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164-416: After serving as a papal diplomat for Pope Urban VIII , Mazarin offered his diplomatic services to Cardinal Richelieu and moved to Paris in 1640. After the death of Richelieu in 1642, Mazarin took his place as first minister of Louis XIII, and then of Louis XIV, when he succeeded to the throne in 1643. Mazarin acted as the head of the government for Anne of Austria , the regent for the young Louis XIV, and

328-558: A papal legate to the court of King Henry IV of France . In 1604, the same pope appointed him as the Archbishop of Nazareth , an office joined with that of Bishop of the suppressed Dioceses of Canne and Monteverde, with his residence at Barletta . At the death of his uncle, he inherited his riches, with which he bought a palace in Rome, which he made into a luxurious Renaissance residence . Pope Paul V also later employed Barberini in

492-422: A peanut , a potato , or an avocado . Its mass is roughly 2.2 × 10  kg, with an average density of about 0.55 grams per cubic centimetre (0.32 oz/cu in). The low density indicates that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a rubble pile . Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's rotation period

656-583: A "comet-star" appeared in the sky in the year 1067 (the chronicle is erroneous, as the event occurred in 1066, and by Robert he means William). The Emperor Constantine Ducas died in the month of May, and his son Michael received the Empire. And in this year there appeared a comet star, and the Norman count Robert [sic] fought a battle with Harold, King of the English, and Robert was victorious and became king over

820-406: A German farmer and amateur astronomer. It did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a delay of 618 days. This effect was computed before its return (with a one-month error to 13 April) by a team of three French mathematicians, Alexis Clairaut , Joseph Lalande , and Nicole-Reine Lepaute . The confirmation of the comet's return

984-486: A Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir. He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al-Abidin (AD 1418/1420–1470). After witnessing a bright light in the sky which most historians have identified as Halley's Comet, Zara Yaqob , Emperor of Ethiopia from 1434 to 1468, founded the city of Debre Berhan (tr. City of Light) and made it his capital for

1148-654: A book on The Portland Vase. Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of the Roman Emperor. However, this together with the interpretations of the scenes depicted on it are the source of countless theories and disputed 'facts'. The vase remained in the Barberini family collection for some 150 years before passing through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples. It

1312-695: A chamberlain in the family of Filippo I Colonna , the Grand Constable of Naples . His father became a citizen of Rome in 1608. His mother Ortensia Bufalini (1575–1644) was a native of Rome, from the Bufalini family of nobility whose origins were in Città di Castello in Umbria . The family had moved to Rome in the Middle Ages. She was the goddaughter of Filippo I Colonna, her husband's employer. Giulio

1476-580: A charter, inspired by the writ of Habeas Corpus in England, which revoked the authority of the King's justice officials, forbade any new taxes without the approval of the parlement , and declared that no royal subjects could be imprisoned without due process of law. Mazarin recommended to the Queen that she listen to the parlement and modify her decrees, but she was furious at their opposition. She waited until

1640-452: A circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory ). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is 0.59  au (88 million  km ). This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus . Its aphelion , or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 au (5.2 billion km), roughly the orbital distance of Pluto . Unlike the overwhelming majority of objects in

1804-455: A comet appeared suspended over Rome for several days portending the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in that year. Halley's appearance in 12 BC, only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ , has led some theologians and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the Star of Bethlehem . There are other explanations for

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1968-555: A guardian of French interests in Rome, and then of papal interests in France. In 1632, he was named papal vice-legate at Avignon , appointed a prelate , and began to wear ecclesiastical dress, though he was not and never became a priest. While in Rome, Mazarin sent regular gifts of flowers, perfumes and delicacies to the women of the French court, and more valuable gifts, including statues and Renaissance paintings, to Richelieu. In 1634 he

2132-438: A member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets. Halley has probably been in its current orbit for 16,000–200,000 years, although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions, and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations. The non-gravitational effects can be crucial; as Halley approaches

2296-728: A military expedition to capture Geneva , the fortress of the Protestant movement, but the King, who had good relations with the Swiss cantons, rejected the idea. Mazarin returned to Rome in November 1632, and made a new friend and ally, Antonio Barberini , the nephew of the Pope and one of his chief diplomats, and his older brother, Francesco Barberini, the Cardinal Secretary of State . With their assistance, he established himself as

2460-489: A mixture of volatile ices —such as water , carbon dioxide , ammonia —and dust . The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy. Comet Halley is usually pronounced / ˈ h æ l i / , rhyming with valley , or sometimes / ˈ h eɪ l i / , rhyming with daily . As to

2624-518: A new pope; namely Laudivio Zacchia . When Urban VIII travelled to Castel Gandolfo to rest, the members of the Spanish faction met in secret and discussed ways to advance their plan. But they were discovered and the pope raced back to Rome where he immediately held a consistory and demanded to know who the new pope was. To put an end to the conspiracy, the pope decreed that all Cardinal-Bishops should leave Rome and return to their own churches. With

2788-470: A papal bull, the document was not filed as such and was more than likely an encyclical ; Pope Benedict XIII eventually abrogated the tobacco ban, preferring other methods to ensuring the cleanliness of church facilities. Urban VIII canonized five saints during his pontificate: Stephen Harding (1623), Elizabeth of Portugal and Conrad of Piacenza (1625), Peter Nolasco (1628), and Andrea Corsini (1629). The pope also beatified 68 individuals, including

2952-475: A particular comet. The Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani wrote that the comet left "great trails of fumes behind", and that it remained visible from September 1301 until January 1302. It was seen by the artist Giotto di Bondone , who represented the Star of Bethlehem as a fire-coloured comet in the Nativity section of his Arena Chapel cycle, completed in 1305. Giotto's depiction includes details of

3116-532: A passage in the Babylonian Talmud , tractate Horayot that refers to "a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err". Others doubt this idea based on historical considerations about the exact timing of this alleged observation, and suggest it refers to other astronomical phenomena. Researchers in 1981 attempting to calculate the past orbits of Halley by numerical integration starting from accurate observations in

3280-552: A quarter of that of the Moon . Halley came within 0.10  au of Earth at that time. This appearance of the comet is also noted in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . Eilmer of Malmesbury may have seen Halley in 989 and 1066, as recorded by William of Malmesbury : Not long after, a comet, portending (they say) a change in governments, appeared, trailing its long flaming hair through the empty sky: concerning which there

3444-699: A respectful time in exile. He made his return to Paris in February 1653. He was welcomed with a triumphal banquet at the Hotel de Ville, where crowds earlier had demanded his downfall. Once he was restored to power, Mazarin began arranging for his nieces, known as the Mazarinettes , to marry powerful French and Italian noblemen. In order to entice the prospective grooms to marry them despite their lower rank, Mazarin provided large dowries . Among his seven nieces, Laura Mancini and Anne Marie Martinozzi married into

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3608-415: A second Fronde, led by Louis, Grand Condé , who had turned from his chief ally to his chief enemy. Mazarin took Anne of Austria and Louis XIV out of Paris and then shifted his base to Germany for a time. Turenne , a general loyal to Louis XIV and Mazarin, defeated Condé, and Mazarin made a triumphal return to Paris in 1653. The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1657 and his death in 1661, were marked by

3772-405: A second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus ) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler ). Halley thus concluded that all three comets were, in fact, the same object returning about every 76 years, a period that has since been found to vary between 72 and 80 years. After a rough estimate of the perturbations

3936-561: A sense of humor, and when the Fronde was finished, he had the best Mazarinades collected and performed in a concert at his palace. The rebellion lasted for three years. It took its popular name, Fronde , from the children's slings ( frondes ) which were used by the mobs in the Paris streets to hurl stones. It combined the anger of the Parisians against the new taxes with the resentment of

4100-821: A series of major diplomatic victories. In 1657 he made a military alliance with England. In 1658 he unveiled the League of the Rhine . The same year, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. On 7 November 1659, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees , which added three new provinces to France. In 1660 Mazarin arranged the marriage of Louis XIV to Maria Theresa of Spain , which ended

4264-568: A similar capacity, afterwards raising him, in 1606, to the order of the Cardinal-Priest , with the titular church of San Pietro in Montorio and appointing him as a papal legate of Bologna . Barberini was considered someone who could be elected as pope, though there were those such as Cardinal Ottavio Bandini who worked to prevent it. Despite this, throughout 29–30 July, the cardinals began an intense series of negotiations to test

4428-493: Is about 4%, meaning that it reflects only 4% of the sunlight hitting it – about what one would expect for coal. Thus, despite astronomers predicting that Halley would have an albedo of about 0.17 (roughly equivalent to bare soil), Halley's Comet is in fact pitch black. The "dirty ices" on the surface sublime at temperatures between 170 K (−103 °C) in sections of higher albedo to 220 K (−53 °C) at low albedo; Vega 1 found Halley's surface temperature to be in

4592-446: Is also commonly called Comet Halley , or sometimes simply Halley . Halley's periodic returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers around the world since at least 240 BC, but it was not until 1705 that the English astronomer Edmond Halley understood that these appearances were re-appearances of the same comet. As a result of this discovery, the comet is named after Halley. During its 1986 visit to

4756-566: Is associated with two meteor showers : the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet : one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less. This contrasts it with long-period comets, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5 years, so Halley's orbit

4920-458: Is atypical. Most short-period comets (those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 30 degrees or less) are called Jupiter-family comets. Those resembling Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets. As of 2024 , 105 Halley-type comets have been observed, compared with 816 identified Jupiter-family comets. The orbits of

5084-448: Is believed by some Sikh scholars to be a reference to Halley's appearance in 1531. Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict it would return. One key breakthrough occurred when Halley talked with Newton about his ideas of the laws of motion. Newton also helped Halley get John Flamsteed's data on

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5248-632: Is enshrined at the sacristy of St. Peter's Basilica . The coronation took place on 1631 making it as the first coronation in the world. The pope created 74 cardinals in eight consistories throughout his pontificate, and this included his nephews Francesco and Antonio , cousin Lorenzo Magalotti , and the pope's own brother Antonio Marcello . He also created Giovanni Battista Pamphili as a cardinal, with Pamphili becoming his immediate successor, Pope Innocent X . The pope also created eight of those cardinals whom he had reserved in pectore . In

5412-653: Is estimated to be about 10 million years. The dynamics of its orbit can be approximately described by a two-dimensional symplectic map , known as the Kepler map , a solution to the restricted three-body problem for highly eccentric orbits. Based on records from the 1910 apparition, David Hughes calculated in 1985 that Halley's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80 to 90% over the last 2,000 to 3,000 revolutions, and that it will most likely disappear completely after another 2,300 perihelion passages. More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate, or split in two, within

5576-449: Is far more active than the night side. Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80% water vapour, 17% carbon monoxide and 3–4% carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrocarbons although more recent sources give a value of 10% for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia . The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds common in

5740-723: Is now found in the Institut de France , across the Seine from the Louvre. Giulio Mazzarino was born on 14 July 1602 in Pescina in the Abruzzo province of Italy, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Rome. His parents were residents of Rome, spending the summer in Pescina to escape the summer heat. His father, Pietro Mazzarino (1576–1654), had moved to Rome from Sicily in 1590 to become

5904-616: Is the huge Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power painted by Pietro da Cortona on the ceiling of the large salon of the Palazzo Barberini. Another such acquisition, in a vast collection, was the purchase of the 'Barberini vase'. This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the Roman Emperor Severus Alexander and his family at Monte Del Grano. The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli and referenced on page 28 of

6068-779: The Duchy of Urbino was incorporated into the Papal dominions, and, in 1627, when the direct male line of the Gonzagas in Mantua became extinct, he controversially favoured the succession of the Duke Charles of Nevers against the claims of the Habsburgs . He also launched the Wars of Castro in 1641 against Odoardo Farnese , Duke of Parma and Piacenza , whom he excommunicated . Castro

6232-518: The Kuiper belt , a flat disc of icy debris between 30 au (Neptune's orbit) and 50 au from the Sun (in the scattered disc ). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a trans-Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, 2008 KV 42 , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be

6396-599: The Martyrs of Nagasaki (1627). He also issued the papal bulls of canonization for Ignatius of Loyola (founder of the Society of Jesus , "Jesuits") and Francis Xavier (also a Jesuit), who had been canonized by his predecessor, Pope Gregory XV. Pope Urban VIII is also known as the first pope who granted a canonical coronation towards a Marian icon. The first icon that was crowned was the La Madonna della Febbre which

6560-480: The Parlement of Paris , and had his will annulled. She was declared Regent on 18 May. The Queen had a particular dislike of de Chavigny, the other chief advisor chosen by Louis XIII. He had been close to Richelieu and was the only real rival in experience to Mazarin. The evening that she became regent, she declared that Mazarin would be her chief minister and head of her government. The management style of Mazarin

6724-478: The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), and was an eventful one, even by the standards of the day. Despite an early friendship and encouragement for his teachings, Urban VIII was responsible for summoning the scientist and astronomer Galileo to Rome in 1633 to recant his work. Urban VIII was opposed to Copernican heliocentrism and he ordered Galileo's second trial after the publication of Dialogue Concerning

Cardinal Mazarin - Misplaced Pages Continue

6888-515: The formulary controversy , more for its political implications than out of theology. On his deathbed he warned young Louis XIV "not to tolerate the Jansenist sect, not even their name." After his death, Louis XIV did not appoint a new principal minister and instead governed himself, marking the beginning of a new era of centralized government in France. Mazarin's long war against the Habsburgs,

7052-617: The Army of the North. Fouquet, drawing upon his wealthy relatives, was able to provide the money. In 1659 he provided another loan of five million livres. One effect of the enormous amount of money in the market during the period of the Regency of Anne of Austria and Mazarin was a decline in the value of the Livre tournois , the French royal unit of account, lost twenty percent of its value against

7216-639: The Bastille, and were suppressed with great difficulty. The Presidents of the Parlement , now allies of Mazarin, demanded that the violence be stopped and that Condé take his army out of Paris. Reluctantly, Condé left the city, going to the Spanish Netherlands, pursued by Turenne. Louis XIV, now of age to claim his throne, re-entered Paris in October 1652, accompanied by his mother and by Turenne. Mazarin had to wait longer to make his return, which

7380-707: The French Army, commanded by the Prince de Condé was far from Paris, fighting the Austrians. Mazarin quickly sent an envoy to the Emperor in Vienna, calling for a truce and peace conference. The Peace of Westphalia , ending the war, was signed 24 October 1648. Despite the peace, disturbances continued in the streets of Paris. During the night of January 6, 1649, Mazarin secretly took the young Louis XIV, Anne of Austria and

7544-597: The French army across the Alps into Italy. On 26 October 1630 the French and Spanish armies met outside the walls of the French-held town of Casale, ready to fight. Suddenly, a man on horseback with a flag appeared, galloping toward them, crying "Pace! Pace!" ("Peace! Peace!") It was Mazarin, carrying an agreement from the Spanish commander to evacuate their soldiers from the town if the French would leave Montferrat to Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua . Mazarin brought together

7708-429: The Fronde was still not finished. Many frondeurs were unhappy with the compromise reached in 1649. Once in Paris, Condé made endless demands on Anne of Austria until she finally angrily dismissed him. One of the other leaders of the Fronde, Jean François Paul de Gondi , soon persuaded Condé to join him in bringing down both Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Mazarin had an excellent network of agents, and immediately learned of

7872-604: The Habsburg rulers of Austria and Spain. Mazarin wrote later that he had done his best to persuade Richelieu to avoid a war. He wrote that in March 1635 he gave Richelieu all his reasons to maintain the peace. "His Eminence told me, as he stood up," Mazarin wrote, "that I courted Peace as if she were the woman of my dreams. Then he shook my hand, and concluded, 'You are no longer on the side of France.'" Mazarin returned to Avignon on 7 April 1636. During all of his negotiations, Mazarin

8036-560: The Habsburgs, building a network of French influence as a buffer in the western part of the Empire. In 1657, he made an attempt to get Louis XIV elected as Holy Roman Emperor. In 1658 he formed the League of the Rhine , which was designed to check the House of Austria in central Germany. In 1659 he made peace with Habsburg Spain in the Peace of the Pyrenees , which added to French territory Roussillon and northern Cerdanya—as French Cerdagne —in

8200-414: The Habsburgs. His financial counselor was Michel Particelli d'Emery , also Italian. When taxes, loans, and the sale of titles did not bring in enough, he sought new sources of income. He discovered an old law dating to Henry IV which forbade Parisians to build houses outside the city limits. Since the city had grown well outside its old boundaries, in 1644 he imposed heavy fines on all those who lived outside

8364-534: The Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the Oort cloud , a sphere of cometary bodies around 20,000–50,000 au from the Sun. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in

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8528-463: The King. Cinq-Mars was arrested, Gaston was disgraced, and another conspirator, the Duke of Bouillon, was granted a pardon on the condition of revealing all the details of the plot to Mazarin, and surrendering the important fortress of Sedan to the King. Mazarin did not reveal the participation of the Queen in the conspiracy, but his knowledge gave him even greater leverage at the court. The destruction of

8692-512: The Pope and the composer Monteverdi . Halley%27s comet Halley's Comet is the only known short-period comet that is consistently visible to the naked eye from Earth , appearing every 72–80 years, though with the majority of recorded apparations (25 of 30) occuring after 75-77 years. It last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061. Officially designated 1P/Halley , it

8856-405: The Pope refused to send him back to France, or to represent the papacy at a peace conference, he wrote: "I am not a subject of the King of France, but I believe I can truly say that the declarations of the Spanish have declared me to be French, so that with justice one can say that France is my country." His position in Rome was increasingly difficult. He had the affection of Pope Urban VIII, but he

9020-644: The Popes  [ la ] that, A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the Christian name. He likewise ordered, to move God by continual entreaty, that notice should be given by

9184-422: The Queen and in his will had refused to make her his regent, was furious; de Noyers was forced to resign on 10 April 1643. Louis XIII died 14 May 1643, just five months after Richelieu. His successor, Louis XIV , was just four years old. The King had specifically instructed that his wife, Anne of Austria, not rule in his place as regent. However, as soon as he was dead, she applied to the body of nobles known as

9348-407: The Queen, commanded by Turenne , were waiting, and trapped Condé's army against the walls of Paris. An ally of Condé, the Grande Mademoiselle , ordered the gates of the city opened to rescue Condé's army. The battle was witnessed from the hills of Charonne by the young Louis XIV. As soon as Condé's soldiers entered Paris, he demanded an immediate purge of Mazarin's supporters. Riots broke out around

9512-481: The Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde ; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic , with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. This is usually represented as 162°, to account for Halley's retrograde orbit. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,800 mph). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley

9676-422: The Solar System. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton's Comet ), he

9840-413: The Spanish and French commanders and explained the terms of the agreement, which were readily accepted by both sides. Mazarin had achieved his first diplomatic success. The result of Mazarin's first diplomatic efforts was the Treaty of Cherasco, 6 April 1631, in which the Emperor and the Duke of Savoy recognized the possession of Mantua and part of Monferrat by Charles Gonzaga and the French occupation of

10004-411: The Spanish plan having failed, by 1640 the debt had reached 35 million scudi, consuming more than 80% of annual papal income in interest repayments. Urban VIII's death on 29 July 1644 is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the Wars of Castro . Because of the costs incurred by the city of Rome to finance this war, Urban VIII became immensely unpopular with his subjects. On his death,

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10168-427: The Sun on August 6 in 87 BC" as the comet would have been a "most recordable event"; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings. The apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the Book of Han by Chinese astronomers of the Han dynasty who tracked it from August through October. It passed within 0.16 au of Earth. According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio ,

10332-487: The Sun, it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface, which knock it very slightly off its orbital path. These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion passage of four days on average. In 1989, Boris Chirikov and Vitold Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations, which showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales. Halley's projected dynamical lifetime

10496-452: The Two Chief World Systems , in which Urban's point of view is argued by the character "Simplicio". Urban VIII practiced nepotism on a grand scale; various members of his family were enormously enriched by him, so that it seemed to contemporaries as if he were establishing a Barberini dynasty. He elevated his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini (Antonio the Elder) and then his nephews Francesco Barberini and Antonio Barberini (Antonio

10660-440: The Venetian envoy, wrote the following description of him: The new Pontiff is 56 years old. His Holiness is tall, dark, with regular features and black hair turning grey. He is exceptionally elegant and refined in all details of his dress; has a graceful and aristocratic bearing and exquisite taste. He is an excellent speaker and debater, writes verses and patronises poets and men of letters. Urban VIII's papacy covered 21 years of

10824-566: The Younger) to Cardinal . He also bestowed upon their brother, Taddeo Barberini , the titles Prince of Palestrina , Gonfalonier of the Church , Prefect of Rome and Commander of Sant'Angelo . Historian Leopold von Ranke estimated that during his reign, Urban VIII's immediate family amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth. Urban VIII was a skilled writer of Latin verse, and a collection of scriptural paraphrases as well as original hymns of his composition have been frequently reprinted. The 1638 papal bull Commissum Nobis protected

10988-499: The arrest quickly spread in Paris, and crowds came out into the street to protest and to build barricades. That evening Mazarin wrote in his journal, "the parlement has performed the functions of the King, and the people have deferred to it entirely." During the Fronde, the anti-Mazarin crowds of Paris enjoyed listening to Mazarinades , popular songs with verses mocking the Cardinal. Dozens were written and published, accusing him of virtually all possible faults and crimes. Mazarin had

11152-459: The artist. Halley's 1378 appearance is recorded in the Annales Mediolanenses as well as in East Asian sources. In 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary , culminating in the siege of Belgrade in July of that year. In a papal bull , Pope Callixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his Lives of

11316-443: The aunt of Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua , had been granted in marriage to Władysław IV of Poland . She and her family did not have enough money to pay the agreed upon dowry of 2,100,000 livres . As a result, they went deeply in debt to Louis XIV, and their duchies of Mayenne , Nevers , and Rethel were mortgaged for this purpose. The negotiations, begun by Chancellor Séguier , were taken over by Mazarin, probably because Séguier

11480-463: The bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk. Platina's account is not mentioned in official records. In the 18th century, a Frenchman further embellished the story, in anger at the Church, by claiming that the Pope had "excommunicated" the comet, though this story was most likely his own invention. Halley's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara,

11644-405: The bust of Urban VIII that lay beside the Palace of the Conservators on the Capitoline Hill was rapidly destroyed by an enraged crowd, and only a quick-thinking priest saved the sculpture of the late pope belonging to the Jesuits from a similar fate. Following his death, international and domestic machinations resulted in the papal conclave not electing Cardinal Giulio Cesare Sacchetti , who

11808-542: The campaigns against the first Fronde and against Condé, and also had to pay for the continual travels of the Regent and the young King, and the elaborate festivities, parades, and cavalcades that accompanied their travel and every major event. The royal budget for 1653 was about 109 million livres , which amounted to eight hundred tons of silver or sixty tons of gold. Expenditures were the greatest between 1656 and 1659. Twenty-seven agreements were made with bankers, who loaned

11972-463: The city limits. In addition, he taxed all merchandise being brought into the city. One measure caused particular resentment among the nobility; he imposed a special tax on all the nobles who served on the various royal courts and councils, amounting to four years of their fees. The center of resistance was the Paris parlement , an ancient assembly of nobles which served as a high court of appeals. It

12136-541: The city under blockade. He then persuaded the Parlement that they had more to fear from an uprising of the Parisiens than they did from him. On 14 March 1649 Mazarin accepted many of the reforms demanded by the Parlement . In return, the Parlement supporters laid down their weapons and allowed Anne of Austria, the young Louis XIV and Mazarin to return to Paris. The Parlement accepted Mazarin and his government, but

12300-551: The city. Numerous members of Barberini's family also had their likeness caught in stone by Bernini, such as his brothers Carlo and Antonio . Urban also had rebuilt the Church of Santa Bibiana and the Church of San Sebastiano al Palatino on the Palatine Hill . The Barberini patronised painters such as Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain . One of the most eulogistic of these artistic works in its celebration of his reign,

12464-578: The coma, a sweeping tail, and the central condensation. According to the art historian Roberta Olson , it is much more accurate than other contemporary descriptions, and was not equaled in painting until the 19th century. Olson's identification of Halley's Comet in Giotto's Adoration of the Magi is what inspired the European Space Agency to name their mission to the comet Giotto , after

12628-522: The comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen : later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror claimed the throne. The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star. Surviving accounts from the period describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus , and shining with a light equal to

12792-459: The comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1758. While he had personally observed the comet around perihelion in September 1682, Halley died in 1742 before he could observe its predicted return. Halley's prediction of the comet's return proved to be correct, although it was not seen until 25 December 1758, by Johann Georg Palitzsch ,

12956-468: The conspiracy against the King was one of the last acts of Cardinal Richelieu. He fell ill and died on 4 December 1642. The succession of Mazarin to the position of chief minister of Louis XIII was not automatic or immediate. Despite the accounts of some later historians, Richelieu did not name Mazarin as his successor. Richelieu did, according to Mazarin himself, advise the King to employ Mazarin, who until that time had no official position at court. After

13120-491: The court to the safety of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye , just west of Paris. Mazarin then set to work intriguing to divide the different factions of the Fronde. His goal was to separate the members of the Parlement and the more radical Parisian street demonstrators, who were united only by their dislike of Mazarin and Anne of Austria. As soon as the war was concluded, he brought Condé and his army back to Paris and placed

13284-597: The court underestimated Mazarin's skills, energy and determination. Mazarin continued Richelieu's costly war against the chief rivals of France in Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. The victories of Condé and Turenne finally brought Austria to the bargaining table and ended the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48) Mazarin's policies also added Alsace (though not Strasbourg ) to France. He settled Protestant princes in secularized bishoprics and abbacies in reward for their political opposition to

13448-419: The death of Richelieu, Louis XIII named three prominent figures to advise him; François Sublet de Noyers , Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny and Mazarin. Mazarin and de Chavigny immediately joined together to get rid of de Noyers. They hinted to the King that de Noyers had secretly made an agreement with Anne of Austria to make her the regent of France after the King's death. The King, who had little love for

13612-557: The decrees of Urban the Eighth, I declare that I have no intention of attributing any other than a purely human authority to the miracles, revelations, favours, and particular cases recorded in this book..." Urban VIII's military involvement was aimed less at the restoration of Catholicism in Europe than at adjusting the balance of power to favour his own independence in Italy . In 1626,

13776-831: The existence of Jesuit missions in South America by forbidding the enslavement of natives who were at the Jesuit Reductions . At the same time, Urban VIII repealed the Jesuit monopoly on missionary work in China and Japan , opening these countries to missionaries of other orders and missionary societies. In response to complaints in the Diocese of Seville , Urban VIII issued the letter Cum Ecclesiae , dated 30 January 1642, that made use of tobacco in holy places punishable by excommunication. While often described as

13940-634: The far south as well as part of the Low Countries . Towards Protestantism at home, Mazarin pursued a policy of promises and calculated delay to defuse the armed insurrection of the Ardèche (1653), for example, and to keep the Huguenots disarmed: for six years they believed themselves to be on the eve of recovering the protections of the Edict of Nantes , but in the end they obtained nothing. There

14104-463: The fictional Grantville priest, Larry Mazzare, a cardinal), and in 1635: The Cannon Law , 1635: The Papal Stakes , and 1636: The Vatican Sanction . He is somewhat less favorably presented in Galileo's Dream by Kim Stanley Robinson . He is a sinister character in the radio play In Praise of Evil by David Pownall, first broadcast on BBC Radio in 2013. The play features an imaginary meeting between

14268-472: The final part of the Thirty Years' War , was successful, but the cost was enormous. Resentment grew against the Spanish Queen and her Italian prime minister, and culminated in the Fronde , a rebellion against the government by members of the nobility and discontented citizens of Paris, which lasted from 1648 until 1653. Mazarin was forced to raise money by any means possible to support the war against

14432-473: The first evidence in support of Fred Whipple 's "dirty snowball" hypothesis for comet construction; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System, causing ices on their surfaces to sublime (change directly from a solid to a gas), and jets of volatile material to burst outward, creating the coma. Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct, though with modifications. Halley's albedo , for instance,

14596-435: The gold Florentine Florin coin. However, without the money lent by Fouquet and other aristocratic financiers, Louis XIV could never have accomplished his early military and diplomatic successes. The great rival of Fouquet was Jean-Baptiste Colbert , who was also recommended to Louis XIV and brought into the government by Mazarin. Soon after he became an assistant to Mazarin, he wrote a mémoire to Mazarin, claiming that of

14760-446: The government 98 million livres to supplement the money collected through ordinary taxes. Following the death of his first finance minister, La Vieuville, on 2 February 1653, Mazarin chose a new minister, Nicolas Fouquet . At the age of twenty-five, Fouquet had inherited a very large fortune after the death of his young first wife, and an even greater fortune when he married the second time, to Marie-Madeleine de Castille, whose family

14924-651: The historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji , which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, which were rediscovered in August 1984 in the collection of the British Museum . The apparition of 87 BC

15088-448: The inner Solar System, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by a spacecraft , Giotto , providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation. These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple 's "dirty snowball" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of

15252-685: The kitchen of the abbey. However, he did not send Mazarin on the mission that he most wanted, as delegate of France to a Europe-wide peace conference. Richelieu's attention was devoted to making war; Richelieu, who was elderly and in poor health, took the King, who was also in poor health, the court and Mazarin on a series of long military expeditions, to suppress a rebellion in Catalonia , to capture Roussillon , and, in January 1642, to lay siege to Narbonne . On 11 June 1642, while in Tarascon on one of

15416-531: The legal equality among states, have remained the basis of international law to this day. In addition to his diplomacy, Mazarin was an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian opera on a grand scale to Paris and assembled a remarkable art collection, much of which today can be seen in the Louvre . He also founded the Bibliothèque Mazarine , the first true public library in France, which

15580-502: The long and costly wars between the Habsburgs and France. Exhausted by his diplomatic efforts, Mazarin died in 1661. Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France for nearly two decades, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of the principles, such as the nation state 's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and

15744-480: The long military expeditions, Mazarin was presented with evidence that Gaston, Duke of Orléans , the brother of Louis XIII, and the Marquis of Cinq-Mars , one of the King's closest advisors, had made a secret agreement with the King of Spain, without the knowledge of Richelieu or the King. It appeared probable that the Queen, Anne of Austria, was also aware of this secret betrayal of Richelieu, but did not tell him or

15908-586: The next few tens of thousands of years, or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years. The Giotto and Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. The nucleus is a conglomerate of ices and dust , often referred to as a "dirty snowball". Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as water , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide and other ices) begin to sublimate from

16072-464: The nobility against the reduction of their ancient privileges. It was led over time by an odd assortment of allies; Gaston d'Orleans , the brother of Louis XIII; Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé a brilliant general but poor politician, and the Cardinal Paul de Gondi , a consummate intriguer. Each of them had different goals, but all agreed that Mazarin should fall. When the Fronde began,

16236-450: The numbers as to who could emerge from the conclave as pope, with Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi dismissing Barberini's chances as long as Barberini remained a close ally of Cardinal Scipione Borghese , whose faction Barberini supported. Ludovisi had discussions with Cardinals Odoardo Farnese , Carlo de' Medici and Ippolito Aldobrandini on 30 July about seeing to Barberini's election. The three supported his candidacy and went about securing

16400-637: The outer Solar System, and silicates, such as are found in terrestrial rocks. The dust particles ranged in size down to the limits of detection (≈0.001 μm). The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth's ocean water, suggesting that Halley-type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past. Subsequent observations showed Halley's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth's oceans, making such comets unlikely sources for Earth's water. Giotto provided

16564-402: The papal bull Sanctissimus Dominus Noster of 13 March 1625, Urban instructed Catholics not to venerate the deceased or represent them in the manner of saints without Church sanction. It required a bishop's approval for the publication of private revelations. Since the nineteenth century, it has become common for books of popular devotion to carry a disclaimer. One read in part: "In obedience to

16728-456: The papal territory by force of arms and advantageous politicking, and was also a prominent patron of the arts, commissioning works from artists like Gian Lorenzo Bernini and a reformer of Church missions. His papacy also covered 21 years of the Thirty Years' War . The massive debts incurred during his pontificate greatly weakened his successors, who were unable to maintain the papacy's longstanding political and military influence in Europe . He

16892-438: The people of the English. The 1145 apparition may have been recorded by the monk Eadwine . According to legend, Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the westward-seeming trajectory of the 1222 apparition. In Korea, the comet was reportedly visible during the daylight on 9 September 1222. The 1301 apparition was visually spectacular, and may be the first that resulted in convincing portraits of

17056-522: The phenomenon, such as planetary conjunctions , and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus's birth. If Yehoshua ben Hananiah 's reference to "a star which arises once in seventy years and misleads the sailors" refers to Halley's Comet, he can only have witnessed the 66 AD appearance. Another possible report comes from Jewish historian Josephus , who wrote that in 66 AD "The signs ... were so evident, and did so plainly foretell their future desolation ... there

17220-405: The plot. On 18 January 1650 Mazarin had Condé, Condé's brother, Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti and his brother-in-law, Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville arrested. The agreements of 1649 had brought peace to Paris, but the unrest of the Fronde continued in other parts of France. Opponents of Mazarin disrupted tax collection and administration. As the rebellion grew, Mazarin observed that

17384-504: The political ineptitude of Condé, who offended many of his natural allies. Mazarin urged Anne of Austria to bring him back to Paris as soon as possible, "to correct the greatest attack ever made against the royal authority". Once back in Paris, Mazarin soon made an alliance with his old enemy, Cardinal Jean François Paul de Gondi . Condé departed to Bordeaux to gather reinforcements. He raised an army of Spanish and French soldiers, and marched on Paris, arriving on 2 July. The soldiers loyal to

17548-513: The purposes of making cannon and the baldacchino in St Peter's, massive bronze girders were pillaged from the portico of the Pantheon leading to the well known lampoon: quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini, "what the barbarians did not do, the Barberini did." Urban VIII expended vast sums bringing polymaths like Athanasius Kircher to Rome and funding various substantial works by

17712-435: The range 300–400 K (27–127 °C). This suggested that only 10% of Halley's surface was active, and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat. Together, these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non- volatile materials, and thus more closely resembled a "snowy dirtball" than a "dirty snowball". The first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in

17876-519: The rebels were only united in opposition to him. He decided it was wisest to resign his position and leave France while he could. He had Condé freed from prison, and, after a long journey to different cities, settled in Brühl near Cologne , as the guest of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne. From Germany, he sent daily instructions to Anne of Austria and to his agents in France. The strategy

18040-556: The remainder of his reign. Petrus Apianus and Girolamo Fracastoro described the comet's visit in 1531, with the former even including graphics in his publication. Through his observations, Apianus was able to prove that a comet's tail always points away from the Sun. In the Sikh scriptures of the Guru Granth Sahib , the founder of the faith Guru Nanak makes reference to " a long star that has risen " at Ang 1110, and it

18204-596: The right moment to strike back. The occasion she chose was the celebration of a major victory of the French Army over the Spanish at the Battle of Lens in Belgium on 26 August 1648. On the day that a special mass was held at the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris to celebrate the victory, she gave orders to the Captain of her guards to arrest the leaders of the parlement , including the popular Pierre Broussel . News of

18368-488: The royal House of Bourbon ; Olympia Mancini married into the House of Savoy ; and Laura Martinozzi married Duke Alfonso IV d'Este of Modena. Finding money was a primary preoccupation for Mazarin throughout his entire time as first minister. His new taxes on Parisians and the nobility had provoked the first Fronde , but the end of the Fronde did not resolve the problem. The government had borrowed huge amounts to finance

18532-796: The sculptor and architect Bernini , from whom he had already commissioned Boy with a Dragon around 1617 and who was particularly favored during Urban VIII's reign. As well as several portrait busts of Urban , Urban commissioned Bernini to work on the family palace in Rome, the Palazzo Barberini , the college of the Propaganda Fide , the Fontana del Tritone in the Piazza Barberini , the baldacchino and cathedra in St Peter's Basilica and other prominent structures in

18696-470: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could not produce accurate results further back than 837 owing to a close approach to Earth in that year. It was necessary to use ancient Chinese comet observations to constrain their calculations. Halley's orbital period has varied between 74 and 80 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical , with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being

18860-579: The seventh of the Calends of May, on Tuesday after Little Easter, than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards." Chaco Native Americans in New Mexico may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs. The Italo-Byzantine chronicle of Lupus the Protospatharios mentions that

19024-708: The sky. It was recorded by astronomers in China, Japan, Germany, the Byzantine Empire, and the Middle East; Emperor Louis the Pious observed this appearance and devoted himself to prayer and penance, fearing that "by this token a change in the realm and the death of a prince are made known". In 912 AD, Halley is recorded in the Annals of Ulster , which states "A dark and rainy year. A comet appeared." In 1066,

19188-402: The solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionised by the solar ultraviolet radiation , pressure from the solar wind , a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long tail , which may extend more than 100 million kilometres into space. Changes in the flow of

19352-562: The solar wind can cause disconnection events , in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus. Despite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide and perhaps 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) thick. Based on a reanalysis of images taken by the Giotto and Vega spacecraft, Lamy et al. determined an effective diameter of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi). Its shape has been variously compared to that of

19516-534: The strategic stronghold of Pinerolo , the gate to the valley of the Po , to the great satisfaction of Richelieu and King Louis XIII of France . The Pope sent Mazarin to Paris at the beginning of 1631 to work out the final details of the agreement. He returned to France again from April to July 1632. He had his first interview with Lous XIII and with the Queen, Anne of Austria, in May 1632. He tried to persuade Louis XIII to send

19680-399: The support of others, which led to Barberini's election just over a week later. On 6 August 1623, at the papal conclave following the death of Pope Gregory XV , Barberini was chosen as Gregory XV's successor and took the name Urban VIII. His coronation had to be postponed until 29 September 1623 since the new pontiff was ill at the time of his election. Upon Pope Urban VIII's election, Zeno,

19844-416: The surface. This causes the comet to develop a coma , or atmosphere, at distances up to 230,000 kilometres (140,000 mi) from the nucleus. Sublimation of this dirty ice releases dust particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as fluorescence , whereas dust particles scatter

20008-461: The surname Halley, Colin Ronan , one of Edmond Halley's biographers, preferred / ˈ h ɔː l i / , rhyming with crawly . Spellings of Halley's name during his lifetime included Hailey , Haley , Hayley , Halley , Haly , Hawley , and Hawly , so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain, but the version rhyming with valley seems to be preferred by current bearers of the surname. Halley

20172-570: The tangled political affairs there: the regency of Christine , the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, was challenged by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy. (See Piedmontese Civil War ) Mazarin successfully secured Christine's position, and established a solid alliance between Savoy and France. This task kept him away from Paris for nine months, until June 1641. On 16 December 1641, though he had not reached his fortieth birthday, he received what he most desired, he

20336-473: The taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also accused Fouquet of using royal funds for his own enrichment. Mazarin did not defend Fouquet; shortly before his own death, he agreed that Fouquet had to go. Shortly after Mazarin's death, Fouquet was accused by Colbert of misuse of state funds, his property was confiscated, and he was put into prison until his death, with Colbert eventually taking his place. In 1645, Marie Louise Gonzaga ,

20500-598: The trust of as many decision-makers as possible. During this time he came to know Cardinal Francesco Barberini , the head of diplomacy for the papacy, and, more important, Cardinal Richelieu of France, his future mentor, whom he first met in Lyon on 29 January 1630. Richelieu was aloof and confrontational; he wrote afterwards: "This Mazarini is here more to spy than to negotiate....He is so Spanish and so Savoyard that what he says shouldn't be taken as gospel truth." Richelieu at first decided to ignore Mazarin's diplomacy and to send

20664-487: Was a fine saying of a monk of our monastery called Æthelmær. Crouching in terror at the sight of the gleaming star, "You've come, have you?", he said. "You've come, you source of tears to many mothers. It is long since I saw you; but as I see you now you are much more terrible, for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country." The Irish Annals of the Four Masters recorded the comet as "A star [that] appeared on

20828-512: Was a massive increase in papal debt. Urban VIII inherited a debt of 16 million scudi , and by 1635 had increased it to 28 million. According to contemporary John Bargrave , in 1636 members of the Spanish faction of the College of Cardinals were so horrified by the conduct of Pope Urban VIII that they conspired to have him arrested and imprisoned (or killed) so that they could replace him with

20992-532: Was a period of rebellion against monarchs across Europe; independence movements appeared in the Spanish provinces of Catalonia and Portugal , a revolutionary seized power in Naples , and Charles I of England , the brother-in-law of Louis XIII, was deposed and executed in 1649. In Paris, the members of the parlement called a special session to debate Mazarin's measures. The meeting was forbidden by Regent, Anne of Austria, but went ahead anyway. The parlement issued

21156-508: Was a star resembling a sword, which stood over the city, and a comet, that continued a whole year". This portent was in reference to the city of Jerusalem and the First Jewish–Roman War . The 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles, with observations of a bluish white comet on 27 March and 16, 22 and 23 April. The 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0.09  au of Earth. The 451 AD apparition

21320-454: Was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell, suggested a period of 52 hours. Given the irregular shape of the nucleus, Halley's rotation is likely to be complex. The flyby images revealed an extremely varied topography, with hills, mountains, ridges, depressions, and at least one crater. Halley's day side (the side facing the Sun)

21484-567: Was also a member of the Colonna family , commanded a new regiment of the Papal army, and invited Giulio to become a lieutenant in the regiment. Since neither the regiment nor Giulio had any military experience, they were assigned to a town far from the front line. Giulio knew little of military discipline. He received a message from Rome informing that his mother was seriously ill. Without asking permission from his commander, he immediately rode to Rome, and stayed there until his mother had recovered. He

21648-510: Was also an opponent of Copernicanism and was involved in the Galileo affair , which saw the astronomer tried for heresy. He is the last pope to date to take the pontifical name Urban . Maffeo Vincenzo Barberini was born in April 1568, the son of Antonio Barberini , a Florentine nobleman, and Camilla Barbadoro. He was born at Barberino Val d'Elsa in "Tafania" house. His father died when he

21812-545: Was also responsible for the king's education until he came of age. The first years of Mazarin in office were marked by military victories in the Thirty Years' War , which he used to make France the main European power and establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–1648). A major uprising against Anne of Austria and Mazarin, called the Fronde and led by the nobles of the Parlement of Paris , broke out in Paris in 1648, followed by

21976-448: Was at this time pregnant with her second child, and it was already anticipated that she would be the regent when King Louis XIII died. Mazarin advised Richelieu on both political and cultural matters. He recommended artists to bring from Rome to Paris, and in 1640 he commissioned a bust of Richelieu from the sculptor Bernini in Rome, sending Bernini pictures of Richelieu. The bust of Richelieu arrived in August 1641. Mazarin declared that it

22140-405: Was carefully orchestrated with his help. The Parlement de Paris was first transferred by Anne of Austria from Paris to Pontoise, to see how many members would accept her authority. A majority appeared at the meeting. Following the prepared plan, the Parlement respectfully asked that Mazarin be dismissed, and Anne of Austria agreed. Mazarin, knowing this was the plan, accepted this decision, and waited

22304-431: Was chosen to play the part of the newly sainted Ignatius of Loyola in a religious pageant. He also acquired the habit of gambling at cards, and was frequently in debt. A particular favourite game of his was a variant of Hoc named after him: Hoc Mazarin . When he was twenty his father decided to send him away from the bad influences of Rome. Giulio accompanied Girolamo Colonna , one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, who

22468-484: Was closely associated with some members of the Barberini family. Instead, it elected Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, who took the name of Innocent X , as his successor at the papal conclave of 1644 . Urban VIII is a recurring character in the Ring of Fire alternative history hypernovel by Eric Flint et al. where he is favorably portrayed. He is especially prominent in 1634: The Galileo Affair (in which he makes

22632-591: Was confirmed by letters patent , issued by the young Louis XIV, as duke and peer of France. Pope Urban VIII Pope Urban VIII ( Latin : Urbanus VIII ; Italian : Urbano VIII ; baptised 5 April 1568 – 29 July 1644), born Maffeo Vincenzo Barberini , was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 August 1623 to his death, in July 1644. As pope , he expanded

22796-577: Was constant friction with the pontificate of the Spanish Cardinal Pamphilj, elected pope on 15 September 1644 as Innocent X . Mazarin protected the Barberini cardinals, nephews of the late pope, and the bull against them was voted by the Parlement of Paris "null and abusive"; France made a show of preparing to take Avignon by force, and Innocent backed down. Mazarin was more consistently an enemy of Jansenism , in particular during

22960-635: Was destroyed and its duchy incorporated into the Papal States. Urban VIII was the last pope to extend the Papal territory. He fortified Castelfranco Emilia on the Mantuan frontier and commissioned Vincenzo Maculani to fortify the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. Urban VIII also established an arsenal in the Vatican, an arms factory at Tivoli and fortified the harbour of Civitavecchia . For

23124-488: Was disliked by Cardinal Barberini, the chief of Papal diplomacy, and by the large contingent of Spaniards in the papal household. He spent his time collecting sculpture and other works of art which he sent to Richelieu for the Cardinal's new palace in Paris. He considered serving the rulers of Savoy, Poland, or Queen Henriette of England, but in the end he decided to enter the service of Richelieu and France. However, Richelieu

23288-644: Was eighteen, to the Complutense University of Madrid (then located in Alcalá de Henares ) in Spain. He studied law with Girolamo during the daytime and in the evenings continued to gamble and again was in debt. A notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry , and Giulio accepted. Girolamo Colonna wrote urgently to his father in Rome, and Giulio

23452-456: Was entirely different from that of Richelieu. The contrast was described by Cardinal Retz , the future enemy of Mazarin, in his Memoires: "One saw on the steps of the throne, where the sharp and fearsome Richelieu had thundered rather than governed the people, a leader who is gentle, benevolent, and demands nothing...He has the spirit, the insinuation, the playfulness, the manners, but also a certain laziness...." Cardinal Retz and other rivals in

23616-409: Was formally made a Cardinal. He had established a cordial relationship with Richelieu; Richelieu jokingly referred to him as Rinzama (an anagram of his name), or Nunzinicardo ("dear little envoy"), or, most frequently, Colmarduccio , or Colmardo . When was asked what it meant, he translated into French as Frère Coupechou , the term for a junior candidate monk who was assigned to chop cabbage in

23780-406: Was in no hurry to bring him to Paris; he valued the diplomatic contributions Mazarin was making in Rome, as well as the art treasures he was acquiring. He kept Mazarin in Rome for two more years. Richelieu did one important favor for Mazarin; in October 1638 he put forward Mazarin's name as a candidate for Cardinal when the next vacancy opened up. In December 1638, when a sitting Cardinal died, Mazarin

23944-457: Was initially unable to completely reconcile comets into his model. Ultimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley , who, in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets , used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits. Having compiled a list of 24 comet observations, he calculated that the orbital elements of

24108-556: Was later sold to the Duke of Portland , and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase . Following catastrophic damage, this glass vase (1-25BC) has been reconstructed three times and resides in the British Museum . The Portland vase itself was borrowed and near copied by Josiah Wedgwood who appears to have added modesty drapery. The vase formed the basis of Jasperware . A consequence of these military and artistic endeavours

24272-468: Was named nuncio extraordinary to Paris by Urban VIII, and entrusted with the mission of persuading Louis XIII to undertake a grand naval crusade against the Turks. The goal was to create a combined fleet of the ships of Christian nations to seize the Turkish ports around the Mediterranean. Mazarin, a realist, knew that, given the rivalries between European powers, this project would never take place. A new crisis arrived on 19 May 1635; France declared war on

24436-504: Was nominated as a Cardinal. He had to wait the entire year of 1639 before his new position was confirmed. Then on 14 December 1639, he departed Rome for the port of Civitavecchia , boarded an armed French ship to Marseille, and then traveled from Lyon to Paris, where he arrived on 5 January 1640. When he arrived in Paris, Mazarin was welcomed warmly by the King, by Richelieu, and by the Queen, Anne of Austria , to whom Mazarin had regularly sent perfumes, fans, gloves and other gifts. The Queen

24600-477: Was one of the wealthiest in Europe. Fouquet began as a master of receipts at age twenty, then an intendant to the army, then Procuror-General for the Parlement of Paris at the age of thirty-five. Through his family connections, Fouquet had amassed a fortune of three to four million livres. One of the reasons for Fouquet's rapid rise was his willingness to lend very large sums to Mazarin for his various projects. In November 1657 Mazarin needed 11.8 million livres to pay

24764-444: Was only three years old and his mother took him to Rome , where he was put in the charge of his uncle, Francesco Barberini, an apostolic protonotary . At the age of 16, he became his uncle's heir. He was educated by the Society of Jesus ("Jesuits"), and received a doctorate of law from the University of Pisa in 1589. In 1601, Barberini, through the influence of his uncle, was able to secure from Pope Clement VIII appointment as

24928-468: Was ordered to return immediately to Rome, without his fiancée. Upon his return to Rome, he resumed his studies, this time in law. In 1628 he received the title of doctor in utroque jure , meaning he could practice both civil and canonical law . In the same year Ferdinand II , the Habsburg emperor, laid claim to a papal territory, the Valtellina , in the Italian alps. Pope Urban VIII raised an army to defend his territory. The Prince of Palestrina , who

25092-400: Was perfect, so lifelike that, as he wrote, "it seemed about to speak", but French tastes did not approve of the Baroque style. The other members of the Court condemned the work, and Mazarin wrote back to Bernini, sending him more pictures of Richelieu and asking him to try again. Richelieu sent Mazarin on several delicate diplomatic missions, including a long trip to Savoy to straighten out

25256-496: Was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen "day beyond day" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great , an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan, "a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC." Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that "Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to

25420-401: Was said to herald the defeat of Attila the Hun at the Battle of Chalons . The 684 AD apparition was reported in Chinese records as the "broom star". The 760 AD apparition was recorded in the Zuqnin Chronicle ' s entry for iyyōr 1071 SE (May 760 AD ), calling it a "white sign": The year [SE] one thousand seventy one (AD 759/760). In the month of iyyōr (May) a white sign

25584-550: Was seen in the sky, before early twilight, in the north-east [quarter], in the Zodiac [sign] which is called Aries, to the north from these three stars in it, which are very shining. And it resembled in its shape a broom [...] And the sign itself remained for fifteen nights, until dawn of the feast of Pentecost . In 837 AD, Halley's Comet may have passed as close as 0.03 astronomical units (2.8 million miles; 4.5 million kilometres) from Earth , by far its closest approach. Its tail may have stretched 60  degrees across

25748-420: Was summoned before the Pope, Urban VIII, to explain why he had deserted his post. He threw himself at the feet of the Pope, and pleaded to be pardoned for his excess of loyalty to his family. The Pope was impressed by Giulio's spontaneity and eloquence, forgave his desertion, and invited him to become a Papal emissary. In 1628 Mazarin was named the secretary to Jean-François Sacchetti, a senior papal diplomat, who

25912-440: Was the eldest of six children, two boys and four girls. Through the influence of the Colonnas, Giulio was admitted at the age of seven to the Jesuit College in Rome, the most respected school in the city. Though he declined to join their order, he excelled in his studies. In 1618, at the age of sixteen, he gave a public lecture on theories explaining Halley's comet , which appeared in that year. He also excelled in theatrics; he

26076-460: Was the first comet to be recognised as periodic. Until the Renaissance , the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle , was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproven in 1577 by Tycho Brahe , who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon . Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through

26240-456: Was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun. It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics , and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power. The comet was first named in Halley's honour by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1759. Some scholars have proposed that first-century Mesopotamian astronomers already had recognised Halley's Comet as periodic. This theory notes

26404-414: Was to sow distrust among the different factions of the Fronde. Mazarin's instructions were carried out meticulously by Anne of Austria. His intrigues succeeded in preventing the proposed marriage between one of the leading Frondeurs, the Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti with Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse , another of his principal enemies in Paris. He was greatly aided by

26568-426: Was trying to prevent the impending War of the Mantuan Succession between the armies of France and Spain for dominance of that region of northern Italy. Throughout 1629 and 1630 he shuttled between Milan, Mantua, Turin, Casale and France, trying to find a solution to the crisis before the fighting began. This became, throughout his career, his standard method of diplomacy; traveling continually, getting to know and win

26732-436: Was unable to put together enough money. Through various machinations, Mazarin and Colbert were eventually able to force Charles to pay off these debts by selling to Mazarin in 1654, the duchy of Mayenne (for 756,000 livres), and in 1659, that of Nevers (valued at 1,800,000 livres, at a discount of 1,534,675 livres), as well as the duchies of Donzy and Rethel. Thus, on 18 October 1660, less than five months before his death, Mazarin

26896-453: Was very careful not to be too critical of the French court and Richelieu, and they remained in contact. In November 1636 he left Avignon to return to Rome, carrying instructions from Richelieu that made him a discreet ambassador for the king of France. The atmosphere within the papal curia was hostile to France and to Richelieu; Spanish priests occupied many positions in the hierarchy and they considered him, with reason, an agent of France. When

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