island"), the natives and their visitors continue to protect themselves with mosquito nets and Shea butter . They must also protect themselves from other, smaller insects which are no less troublesome: black flies ( Simulium ). The traditions of

6580-445: The north of the country, especially during the wet season. Anxious to attract the attention of the French colonial administration which he judged insufficiently involved in the development of Casamance, administrator Emmanuel Bertrand-Bocandé submitted a report which documented in great detail the plant species then present on the island. Although this report was written in 1849, the information it contains has remained valuable even into

6674-451: The other from Guinea-Bissau , have settled on the other side of the island at a distance from the village. There are also seasonal workers who come to fish: Ghanaians , Guineans, and Gambians. The indigenous population was originally animist , but while the fetishes and sacred groves dedicated to initiation rites such as boukout survive as cultural icons of Casamance, the monotheistic belief systems of Catholicism and Islam have become

6768-437: The people, which sometimes escalated to violence. Casamance has since experienced years of conflict which put local initiatives in jeopardy, such as nature reserves and the first network of villages. In 1998, in the middle of the conflict, the French commune of Bon-Encontre committed to providing Carabane with humanitarian aid, both economically and culturally. Carabane has remained one of the calmest areas of Casamance throughout

6862-519: The population of the island has gradually declined for a variety of reasons including periods of drought, the Casamance Conflict and, more recently, the sinking of the ferry Joola in 2002. Much of the village's ability to trade and receive tourists was lost until 2014, when MV Aline Sitoe Diatta resumed ferry services to the island. Although Carabane was once a regional capital, the village has since become so politically isolated from

6956-463: The problems brought on by the conflict along with the threat of coastal erosion on the island, some fear the worst. Thus, after years of development and community outreach, Carabane is experiencing difficulties in a number of ways. Formerly an administrative district in its own right, even a regional capital, Carabane is now just one of 23 villages in the rural community of Diembéring , of which Kabrousse , Cap Skirring, and Boucott-Diembéring are

7050-408: The rain did not fall." The invocation of fetishes when there is no rain is part of traditional animist rituals. In recent decades, there has been a general decline in rainfall, which threatens rice production, increases soil salinity , and contributes to the degradation of the mangroves. In May and June, air temperature is around 28 °C (82 °F). In January and February, the coldest months, it

7144-456: The reptilian population of the island. The sandbar of Carabane has very few mammals other than pets, although the French first noted the presence of monkeys in 1835. In 1870, other settlers noted with disgust that the natives often ate monkeys and dogs. In the early 21st century, bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) are commonly sighted off the island. The lack of tourism because of the civil unrest has benefited biodiversity . In this way,

7238-465: The residents of Basse Casamance, but only 6 to 8% of the total population of Senegal. They are the largest ethnic group in Carabane, followed by Wolofs, Lebous , and Serers (including Niominka fishermen). Manjacks also live on the island, some of whom came from Saint-Louis and Gorée at the time of the first colonization. Two communities from neighbouring countries, one from Guinea (the Susu people ) and

7332-513: The rest of the country that it no longer fits into any category of the administrative structure decreed by the Senegalese government. The Jola account for the majority of the island's population and Jola society has no formal hierarchy. The indigenous population was originally animist , but although the sacred groves and fetishes survive as cultural icons of Casamance , the monotheistic belief systems of Catholicism and Islam have become

7426-485: The settlers. Coexistence was not always easy. Christianity was practiced by the Europeans and some of the residents of Gorée, although the island did not yet have a church. Missionaries tried but were not permitted to settle on the island. The construction of a wharf 116 metres (381 ft) long allowed the berthing of larger vessels coming in from Casamance. A railed pier was built along the river in order to facilitate

7520-406: The site of the building had to be moved further and further inland. The island's erosion is evident when one considers that the original location of the house eventually became flooded, even at low tide. During the dry season the river has a tide-dominated delta , with tidewater reaching 200 kilometres (120 mi) upstream, while it is being concentrated 50% by evaporation. Using wells, freshwater

7614-414: The skin of the sound box and it is always held in position by the pressure of the strings when it is in playing position. The galire is a one-string instrument of the Jola of Thionck-Essyl, with its strings stretched across a single 1-meter curve made of fine mangrove wood. At first sight, it looks like a hunter's bow. It is played with one hand holding a flexible fine string (made of palm leaves) beating on

7708-485: The soul is prevented from entering the presence of the creator (Ata Amit), and the ancestors. Jolas believed strongly in living a good humanistic life in this world. They believe that if one lives a bad life in this world, when the person dies the soul of the dead person is punished to become an exile spirit with no bed to lie on. In the Jola Cassa subgroup this exile spirit is called a Holowa . This exile spirit becomes

7802-607: The time, education in Carabane continued to be administered by the Holy Ghost Fathers for the boys and by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny for the girls. A chapel also continued to be run on the island. In 1913, just before the outbreak of World War I , Carabane suffered a fire which caused its business to decline. People gradually left the island in search of work in Ziguinchor and even Dakar . In December 1915, Marcel de Coppet , administrator of Ziguinchor, visited

7896-441: The title of Resident. With this official but ambiguous title, they were permitted to continue their trading operation so long as they regularly reported to France. When Jean Baudin fell into disgrace due to a serious incident involving an English ship, he was replaced as Resident in October 1849 by Emmanuel Bertrand-Bocandé. This multilingual, enterprising businessman and entomologist from Nantes transformed "his" island, sparking

7990-540: The transfer of goods. Carabane exported rice, but also cotton , considered to be of poor quality, which was ginned in a factory built by Bertrand-Bocandé in 1840, owned first by Maurel & Prom and then by the Casamance Company. The factory also produced almonds and crabwood ( Carapa procera ). Bertrand-Bocandé became involved in local African politics during his time as Resident. When an intertribal conflict led to an armed raid of Carabane, he mediated

8084-433: The unregulated exploitation of wood. Efforts have been made to safeguard the mangroves and to educate children about their importance. Tourists are not as attracted to the island for its mangroves as for the coconut trees which line its beaches, as featured on many of Carabane's postcards. These palm trees are a valued resource on the island. While not as plentiful as in other parts of Basse Casamance such as Mlomp, trees of

8178-464: The village to continue practicing its traditions. In a society where politics are inextricably linked to religion, the real holders of power are the fetish priests . The very notion of a village is almost inappropriate in this context: it might be more appropriately considered a clan or an aggregation of kinship . Other specialists, such as Christian Sina Diatta, compare Jola communities to those of mound-building termites , in which each member performs

8272-587: The waters surrounding the island, where one may encounter trevallies ( Carangidae ), Giant African threadfins ( Polydactylus quadrifilis ), great barracudas ( Sphyraena barracuda ), or African red snappers ( Lutjanus agennes ). The mangroves are home to many crustaceans such as southern pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus notialis ), sand fiddler crabs ( Uca pugilator ), and molluscs . The shellfish population consists mostly of mangrove oysters ( Crassostrea gasar ), which cling to uncovered mangrove roots at low tide. The red-headed agama and monitor lizard make up

8366-528: Was added to the list of historic sites and monuments of Senegal in 2003. The etymology of Carabane remains unclear. It could be connected to the Wolof word karabané , which means "who speaks a lot", or possibly the Portuguese words casa and acaba , which mean "house" and "finish", respectively. According to this hypothesis, the name means the place "where the houses are finished", a possible allusion to

8460-521: Was based mainly on weedy rice , which was sold in Ziguinchor or to the British in The Gambia . The Baudin family used slaves to produce the rice and, despite the declaration of its official abolition in the French colonial empire in 1848, slavery continued on the island until the early 20th century. The colonial administration wanted to expand its influence around the river, particularly because

8554-411: Was credited to a favourable wind. Despite the seemingly close proximity to its neighbouring communities, a motorized pirogue trip to Carabane from Elinkine, the nearest village, takes about thirty minutes; the trip once took an hour and a half by canoe. Carabane may also be accessed by a two- or three-hour boat trip from Ziguinchor. Travelling from Cap Skirring via Cachouane is also possible, but as

8648-480: Was declared on August 20, 1960, and after the dissolution of the short-lived Mali Federation , Casamance saw the arrival of officials coming from the north. Although many of them were Wolofs and Muslims, they did not know the Jola country and its traditions. The periods of drought that ravaged the Sahel in the 1970s forced peanut farmers to move to regions where rice was all that grew. Discontent began to spread among

8742-588: Was still not large enough to accommodate all those who wished to attend. Thanks to subsidies by the bishop, Magloire-Désiré Barthet , and to donations by the parishioners, a new church was built and inaugurated on the Catholic feast day of Saint Anne in 1897. The mission also obtained two adjacent properties, lot #73 on the cadastral map. By the following year, the Christian community had performed 1,100 baptisms, as well as many catechumen . Competition between

8836-458: Was the opposite bank which was eventually accepted. On January 22, 1836, the island was ceded to France by the village leader of Kagnout at an annual cost of 196 francs. Still, another treaty made Sédhiou the primary trading post of Casamance , and the exploitation of Carabane was left for some time in the hands of the Baudin family, first Pierre then his brother Jean. Each successively took on

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