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127-403: Lymnocardiidae A cockle is an edible marine bivalve mollusc . Although many small edible bivalves are loosely called cockles, true cockles are species in the family Cardiidae . True cockles live in sandy, sheltered beaches throughout the world. The distinctive rounded shells are bilaterally symmetrical, and are heart -shaped when viewed from the end. Numerous radial, evenly spaced ribs are

254-663: A 100 mL ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  US fl oz) reference amount, distilled vinegar supplies 75 kJ (18 kcal) of food energy and no micronutrients in significant content. The composition (and absence of nutrient content) for red wine vinegar and apple cider vinegar are the same, whereas balsamic vinegar is 77% water with 17% carbohydrates, 370 kJ (88 kcal) per 100 mL, and contains no fat, protein, or micronutrients. Since antiquity, folk medicine treatments have used vinegar, but no conclusive evidence from clinical research supports health claims of benefits for diabetes, weight loss, cancer , or use as

381-747: A probiotic . A systematic review and meta-analysis later suggested it could help type 2 diabetics reduce insulin and glucose after meals. Applying vinegar to common jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts , although not as effectively as hot water. This also applies to the Portuguese man o' war , which, although generally considered to be a jellyfish, is not (it is a siphonophore ). Some treatments with vinegar pose risks to health. Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar has been reported, and because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, such products may vary widely in content and acidity. White vinegar

508-410: A bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate , and consists of two, usually similar, parts called valves . These valves are for feeding and for disposal of waste. These are joined together along one edge (the hinge line ) by a flexible ligament that, usually in conjunction with interlocking "teeth" on each of the valves, forms the hinge . This arrangement allows the shell to be opened and closed without

635-420: A different way, scraping detritus from the seabed, and this may be the original mode of feeding used by all bivalves before the gills became adapted for filter feeding. These primitive bivalves hold on to the bottom with a pair of tentacles at the edge of the mouth, each of which has a single palp , or flap. The tentacles are covered in mucus , which traps the food, and cilia, which transport the particles back to

762-457: A distinctly musky aroma. Kaong palm vinegar is made from the sap of flower stalks of the kaong palm . It is sweeter than all the other Philippine vinegar types and is commonly used in salad dressing. Vinegar from the buri palm sap is also produced, but not with the same prevalence as coconut, nipa, and kaong vinegars. Kaong palm vinegar is also produced in Indonesia and Malaysia, though it

889-494: A feature of the shell in most but not all genera (for an exception, see the genus Laevicardium , the egg cockles, which have very smooth shells). The shell of a cockle is able to close completely (i.e., there is no "gap" at any point around the edge). Though the shell of a cockle may superficially resemble that of a scallop because of the ribs, cockles can be distinguished from scallops morphologically in that cockle shells lack "auricles" (triangular ear-shaped protrusions near

1016-528: A feature shared with two other major groups of marine invertebrates, the bryozoans and the phoronids . Some brachiopod shells are made of calcium phosphate but most are calcium carbonate in the form of the biomineral calcite , whereas bivalve shells are always composed entirely of calcium carbonate, often in the form of the biomineral aragonite . The Cambrian explosion took place around 540 to 520 million years ago (Mya). In this geologically brief period, most major animal phyla diverged including some of

1143-438: A form of nematode , may occur in some forms of vinegar unless the vinegar is kept covered. These feed on the mother of vinegar and can occur in naturally fermenting vinegar. When baking soda and vinegar are combined, the bicarbonate ion of the baking soda reacts with acetic acid to form carbonic acid , which decomposes into carbon dioxide and water, completing the carbon cycle . Sodium acetate remains in solution with

1270-460: A hinged shell in two parts. However, brachiopods evolved from a very different ancestral line, and the resemblance to bivalves only arose because they occupy similar ecological niches . The differences between the two groups are due to their separate ancestral origins. Different initial structures have been adapted to solve the same problems, a case of convergent evolution . In modern times, brachiopods are not as common as bivalves. Both groups have

1397-644: A hole with its radula assisted by a shell-dissolving secretion. The dog whelk then inserts its extendible proboscis and sucks out the body contents of the victim, which is typically a blue mussel . Malt vinegar As the most easily manufactured mild acid , it has a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses, including functioning as a household cleaner . The word "vinegar" arrived in Middle English from Old French ( vyn egre ; sour wine), which in turn derives from Latin : vīnum (wine) + ācre ( neuter gender of ācer , sour). Vinegar

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1524-549: A man from a traditional sake brewing family, discovered that sake lees could be used to make rice vinegar. This helped provide ample vinegar for the burgeoning popularity of sushi in Japan. The company he founded, now known as Mizkan , is headquartered in Handa (near Nagoya) and is the largest vinegar producer in the world. Meanwhile, vinegar fermentation became understood as a natural and biological process. Louis Pasteur made

1651-467: A mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Because it contains no residual sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim ( Tagalog for "sour vinegar"). Cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars; it becomes sour by

1778-420: A number of families that live in freshwater. Majority of the class are benthic filter feeders that bury themselves in sediment, where they are relatively safe from predation . Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces. Some bivalves, such as scallops and file shells , can swim . Shipworms bore into wood, clay, or stone and live inside these substances. The shell of

1905-499: A pair of nephridia . Each of these consists of a long, looped, glandular tube, which opens into the pericardium , and a bladder to store urine. They also have pericardial glands either line the auricles of the heart or attach to the pericardium, and serve as extra filtration organs. Metabolic waste is voided from the bladders through a nephridiopore near the front of the upper part of the mantle cavity and excreted. The sexes are usually separate in bivalves but some hermaphroditism

2032-940: A permit from the Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority. Cockles are a street food in Cambodia where it is usually steamed or boiled and served with a dipping sauce consisting of crushed peppercorns, salt and lime juice. Cockles are sold freshly cooked as a snack in the United Kingdom , particularly in those parts of the British coastline where cockles are abundant. Boiled, then seasoned with malt vinegar and white pepper , they can be bought from seafood stalls, which also often have for sale mussels , whelks , jellied eels , crabs and shrimp . Cockles are also available pickled in jars, and more recently, have been sold in sealed packets (with vinegar) containing

2159-645: A plastic two-pronged fork. A meal of cockles fried with bacon , served with laverbread , is known as a traditional Welsh breakfast . Boiled cockles (sometimes grilled) are sold at many hawker centres in Southeast Asia, and are used in laksa , char kway teow and steamboat . They are called kerang in Malay and see hum in Cantonese . In Japan, the Japanese egg cockle ( Laevicardium laevigatum )

2286-484: A relatively small dispersal potential before settling out. The common mussel ( Mytilus edulis ) produces 10 times as many eggs that hatch into larvae and soon need to feed to survive and grow. They can disperse more widely as they remain planktonic for a much longer time. Freshwater bivalves have different lifecycle. Sperm is drawn into a female's gills with the inhalant water and internal fertilization takes place. The eggs hatch into glochidia larvae that develop within

2413-644: A resting state, even when they are permanently submerged. In oysters, for example, their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative positions of the moon and sun. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during spring tides. Although many non-sessile bivalves use their muscular foot to move around, or to dig, members of the freshwater family Sphaeriidae are exceptional in that these small clams climb about quite nimbly on weeds using their long and flexible foot. The European fingernail clam ( Sphaerium corneum ), for example, climbs around on water weeds at

2540-424: A shadow falling over the animal. Bivalves have an open circulatory system that bathes the organs in blood ( hemolymph ). The heart has three chambers: two auricles receiving blood from the gills, and a single ventricle . The ventricle is muscular and pumps hemolymph into the aorta , and then to the rest of the body. Some bivalves have a single aorta, but most also have a second, usually smaller, aorta serving

2667-436: A shell consisting of two valves, but the organization of the shell is quite different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are positioned on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, the valves are on the left and right sides of the body, and are, in most cases, mirror images of one other. Brachiopods have a lophophore , a coiled, rigid cartilaginous internal apparatus adapted for filter feeding,

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2794-472: A somewhat similar shape and sculpture, but are in other families such as the Veneridae (Venus clams) and the ark clams ( Arcidae ). Cockles in the family Cardiidae are sometimes referred to as "true cockles" to distinguish them from these other species. There are more than 205 living species of cockles, with many more fossil forms. The common cockle , (Cerastoderma edule) , is widely distributed around

2921-424: A steady pull. Paired pedal protractor and retractor muscles operate the animal's foot. The sedentary habits of the bivalves have meant that in general the nervous system is less complex than in most other molluscs. The animals have no brain ; the nervous system consists of a nerve network and a series of paired ganglia . In all but the most primitive bivalves, two cerebropleural ganglia are on either side of

3048-473: Is a traditional seasoning for fish and chips , and in the United Kingdom and Canada, a popular seasoning for French fries in general. Some fish and chip shops replace it with non-brewed condiment . Salt and vinegar are combined as a common, traditional flavouring for crisps ; in some varieties this involves the conversion of the vinegar to sodium acetate or sodium diacetate , to avoid dampening

3175-420: Is an ingredient in sauces , such as hot sauce , mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used in chutneys . It is often used as a condiment on its own, or as a part of other condiments. Marinades often contain vinegar. Soups sometimes have vinegar added to them, as is the case with hot and sour soup . In terms of its shelf life , vinegar's acidic nature allows it to last indefinitely without

3302-573: Is another popular type of Chinese vinegar that is made exclusively from sorghum and other grains. Nowadays in Shanxi province, some traditional vinegar workshops still produce handmade vinegar with a high acidity that is aged for at least five years. Only the vinegars made in Taiyuan and some counties in Jinzhong and aged for at least three years are considered authentic Shanxi mature vinegar according to

3429-580: Is barley malt , or in the United States, corn. It is sometimes derived from petroleum. Distilled vinegar is used predominantly for cooking, although in the UK it is used as an alternative to brown or light malt vinegar. White distilled vinegar can also be used for cleaning, and some types are sold specifically for this purpose. Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation , in particular as pickling liquids, vinaigrettes , and other salad dressings . It

3556-464: Is colored with red yeast rice . Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, and it is also widely used in other East Asian countries. White rice vinegar has a mild acidity with a somewhat "flat" and uncomplex flavor. Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings. The term "spirit vinegar" is sometimes reserved for

3683-432: Is composed of two calcareous valves held together by a ligament. The valves are made of either calcite , as is the case in oysters, or both calcite and aragonite . Sometimes, the aragonite forms an inner, nacreous layer, as is the case in the order Pteriida . In other taxa , alternate layers of calcite and aragonite are laid down. The ligament and byssus, if calcified, are composed of aragonite. The outermost layer of

3810-457: Is converted to vinegar having a blackish color (from ferrous oxide and acetate). The sirka is used to preserve pickles and for flavoring curries. Malt vinegar made from ale , also called "alegar", is made by malting barley , causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose . Then an ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged. It is typically light-brown in color. Malt vinegar (along with salt)

3937-447: Is generally not eaten, although a process is being developed to solve this problem. The blood cockle, Tegillarca granosa (not related to the true cockles, instead in the ark clam family, Arcidae ) is extensively cultured from southern Korea to Malaysia . Living genera within the family Cardiidae include: Cockles are a popular type of edible shellfish in both Eastern and Western cooking . They are collected by raking them from

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4064-486: Is ineffective as a rinse aid and in removing hard-water film while used in a dishwasher. According to Brian Sansoni, chief spokesperson for the American Cleaning Institute , vinegar "isn't very useful with stains that have already set into clothing, including food stains and bloodstains." Other household items and surfaces that can be damaged by vinegar include flooring, stone countertops, knives,

4191-557: Is known. The gonads either open into the nephridia or through a separate pore into a chamber over the gills. The ripe gonads of males and females release sperm and eggs into the water column . Spawning may take place continually or be triggered by environmental factors such as day length, water temperature, or the presence of sperm in the water. Some species are "dribble spawners", releasing gametes during protracted period that can extend for weeks. Others are mass spawners and release their gametes in batches or all at once. Fertilization

4318-420: Is made from cider or apple must , and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present. It can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened (usually with honey) for consumption. A byproduct of commercial kiwifruit growing is a large amount of waste in the form of misshapen or otherwise-rejected fruit (which may constitute up to 30% of

4445-476: Is not as prevalent as in the Philippines because the palm wine industry is not as widespread in these Muslim-majority countries. Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged vinegar produced in the Modena and Reggio Emilia provinces of Italy. The original product — traditional balsamic vinegar — is made from the concentrated juice, or must , of white Trebbiano grapes. It is dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with

4572-484: Is often used as a household cleaning agent. For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers , and other smooth surfaces. Vinegar is known as an effective cleaner of stainless steel and glass. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in

4699-408: Is secreted by the mantle edge, and the valves themselves thicken as more material is secreted from the general mantle surface. Calcareous matter comes from both its diet and the surrounding seawater. Concentric rings on the exterior of a valve are commonly used to age bivalves. For some groups, a more precise method for determining the age of a shell is by cutting a cross section through it and examining

4826-404: Is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice, and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost. Sugarcane sirka is made from sugarcane juice in parts of northern India. During summer, people put cane juice in earthenware pots with iron nails. The fermentation takes place due to the action of wild yeast. The cane juice

4953-472: Is the ventral or underside region. The anterior or front of the shell is where the byssus (when present) and foot are located, and the posterior of the shell is where the siphons are located. With the hinge uppermost and with the anterior edge of the animal towards the viewer's left, the valve facing the viewer is the left valve and the opposing valve the right. Many bivalves such as clams, which appear upright, are evolutionarily lying on their side. The shell

5080-510: Is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (notably the Philippines, where it is known as sukang tuba ), as well as in some cuisines of India and Sri Lanka , especially Goan cuisine . A cloudy, white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note. In the Philippines, other types of vinegar are made from palm sap. Like coconut vinegar, they are by-products of tubâ (palm wine) production. Two of

5207-455: Is used to create torigai sushi. A study conducted in England in the early 1980s showed a correlation between the consumption of cockles, presumed to be incorrectly processed, and an elevated local occurrence of hepatitis . Cockles are an effective bait for a wide variety of sea fishes. The folk song " Molly Malone " is also known as "Cockles and Mussels" because the title character's sale of

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5334-432: Is usually external. Typically, a short stage lasts a few hours or days before the eggs hatch into trochophore larvae. These later develop into veliger larvae which settle on the seabed and undergo metamorphosis into adults. In some species, such as those in the genus Lasaea , females draw water containing sperm in through their inhalant siphons and fertilization takes place inside the female. These species then brood

5461-612: The Early Silurian , the gills were becoming adapted for filter feeding, and during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, siphons first appeared, which, with the newly developed muscular foot, allowed the animals to bury themselves deep in the sediment. By the middle of the Paleozoic , around 400 Mya, the brachiopods were among the most abundant filter feeders in the ocean, and over 12,000 fossil species are recognized. By

5588-537: The Kingdom of Baden in 1823. Known as the packed generator, it circulated alcohol over beechwood shavings to reduce fermentation times from several months down to 1–2 weeks. This process also facilitated the rise of vinegar made from pure alcohol called spirit vinegar or distilled white vinegar. Japan also began industrializing vinegar production during the last days of the Tokugawa shogunate , when Matazaemon Nakano,

5715-668: The Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda , is a class of aquatic molluscs (marine and freshwater) that have laterally compressed soft bodies enclosed by a calcified exoskeleton consisting of a hinged pair of half- shells known as valves . As a group, bivalves have no head and lack some typical molluscan organs such as the radula and the odontophore . Their gills have evolved into ctenidia , specialised organs for feeding and breathing. Common bivalves include clams , oysters , cockles , mussels , scallops , and numerous other families that live in saltwater, as well as

5842-726: The Permian–Triassic extinction event 250 Mya, bivalves were undergoing a huge radiation of diversity. The bivalves were hard hit by this event, but re-established themselves and thrived during the Triassic period that followed. In contrast, the brachiopods lost 95% of their species diversity . The ability of some bivalves to burrow and thus avoid predators may have been a major factor in their success. Other new adaptations within various families allowed species to occupy previously unused evolutionary niches. These included increasing relative buoyancy in soft sediments by developing spines on

5969-531: The Veneridae , with more than 680 species and the Tellinidae and Lucinidae , each with over 500 species. The freshwater bivalves include seven families, the largest of which are the Unionidae , with about 700 species. The taxonomic term Bivalvia was first used by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 to refer to animals having shells composed of two valves . More recently,

6096-597: The intertidal and sublittoral zones of the oceans. A sandy sea beach may superficially appear to be devoid of life, but often a very large number of bivalves and other invertebrates are living beneath the surface of the sand. On a large beach in South Wales , careful sampling produced an estimate of 1.44 million cockles ( Cerastoderma edule ) per acre of beach. Bivalves inhabit the tropics, as well as temperate and boreal waters. A number of species can survive and even flourish in extreme conditions. They are abundant in

6223-517: The oesophagus . The cerebral ganglia control the sensory organs, while the pleural ganglia supply nerves to the mantle cavity. The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are at its base, and the visceral ganglia, which can be quite large in swimming bivalves, are under the posterior adductor muscle. These ganglia are both connected to the cerebropleural ganglia by nerve fibres . Bivalves with long siphons may also have siphonal ganglia to control them. The sensory organs of bivalves are largely located on

6350-400: The " crystalline style " projected into the stomach from an associated sac. Cilia in the sac cause the style to rotate, winding in a stream of food-containing mucus from the mouth, and churning the stomach contents. This constant motion propels food particles into a sorting region at the rear of the stomach, which distributes smaller particles into the digestive glands, and heavier particles into

6477-402: The "shrub" as a final step. These recipes have lost much of their popularity with the rise of carbonated beverages , such as soft drinks. Preliminary research indicates that consuming 2–4 tablespoons of vinegar may cause small reductions in post-meal levels of blood glucose and insulin in people with diabetes . Distilled or red wine vinegar is 95% water, with no fat or protein . In

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6604-458: The Arctic, about 140 species being known from that zone. The Antarctic scallop, Adamussium colbecki , lives under the sea ice at the other end of the globe, where the subzero temperatures mean that growth rates are very slow. The giant mussel, Bathymodiolus thermophilus , and the giant white clam, Calyptogena magnifica , both live clustered around hydrothermal vents at abyssal depths in

6731-557: The Chinese began professionalizing vinegar production in the Zhou dynasty . The book Zhou Li mentions that many noble or royal households had a "vinegar maker" as a specialized occupation. Most vinegar-making then was concentrated in what is now Shanxi province near the city of Taiyuan , which remains a famous vinegar-making region today. Many Chinese kinds of vinegar and their uses for culinary and medicinal purposes were written down in

6858-464: The Pacific Ocean. They have chemosymbiotic bacteria in their gills that oxidise hydrogen sulphide , and the molluscs absorb nutrients synthesized by these bacteria. Some species are found in the hadal zone , like Vesicomya sergeevi, which occurs at depths of 7600–9530 meters. The saddle oyster, Enigmonia aenigmatica , is a marine species that could be considered amphibious . It lives above

6985-502: The Romans, and mariculture has more recently become an important source of bivalves for food. Modern knowledge of molluscan reproductive cycles has led to the development of hatcheries and new culture techniques. A better understanding of the potential hazards of eating raw or undercooked shellfish has led to improved storage and processing. Pearl oysters (the common name of two very different families in salt water and fresh water) are

7112-603: The UK, "white vinegar" in Canada ) is something of a misnomer because it is not produced by distillation, but by fermentation of distilled alcohol. The fermentate is diluted to produce a colorless solution of 5 to 8% acetic acid in water, with a pH of about 2.6. This is variously known as distilled spirit, "virgin" vinegar, or white vinegar, and is used in cooking, baking, meat preservation, and pickling , as well as for medicinal, laboratory, and cleaning purposes. The most common starting material in some regions, because of its low cost,

7239-437: The United Kingdom. Vinegar can be used for polishing copper, brass, bronze or silver. It is an excellent solvent for cleaning epoxy resin as well as the gum on sticker-type price tags . It has been reported as an effective drain cleaner . The use of vinegar in dishwashers and washing machines can cause damage to their rubber seals and hoses, leading to leaks. According to testing done by Consumer Reports , vinegar

7366-468: The agricultural manual Qimin Yaoshu (齊民要術). The Greeks and Romans frequently used vinegar made from wine. The Spartans had vinegar as a part of their traditional blood soup melas zomos ; in addition to flavoring the broth, the acidity of the vinegar prevented the blood from coagulating (a purpose for which vinegar is still used in modern blood soups around the world). The Roman Columella described

7493-472: The air, can gape the shell slightly and gas exchange can take place. Oysters, including the Pacific oyster ( Magallana gigas ), are recognized as having varying metabolic responses to environmental stress, with changes in respiration rate being frequently observed. Most bivalves are filter feeders , using their gills to capture particulate food such as phytoplankton from the water. Protobranchs feed in

7620-479: The carbohydrates of grape sugars (some 17% of total composition), making it some five times higher in caloric content than typical distilled or wine vinegar. Vinegar made from sugarcane juice is traditional to and is most popular in the Philippines , in particular in the northern Ilocos Region (where it is called sukang Iloko or sukang basi ). It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color, and has

7747-572: The class was known as Pelecypoda, meaning " axe -foot" (based on the shape of the foot of the animal when extended). The name "bivalve" is derived from the Latin bis , meaning 'two', and valvae , meaning 'leaves of a door'. ("Leaf" is an older word for the main, movable part of a door. We normally consider this the door itself.) Paired shells have evolved independently several times among animals that are not bivalves; other animals with paired valves include certain gastropods (small sea snails in

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7874-460: The coastlines of Northern Europe , with a range extending west to Ireland , the Barents Sea in the north, Norway in the east, and as far south as Senegal . The dog cockle , Glycymeris glycymeris , has a similar range and habitat to the common cockle, but is not at all closely related, being in the family Glycymerididae . The dog cockle is edible, but due to its toughness when cooked it

8001-797: The course of a few months to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and their cellulose biofilm , known as mother of vinegar . Fast methods add the aforementioned mother of vinegar as a bacterial culture to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in 1–3 days. The source materials for making vinegar are varied – different fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages , and other fermentable materials are used. Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines , usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple , blackcurrant , raspberry , quince , and tomato . Typically,

8128-743: The crop) and kiwifruit pomace . One of the uses for pomace is the production of kiwifruit vinegar, produced commercially in New Zealand since at least the early 1990s, and in China in 2008. Vinegar made from raisins is used in cuisines of the Middle East. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor. Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East , and used in Eastern Arabia . Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut sap or coconut water ,

8255-514: The decisive discovery that a special type of bacteria, later known as acetic acid bacteria , was the agent of fermentation for vinegar production. In the 20th century, vinegar production was again revolutionized by the invention of the submerged fermentation process that cut production times down to 1–2 days. This allowed the mass production of cheap vinegar around the world. The conversion of ethanol ( CH 3 CH 2 OH ) and oxygen ( O 2 ) to acetic acid ( CH 3 COOH ) takes place by

8382-502: The direct action of bacteria on the sugar. The other way is through fermentation to produce a traditional wine known as basi . Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid. Contaminated basi also becomes vinegar. Cane vinegar is also produced in other countries, like France and the United States. A white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it

8509-436: The edges of lakes and ponds; this enables the clam to find the best position for filter feeding. The thick shell and rounded shape of bivalves make them awkward for potential predators to tackle. Nevertheless, a number of different creatures include them in their diet. Many species of demersal fish feed on them including the common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ), which is being used in the upper Mississippi River to try to control

8636-402: The family Juliidae ), members of the phylum Brachiopoda and the minute crustaceans known as ostracods and conchostracans . Bivalves have bilaterally symmetrical and laterally flattened bodies, with a blade-shaped foot, vestigial head and no radula . At the dorsal or back region of the shell is the hinge point or line, which contain the umbo and beak and the lower, curved margin

8763-421: The female's shell. Later they are released and attach themselves parasitically to the gills or fins of a fish host. After several weeks they drop off their host, undergo metamorphosis and develop into adults on the substrate . Some of the species in the freshwater mussel family, Unionidae , commonly known as pocketbook mussels, have evolved an unusual reproductive strategy. The female's mantle protrudes from

8890-547: The finest grades being aged in successive casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and ash wood. Originally a costly product available to only the Italian upper classes, traditional balsamic vinegar is marked tradizionale or "DOC" to denote its protected designation of origin status, and is aged for 12 to 25 years. A cheaper non-DOC commercial form described as aceto balsamico di Modena (balsamic vinegar of Modena) became widely known and available around

9017-434: The first creatures with mineralized skeletons. Brachiopods and bivalves made their appearance at this time, and left their fossilized remains behind in the rocks. Possible early bivalves include Pojetaia and Fordilla ; these probably lie in the stem rather than crown group. Watsonella and Anabarella are perceived to be (earlier) close relatives of these taxa. Only five genera of supposed Cambrian "bivalves" exist,

9144-434: The fish's gills, where they attach and trigger a tissue response that forms a small cyst around each larva. The larvae then feed by breaking down and digesting the tissue of the fish within the cysts. After a few weeks they release themselves from the cysts and fall to the stream bed as juvenile molluscs. Brachiopods are shelled marine organisms that superficially resemble bivalves in that they are of similar size and have

9271-660: The flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where a market exists for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to nonfruit vinegars that are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). Several varieties are produced in Asia. Persimmon vinegar , called gam sikcho , is common in South Korea . Jujube vinegar, called zaocu or hongzaocu , and wolfberry vinegar are produced in China. Apple cider vinegar

9398-420: The following reaction: Vinegar contains numerous flavonoids , phenolic acids , and aldehydes , which vary in content depending on the source material used to make the vinegar, such as orange peel or various fruit juice concentrates . Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation process. In general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars, where fermentation proceeds over

9525-427: The foot, and feed by filtering plankton from the surrounding water. Cockles are capable of "jumping" by bending and straightening the foot. As is the case in many bivalves, cockles display gonochorism (the sex of an individual varies according to conditions), and some species reach maturity rapidly. The common name "cockle" is also given by seafood sellers to a number of other small, edible marine bivalves which have

9652-467: The gills are also much longer than those in more primitive bivalves, and are folded over to create a groove through which food can be transported. The structure of the gills varies considerably, and can serve as a useful means for classifying bivalves into groups. A few bivalves, such as the granular poromya ( Poromya granulata ), are carnivorous , eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae consumed by other bivalves. Muscles draw water in through

9779-595: The high tide mark in the tropical Indo-Pacific on the underside of mangrove leaves, on mangrove branches, and on sea walls in the splash zone . Some freshwater bivalves have very restricted ranges. For example, the Ouachita creekshell mussel, Villosa arkansasensis , is known only from the streams of the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma, and like several other freshwater mussel species from

9906-434: The hind parts of the animal. The hemolymph usually lacks any respiratory pigment. In the carnivorous genus Poromya , the hemolymph has red amoebocytes containing a haemoglobin pigment. The paired gills are located posteriorly and consist of hollow tube-like filaments with thin walls for gas exchange . The respiratory demands of bivalves are low, due to their relative inactivity. Some freshwater species, when exposed to

10033-416: The hinge line) and scallop shells lack a pallial sinus . Behaviorally, cockles live buried in sediment, whereas scallops either are free-living and will swim into the water column to avoid a predator, or in some cases live attached by a byssus to a substrate . The mantle has three apertures (inhalant, exhalant, and pedal) for siphoning water and for the foot to protrude. Cockles typically burrow using

10160-399: The incremental growth bands. The shipworms , in the family Teredinidae have greatly elongated bodies, but their shell valves are much reduced and restricted to the anterior end of the body, where they function as scraping organs that permit the animal to dig tunnels through wood. The main muscular system in bivalves is the posterior and anterior adductor muscles. These muscles connect

10287-554: The ingredients and process for making several types of vinegar in his work Res Rustica . In the late Middle Ages, vinegar making was slowly being professionalized in Europe, with the French city of Orléans becoming particularly famous for the quality of its vinegar through a formalized fermentation and aging process, which became known as the Orléans process. During this time, malt vinegar also began to develop in England, where it

10414-526: The inhalant siphon is surrounded by vibration-sensitive tentacles for detecting prey. Many bivalves have no eyes, but a few members of the Arcoidea, Limopsoidea, Mytiloidea, Anomioidea, Ostreoidea, and Limoidea have simple eyes on the margin of the mantle. These consist of a pit of photosensory cells and a lens . Scallops have more complex eyes with a lens, a two-layered retina , and a concave mirror. All bivalves have light-sensitive cells that can detect

10541-421: The inhalant siphon which is modified into a cowl-shaped organ, sucking in prey. The siphon can be retracted quickly and inverted, bringing the prey within reach of the mouth. The gut is modified so that large food particles can be digested. The unusual genus, Entovalva , is endosymbiotic , being found only in the oesophagus of sea cucumbers . It has mantle folds that completely surround its small valves. When

10668-443: The intestine. Waste material is consolidated in the rectum and voided as pellets into the exhalent water stream through an anal pore. Feeding and digestion are synchronized with diurnal and tidal cycles. Carnivorous bivalves generally have reduced crystalline styles and the stomach has thick, muscular walls, extensive cuticular linings and diminished sorting areas and gastric chamber sections. The excretory organs of bivalves are

10795-494: The invasive zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ). Birds such as the Eurasian oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus ) have specially adapted beaks which can pry open their shells. The herring gull ( Larus argentatus ) sometimes drops heavy shells onto rocks in order to crack them open. Sea otters feed on a variety of bivalve species and have been observed to use stones balanced on their chests as anvils on which to crack open

10922-485: The largest living bivalve is the giant clam Tridacna gigas , which can grow to a length of 1,200 mm (47 in) and a weight of more than 200 kg (441 lb). The largest known extinct bivalve is a species of Platyceramus whose fossils measure up to 3,000 mm (118 in) in length. In his 2010 treatise, Compendium of Bivalves , Markus Huber gives the total number of living bivalve species as about 9,200 combined in 106 families. Huber states that

11049-413: The latest national standard. A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu . Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in "white" (light yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer a light rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally

11176-418: The mantle lobes secrete the valves, and the mantle crest secretes the whole hinge mechanism consisting of ligament , byssus threads (where present), and teeth . The posterior mantle edge may have two elongated extensions known as siphons , through one of which water is inhaled, and the other expelled. The siphons retract into a cavity, known as the pallial sinus . The shell grows larger when more material

11303-452: The mantle though the valves. In sedentary or recumbent bivalves that lie on one valve, such as the oysters and scallops, the anterior adductor muscle has been lost and the posterior muscle is positioned centrally. In species that can swim by flapping their valves, a single, central adductor muscle occurs. These muscles are composed of two types of muscle fibres, striated muscle bundles for fast actions and smooth muscle bundles for maintaining

11430-626: The most common source of natural pearls . The shells of bivalves are used in craftwork, and the manufacture of jewellery and buttons. Bivalves have also been used in the biocontrol of pollution. Bivalves appear in the fossil record first in the early Cambrian more than 500 million years ago. The total number of known living species is about 9,200. These species are placed within 1,260 genera and 106 families. Marine bivalves (including brackish water and estuarine species) represent about 8,000 species, combined in four subclasses and 99 families with 1,100 genera. The largest recent marine families are

11557-413: The most widely produced are nipa palm vinegar ( sukang nipa or sukang sasa ) and kaong palm vinegar ( sukang kaong or sukang irok ). Along with coconut and cane vinegar, they are the four main traditional vinegar types in the Philippines and are an important part of Filipino cuisine . Nipa palm vinegar is made from the sap of the leaf stalks of nipa palm . Its flavor has notes of citrus and imparts

11684-422: The number of 20,000 living species, often encountered in literature, could not be verified and presents the following table to illustrate the known diversity: The bivalves are a highly successful class of invertebrates found in aquatic habitats throughout the world. Most are infaunal and live buried in sediment on the seabed, or in the sediment in freshwater habitats. A large number of bivalve species are found in

11811-507: The others being Tuarangia , Camya and Arhouriella and potentially Buluniella . Bivalve fossils can be formed when the sediment in which the shells are buried hardens into rock. Often, the impression made by the valves remains as the fossil rather than the valves. During the Early Ordovician , a great increase in the diversity of bivalve species occurred, and the dysodont, heterodont, and taxodont dentitions evolved. By

11938-400: The palps. These then sort the particles, rejecting those that are unsuitable or too large to digest, and conveying others to the mouth. In more advanced bivalves, water is drawn into the shell from the posterior ventral surface of the animal, passes upwards through the gills, and doubles back to be expelled just above the intake. There may be two elongated, retractable siphons reaching up to

12065-671: The perceived heart-shape of a cockleshell, or indirectly (the scientific name for the type genus of the family is Cardium , from the Latin for heart), or from the Latin diminutive of the word heart, corculum. Another proposed derivation is from the Latin for the ventricles of the heart, cochleae cordis , where the second word is an inflected form of cor , heart, while cochlea is the Latin for snail. [REDACTED] Media related to Cardiidae at Wikimedia Commons Bivalvia And see text Bivalvia ( / b aɪ ˈ v æ l v i ə / ) or bivalves , in previous centuries referred to as

12192-523: The period is before the larva first feeds, the larger the egg and yolk need to be. The reproductive cost of producing these energy-rich eggs is high and they are usually smaller in number. For example, the Baltic tellin ( Macoma balthica ) produces few, high-energy eggs. The larvae hatching out of these rely on the energy reserves and do not feed. After about four days, they become D-stage larvae, when they first develop hinged, D-shaped valves. These larvae have

12319-409: The posterior mantle margins. The organs are usually mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors , in some cases located on short tentacles . The osphradium is a patch of sensory cells located below the posterior adductor muscle that may serve to taste the water or measure its turbidity . Statocysts within the organism help the bivalve to sense and correct its orientation. In the order Anomalodesmata ,

12446-524: The product in manufacture. Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice , wheat , millet , sorghum , or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor. The recipe is not fixed, so some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar , spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Zhenjiang vinegar , originates in the city of Zhenjiang in Jiangsu Province , eastern China. Shanxi mature vinegar

12573-527: The prominence of modern bivalves over brachiopods seems due to chance disparities in their response to extinction events . The adult maximum size of living species of bivalve ranges from 0.52 mm (0.02 in) in Condylonucula maya , a nut clam, to a length of 1,532 millimetres (60.3 in) in Kuphus polythalamia , an elongated, burrowing shipworm. However, the species generally regarded as

12700-420: The range in quality is considerable. Better-quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years, and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than white or cider vinegar. More expensive wine vinegars are made from individual varieties of wine, such as champagne, sherry, or pinot gris. The term "distilled vinegar" as used in the United States (called "spirit vinegar" in

12827-490: The sands at low tide. However, collecting cockles is hard work and, as seen from the Morecambe Bay disaster , in which 23 people died, can be dangerous if local tidal conditions are not carefully watched. In England and Wales, as of 2011, people are permitted to collect 5 kg of cockles for personal use. Those wishing to collect more than this are deemed to be engaging in commercial fishing and are required to obtain

12954-410: The screens of electronic devices, clothes iron water tanks, and rubber components of various small appliances . Common metals that can be damaged by vinegar include aluminum, copper, and lower-quality grades of stainless steel often used in small appliances. Twenty percent acetic acid vinegar can be used as an herbicide , but acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems so the vinegar will only kill

13081-496: The sea cucumber sucks in sediment, the bivalve allows the water to pass over its gills and extracts fine organic particles. To prevent itself from being swept away, it attaches itself with byssal threads to the host 's throat. The sea cucumber is unharmed. The digestive tract of typical bivalves consists of an oesophagus , stomach , and intestine . Protobranch stomachs have a mere sac attached to them while filter-feeding bivalves have elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as

13208-419: The seabed, one each for the inhalant and exhalant streams of water. The gills of filter-feeding bivalves are known as ctenidia and have become highly modified to increase their ability to capture food. For example, the cilia on the gills, which originally served to remove unwanted sediment, have become adapted to capture food particles, and transport them in a steady stream of mucus to the mouth. The filaments of

13335-469: The sediment remains damp even when the tide is out. When buried in the sediment, burrowing bivalves are protected from the pounding of waves, desiccation, and overheating during low tide, and variations in salinity caused by rainwater. They are also out of the reach of many predators. Their general strategy is to extend their siphons to the surface for feeding and respiration during high tide, but to descend to greater depths or keep their shell tightly shut when

13462-435: The shell and develops into an imitation small fish, complete with fish-like markings and false eyes. This decoy moves in the current and attracts the attention of real fish. Some fish see the decoy as prey, while others see a conspecific . They approach for a closer look and the mussel releases huge numbers of larvae from its gills, dousing the inquisitive fish with its tiny, parasitic young. These glochidia larvae are drawn into

13589-468: The shell is the periostracum , a thin layer composed of horny conchiolin . The periostracum is secreted by the outer mantle and is easily abraded. The outer surface of the valves is often sculpted, with clams often having concentric striations, scallops having radial ribs and oysters a latticework of irregular markings. In all molluscs, the mantle forms a thin membrane that covers the animal's body and extends out from it in flaps or lobes. In bivalves,

13716-571: The shell, gaining the ability to swim, and in a few cases, adopting predatory habits. For a long time, bivalves were thought to be better adapted to aquatic life than brachiopods were, outcompeting and relegating them to minor niches in later ages. These two taxa appeared in textbooks as an example of replacement by competition. Evidence given for this included the fact that bivalves needed less food to subsist because of their energetically efficient ligament-muscle system for opening and closing valves. All this has been broadly disproven, though; rather,

13843-420: The shells and open them more easily when they could tackle them from different angles. Octopuses either pull bivalves apart by force, or they bore a hole into the shell and insert a digestive fluid before sucking out the liquified contents. Certain carnivorous gastropod snails such as whelks ( Buccinidae ) and murex snails ( Muricidae ) feed on bivalves by boring into their shells. A dog whelk ( Nucella ) drills

13970-400: The shells with their pincers and starfish use their water vascular system to force the valves apart and then insert part of their stomach between the valves to digest the bivalve's body. It has been found experimentally that both crabs and starfish preferred molluscs that are attached by byssus threads to ones that are cemented to the substrate. This was probably because they could manipulate

14097-740: The shells. The Pacific walrus ( Odobenus rosmarus divergens ) is one of the main predators feeding on bivalves in Arctic waters. Shellfish have formed part of the human diet since prehistoric times, a fact evidenced by the remains of mollusc shells found in ancient middens. Examinations of these deposits in Peru has provided a means of dating long past El Niño events because of the disruption these caused to bivalve shell growth. Further changes in shell development due to environmental stress has also been suggested to cause increased mortality in oysters due to reduced shell strength. Invertebrate predators include crustaceans, starfish and octopuses. Crustaceans crack

14224-584: The southeastern US, it is in danger of extinction. In contrast, a few species of freshwater bivalves, including the golden mussel ( Limnoperna fortunei ), are dramatically increasing their ranges. The golden mussel has spread from Southeast Asia to Argentina, where it has become an invasive species . Another well-travelled freshwater bivalve, the zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ) originated in southeastern Russia, and has been accidentally introduced to inland waterways in North America and Europe, where

14351-416: The species damages water installations and disrupts local ecosystems . Most bivalves adopt a sedentary or even sessile lifestyle, often spending their whole lives in the area in which they first settled as juveniles. The majority of bivalves are infaunal, living under the seabed, buried in soft substrates such as sand, silt, mud, gravel, or coral fragments. Many of these live in the intertidal zone where

14478-411: The stronger variety (5% to 24% acetic acid) made from sugar cane or chemically produced acetic acid. To be called "spirit vinegar", the product must come from an agricultural source and must be made by "double fermentation". The first fermentation is sugar to alcohol, and the second is alcohol to acetic acid. Products made from synthetically produced acetic acid cannot be called "vinegar" in the UK, where

14605-545: The term allowed is " non-brewed condiment ". Sherry vinegar is linked to the production of sherry wines of Jerez . Dark mahogany in color, it is made exclusively from the acetic fermentation of wines. It is concentrated and has generous aromas, including a note of wood, ideal for vinaigrettes and flavoring various foods. Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar in Southern and Central Europe , Cyprus , and Israel . As with wine,

14732-590: The tide goes out. They use their muscular foot to dig into the substrate. To do this, the animal relaxes its adductor muscles and opens its shell wide to anchor itself in position while it extends its foot downwards into the substrate. Then it dilates the tip of its foot, retracts the adductor muscles to close the shell, shortens its foot and draws itself downwards. This series of actions is repeated to dig deeper. Other bivalves, such as mussels , attach themselves to hard surfaces using tough byssus threads made of collagen and elastin proteins. Some species, including

14859-412: The top growth and perennial plants may reshoot. Most commercial vinegar solutions available to consumers for household use do not exceed 5%. Solutions above 10% require careful handling, as they are corrosive and damaging to the skin. When a bottle of vinegar is opened, mother of vinegar may develop. It is considered harmless and can be removed by filtering. Vinegar eels ( Turbatrix aceti ),

14986-558: The true oysters, the jewel boxes , the jingle shells , the thorny oysters and the kitten's paws , cement themselves to stones, rock or larger dead shells. In oysters, the lower valve may be almost flat while the upper valve develops layer upon layer of thin horny material reinforced with calcium carbonate. Oysters sometimes occur in dense beds in the neritic zone and, like most bivalves, are filter feeders. Bivalves filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter

15113-496: The two foods is referred to in the song's refrain. The shells of cockles are mentioned in the English nursery rhyme " Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary ". Cockles are also eaten by the indigenous peoples of North America. The common English phrase " it warms the cockles of my heart ", is used to mean that a feeling of deep-seated contentment has been generated. Differing derivations of this phrase have been proposed, either directly from

15240-406: The two halves detaching. The shell is typically bilaterally symmetrical , with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane . Adult shell sizes of bivalves vary from fractions of a millimetre to over a metre in length, but the majority of species do not exceed 10 cm (4 in). Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal and riparian human populations. Oysters were cultured in ponds by

15367-402: The two valves and contract to close the shell. The valves are also joined dorsally by the hinge ligament , which is an extension of the periostracum. The ligament is responsible for opening the shell, and works against the adductor muscles when the animal opens and closes. Retractor muscles connect the mantle to the edge of the shell, along a line known as the pallial line . These muscles pull

15494-600: The use of refrigeration ; it is essentially already "spoiled". Several beverages are made using vinegar, for instance posca in ancient Rome . The ancient Greek drink oxymel is made from vinegar and honey, and sekanjabin is a traditional Persian drink similar to oxymel . Other preparations, known colloquially as " shrubs ", range from simply mixing sugar water or honey water with small amounts of fruity vinegar, to making syrup by laying fruit or mint in vinegar for several days, then sieving off solid parts and adding considerable amounts of sugar. Some prefer to boil

15621-536: The water contained in the vinegar. Some countries have regulations on the permitted acidity percentage of vinegar. For example, the government of Canada limits acetic to between 4.1% and 12.3%, unless the vinegar is sold only for manufacturing use and identified as such. In the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, vinegar must contain a minimum of 4% acetic acid by volume. Many jurisdictions distinguish between brewed vinegar and preparations made with diluted acetic acid. The latter may not be sold as "vinegar" and

15748-469: The world in the late 20th century, typically made with concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, then coloured and slightly sweetened with caramel and sugar. Balsamic vinegar is made from a grape product. It contains no balsam , though was traditionally aged in balsam as one of the steps. A high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it mellow. In terms of its nutrition content, balsamic vinegar contains

15875-417: The young inside their mantle cavity, eventually releasing them into the water column as veliger larvae or as crawl-away juveniles. Most of the bivalve larvae that hatch from eggs in the water column feed on diatoms or other phytoplankton. In temperate regions, about 25% of species are lecithotrophic , depending on nutrients stored in the yolk of the egg where the main energy source is lipids . The longer

16002-619: Was first known as alegar . Balsamic vinegar also began its evolution in the Duchy of Modena in Italy, though it would not become widely known until the Napoleonic Wars after being sold abroad by French troops. In the 19th century, vinegar production underwent many dramatic changes, such as rapid industrialization and scientific analysis. Karl Sebastian Schüzenbach invented the first large-scale industrial process for vinegar production in

16129-541: Was formerly also called eisel . The word "acetic" derives from Latin acētum (vinegar, or more properly vinum acetum : "wine turned sour"). While vinegar making may be as old as brewing , the first documented evidence of vinegar making and use was by the ancient Babylonians around 3000 BCE. They primarily made vinegar from dates, figs, and beer and used it for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Traces of it also have been found in Egyptian urns . In East Asia,

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