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47-542: The Chachapoya culture had the tradition of protecting their dead and located their sarcophagi in protected difficult to get to locations. The Sarcophagi of Carajía are unique in their genre for their large size, up to 2.50 m high, for their careful making, and, for the fact that they were remained practically intact because of their location atop a ravine of difficult access. The seven sarcophagi stand up to 2.5 meters tall, constructed of clay, sticks and grasses, with exaggerated jawlines. Their inaccessible location high above

94-531: A number of small villages in Peru's Carahuarazo Valley in approximately 600 A.D., during the empire's initial expansion. The incursion caused a number of the valley's existing villages to be abandoned, with one partially destroyed to make room for a Wari administrative center known as Jincamocco. The Wari introduced terracing agriculture to the area, shifting the staple crops of the valley from tubers to both tubers and maize . Wari storage structures have been found in

141-632: A river gorge has preserved them from destruction by looters. However, an earthquake toppled one of the original eight in 1928. They have been radiocarbon dated to the 15th century, coincident with the Inca conquest of the Chachapoya in the 1470s. The sarcophagi are of a type particular to the Chachapoya called purunmachus . The construction is painted white and overlaid with details of the body and adornment in yellow ochre and two red pigments, such as

188-563: A small number of descendant groups. Buildings in Wari and in other government centers had doorways that were deliberately blocked up, as if the Wari intended to return, someday when the rains returned. By the time this happened, though, the Wari had faded from history. In the meantime, the dwindling residents of the Wari cities ceased all major construction. Archaeological evidence shows significant levels of interpersonal violence, suggesting that warfare and raiding increased amongst rival groups upon

235-404: Is a deep cleft between escarpments or cliffs resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of a river over geologic time scales . Rivers have a natural tendency to cut through underlying surfaces, eventually wearing away rock layers as sediments are removed downstream. A river bed will gradually reach a baseline elevation, which is the same elevation as the body of water into which

282-579: Is actually 1 km wider than the Grand Canyon, making it the widest canyon in the world. Some canyons have notable cultural significance. Evidence of archaic humans has been discovered in Africa's Olduvai Gorge . In the southwestern United States, canyons are important archeologically because of the many cliff-dwellings built in such areas, largely by the ancient Pueblo people who were their first inhabitants. The following list contains only

329-452: Is evidence of some type of systematic hierarchy. During its expansion period, the Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces, but they often did not have formal planning as many other Andean cities did. These centers are clearly different from the architecture of Tiwanaku , which is believed to have been a more federalized state by some scholars (such as John W. Janusek). Wari architecture

376-550: Is located about 10 km from the capital city. Prior to its excavation, the city was believed to be that of potters, but the burials studied instead showed that there were servants, middle-class, elite, and even perhaps low kings or governors occupying the city. Further investigations on a random selection of the burials from the site have shown that 26 percent of both male and female adult crania studied had at least one posterior wound, while only females had been subject to anterior wounds. The different levels of violence based on sex

423-676: Is occasionally used in the United Kingdom . In South Africa, kloof (in Krantzkloof Nature Reserve ) is used along with canyon (as in Blyde River Canyon ) and gorge (in Oribi Gorge ). Most canyons were formed by a process of long-time erosion from a plateau or table-land level. The cliffs form because harder rock strata that are resistant to erosion and weathering remain exposed on

470-599: Is similarly imprecise, especially if one includes mountain canyons, as well as canyons cut through relatively flat plateaus (which have a somewhat well-defined rim elevation). The Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon (or Tsangpo Canyon), along the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet , is regarded by some as the deepest canyon on Earth at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). It is slightly longer than the Grand Canyon in

517-598: Is soluble to a certain extent, cave systems form in the rock. When a cave system collapses, a canyon is left, as in the Mendip Hills in Somerset and Yorkshire Dales in Yorkshire , England. A box canyon is a small canyon that is generally shorter and narrower than a river canyon, with steep walls on three sides, allowing access and egress only through the mouth of the canyon. Box canyons were frequently used in

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564-644: Is the Fish River Canyon in Namibia . In August 2013, the discovery of Greenland 's Grand Canyon was reported, based on the analysis of data from Operation IceBridge . It is located under an ice sheet. At 750 kilometres (470 mi) long, it is believed to be the longest canyon in the world. Despite not being quite as deep or long as the Grand Canyon, the Capertee Valley in Australia

611-687: The Alps , the Himalayas or the Andes . Usually, a river or stream carves out such splits between mountains. Examples of mountain-type canyons are Provo Canyon in Utah or Yosemite Valley in California's Sierra Nevada . Canyons within mountains, or gorges that have an opening on only one side, are called box canyons. Slot canyons are very narrow canyons that often have smooth walls. Steep-sided valleys in

658-461: The United States , place names generally use canyon in the southwest (due to their proximity to Spanish-speaking Mexico ) and gorge in the northeast (which is closer to French Canada ), with the rest of the country graduating between these two according to geography. In Canada , a gorge is usually narrow while a ravine is more open and often wooded. The military-derived word defile

705-415: The earthquake of 1928, disappearing in the abyss. Since the sarcophagi are sideways next to each other, the one which collapsed opened some holes in the contiguous sides of the next. This fact allowed scientists to investigate in detail the content of this sarcophagi and to determine the content of the remaining ones. In this way, the remaining ones did not have to be forced and they remain intact. Inside

752-468: The head and part of the chest are compact. Both body and head are decorated by red painting of two tones, applied over a white base. It is believed that the sarcophagi are evocations of the typical form of funeral bundle found in the coast and in the mountain range, corresponding to the period of the Tiahuanaco - Huari . In effect, the anthropomorphous form has been only given in the outlines of

799-642: The seabed of the continental slope are referred to as submarine canyons . Unlike canyons on land, submarine canyons are thought to be formed by turbidity currents and landslides . The word canyon is Spanish in origin ( cañón , pronounced [kaˈɲon] ), with the same meaning. The word canyon is generally used in North America , while the words gorge and ravine (French in origin) are used in Europe and Oceania , though gorge and ravine are also used in some parts of North America. In

846-460: The western United States as convenient corrals, with their entrances fenced. The definition of "largest canyon" is imprecise, because a canyon can be large by its depth, its length, or the total area of the canyon system. Also, the inaccessibility of the major canyons in the Himalaya contributes to their not being regarded as candidates for the biggest canyon. The definition of "deepest canyon"

893-596: The United States, with an average depth of 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) and a volume of 4.17 trillion cubic metres (147 trillion cubic feet), is one of the world's largest canyons. It was among the 28 finalists of the New 7 Wonders of Nature worldwide poll. (Some referred to it as one of the seven natural wonders of the world .) The largest canyon in Europe is Tara River Canyon . The largest canyon in Africa

940-627: The United States. Others consider the Kali Gandaki Gorge in midwest Nepal to be the deepest canyon, with a 6,400-metre (21,000 ft) difference between the level of the river and the peaks surrounding it. Vying for the deepest canyon in the Americas is the Cotahuasi Canyon and Colca Canyon , in southern Peru. Both have been measured at over 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) deep. The Grand Canyon of northern Arizona in

987-404: The Wari became dominant in much of the territory of the earlier Moche and later Chimu cultures. The reason for this expansion has been debated; it is believed to have been driven by religious conversion, the spread of agricultural knowledge (specifically terrace agriculture ), or military conquest. Militarism and the associated threat/violence that comes with it has consistently played a part in

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1034-422: The Wari during this period. The variety and extent of the burial items accompanying the three royal women indicate a culture with significant material wealth and the power to dominate a significant part of northern coastal Peru for many decades. Another example of burials helping to establish social stratification is in the city of Conchopata where the remains of more than 200 individuals have been found. This city

1081-481: The Wari ruins of Pikillaqta ("Flea Town"), a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca . However, there is still a debate whether the Wari dominated the Central Coast or the polities on the Central Coast were commercial states capable of interacting with the Wari people without being politically dominated by them. Archaeological evidence points toward the Wari empire taking control of

1128-459: The Wari state. Surviving textiles include tapestries, hats and tunics for high-ranking officials. There are between six and nine miles of thread in each tunic, and they often feature highly abstracted versions of typical Andean artistic motifs, such as the Staff God . It is possible that these abstract designs served "a mysterious or esoteric code to keep out uninitiated foreign subjects" and that

1175-456: The Wari used a similar road network. They also created new fields with terraced field technology, which the Inca also drew inspiration from. Based on remains from multiple Wari sites, archaeologists have determined that feasts and offerings of food were a powerful driving force in the social life of the Wari. Multiple instances of camelid remains found in the province of Cotocotuyoc point toward

1222-511: The area, seemingly "paired" with some of remaining villages' agricultural sites; these were likely used to store both staple crops. Wari occupation of the Carahuarazo Valley lasted until roughly 800 A.D., leading to the abandonment of most of the valley's sites after that time. Early on, the Wari expanded their territory to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac , though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Later,

1269-746: The canyon walls, in a process known as frost wedging. Canyon walls are often formed of resistant sandstones or granite . Sometimes large rivers run through canyons as the result of gradual geological uplift. These are called entrenched rivers , because they are unable to easily alter their course. In the United States, the Colorado River in the Southwest and the Snake River in the Northwest are two examples of tectonic uplift . Canyons often form in areas of limestone rock. As limestone

1316-456: The capital city of Wari. The complete nature of the remains, as well as the age of the camelid, point toward the animals being sacrificed at the end of the Ayachuco valley's rainy season. The Wari are particularly known for their textiles, which were well-preserved in desert burials. The standardization of textile motifs serves as artistic evidence of state control over elite art production in

1363-479: The collapse of the Wari state structure. With the collapse of the Wari, the Late Intermediate Period is said to begin. Little is known about the details of the Wari administrative structure, as they did not appear to use a form of written record. Instead, they used a tool called khipu , or "knot record." Despite being most widely known for its use in Inca accounting, many scholars believe that

1410-444: The cultural area of Chachapoyas , and it deserved the attention of Louis Langlois (1939) and of the archaeologists Henry and Paule Reichlen (1950), this Chachapoyas 's peculiarity of burying their illustrious deceased was almost completely forgotten. The Antisuyo Expedition /84 located, at Carajía , the most amazing group of sarcophagi known till then, thanks to references provided by Carlos Torres Mas and Marino Torrejón . It

1457-410: The earliest use of it as a recording tool happened in Wari. Archaeologists, however, still rely on homogeneous administrative architecture and evidence of significant social stratification to help better understand the complex sociopolitical hierarchy of Wari. The discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey , offers new insight into the social and political influence of

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1504-399: The expansion and maintenance of ancient empires with Wari being of no exception. Evidence of the violence present in Wari culture is most visible at the city of Conchopata. As a result of centuries of drought, the Wari culture began to deteriorate around 800 AD. Archeologists have determined that the city of Wari was dramatically depopulated by 1000 AD, although it continued to be occupied by

1551-551: The feathered tunics and male genitalia visible on the Carajía purunmachus . Often the solid clay head will boast a second, smaller head atop it. The purunmachus of Carajía are unique because of the human skulls that sit atop their heads, visible in the photograph. Although the model of burial using coffins of anthropomorphous shape and sarcophagi , was already mentioned in the Mercurio Peruano (1791) as part of

1598-618: The flat funeral masks worked in the base of a wooden table. Apparently the faces of the monoliths of Recuay , the cuchimilcos of Chancay and even that represented in the Tumi of Lambayeque , were made in the same way. Another several groups of sarcophagi present in the region are those of Tingorbamba and Chipuric , documented by the Antisuyo Expeditions . Canyon A canyon (from Spanish : cañón ; archaic British English spelling: cañon ), gorge or chasm ,

1645-526: The former capital city was called, is located 11 km (6.8 mi) north-east of the modern city of Ayacucho , Peru. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of modern Peru . The best-preserved remnants, beside the Wari Ruins , are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo , and Cerro Baúl in Moquegua . Also well-known are

1692-425: The geometric distortions made the wearer's chest appear larger to reflect their high rank. The Wari also produced highly sophisticated metalwork and ceramics, with similar designs to the textiles. The most common metals used were silver and copper, though gold Wari artifacts also survive. The most common metal objects were qiru , bowls, jewelry, mummy bundle masks, mantle pins, and sheet figures who demonstrate how

1739-424: The human body, without the forms corresponding to the extremities taking shape. It is necessary to notice that the head of the sarcophagus has received sculptural treatment, and the face is the result of copying in clay funeral masks that were originally done in a wooden table, cut away in a half moon shape to represent the jaw. The projecting jaw that the sarcophagi present has to be made by having reproduced in clay

1786-474: The most notable canyons of the world, grouped by region. Venus has many craters and canyons on its surface. The troughs on the planet are part of a system of canyons that is more than 6,400 km long. [REDACTED] Environment portal Huari Culture The Wari ( Spanish : Huari ) were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru , from about 500 to 1000 AD. Wari , as

1833-551: The oldest depictions of the Staff god appear on Wari textiles and pottery urns, estimated to be over 3,000 years old. Some scholars believe that the Wari Staff god was a predecessor of the three Incan principle gods, Sun, Moon, and Thunder. The Wari practiced animal sacrifice. Complete skeletal remains of a young camelid and thirty-two guinea pigs were found buried in a "lineage house" in the city of Conchopata, ten kilometers from

1880-540: The open sarcophagus, a mummy was found. It sat on an animal skin and was wrapped in mortuary cloths . Ceramics and diverse objects were accompanying the deceased as gifts. The date obtained by radiocarbon was 1460 AC +60. Rodents and birds of prey had disturbed the burial , after the holes had appeared in the sarcophagus. The sarcophagus was emptied by scientists to preserve the mummy and its belongings. The sarcophagi are shaped into big anthropomorphous capsules, made of clay and mixed with sticks and stones . Only

1927-468: The river drains. The processes of weathering and erosion will form canyons when the river's headwaters and estuary are at significantly different elevations, particularly through regions where softer rock layers are intermingled with harder layers more resistant to weathering. A canyon may also refer to a rift between two mountain peaks, such as those in ranges including the Rocky Mountains ,

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1974-465: The tunics were worn. Ceramics were typically polychrome and frequently depicted food and animals. Conchopata appears to have been the ceramic center of Wari culture given the high quantities of pottery tools, firing rooms, pit kilns , potsherds , and ceramic molds. In one of the D-shaped temples at Conchopata, there were large smashed chicha vessels on the floor and human heads placed as offerings as

2021-492: The usage of such animals as symbols of social capital, especially because they were uncommon in the area. Some camelid remains were found devoid of cut marks and stacked on top of human bones, leading researchers to think they were intentionally not fully eaten to display the feast's host's wealth, in a process known as ritual wasteful consumption. The Wari worshipped the Staff god , a chief deity in many Andean cultures. Some of

2068-456: The valley walls. Canyons are much more common in arid areas than in wet areas because physical weathering has a more localized effect in arid zones. The wind and water from the river combine to erode and cut away less resistant materials such as shales . The freezing and expansion of water also serves to help form canyons. Water seeps into cracks between the rocks and freezes, pushing the rocks apart and eventually causing large chunks to break off

2115-449: Was most often made of rough fieldstones that had been coated in white plaster. The compounds were usually large, rectangular enclosures with no windows, just a few entries, and the sites had no central place for people to gather for rituals or ceremonies. This is in almost direct contrast with Tiwanaku where there was a more open architectural plan that could easily accommodate multiple people at once. A form of architecture distinctive to Wari

2162-507: Was remaining completely unpublished and still untouched. Thanks to the support given by members of the Club Andino Peruano , the archaeologists were able to climb 24 m of rocky vertical wall and gain access to the cave where the sarcophagi are located. This place is located to more than 200 m from the bottom of the gorge . The Sarcophagi of Carajía consists of a group of seven sarcophagi. The eighth one collapsed probably during

2209-416: Was the use of D-shaped structures. These structures were commonly used for temples and were relatively small at only 10 meters. Using administrative centers like their temples, the Wari greatly influenced the surrounding countryside. Scholars were able to look at the Inca to reconstruct some of the architecture of the Wari. Along the Inca highway system, several Wari provincial sites were found, suggesting that

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