55-508: Many, see text Telephieae D.C. Caryophyllaceae , commonly called the pink family or carnation family , is a family of flowering plants . It is included in the dicotyledon order Caryophyllales in the APG III system , alongside 33 other families, including Amaranthaceae , Cactaceae , and Polygonaceae . It is a large family, with 81 genera and about 2,625 known species . This cosmopolitan family of mostly herbaceous plants
110-410: A basal grade of rather primitive members of this family, not closely related, but simply retaining many plesiomorphic traits. Instead of a subfamily, most ought to be treated as genera incertae sedis , but Corrigiola and Telephium might warrant recognition as Corrigioleae . The Alsinoideae, on the other hand, seem to form two distinct clades , perhaps less some misplaced genera. Finally,
165-432: A food additive because they have not been verified as safe when used as food or supplement ingredients. There is no conclusive evidence that anthocyanins have any effect on human biology or diseases. In flowers, the coloration that is provided by anthocyanin accumulation may attract a wide variety of animal pollinators, while in fruits, the same coloration may aid in seed dispersal by attracting herbivorous animals to
220-433: A food colorant . Anthocyanins may be used as pH indicators because their color changes with pH; they are red or pink in acidic solutions (pH < 7), purple in neutral solutions (pH ≈ 7), greenish-yellow in alkaline solutions (pH > 7), and colorless in very alkaline solutions, where the pigment is completely reduced. Thus, more than five enzymes are required to synthesize these pigments, each working in concert. Even
275-587: A 2010 review of scientific evidence concerning the possible health benefits of eating foods claimed to have "antioxidant properties" due to anthocyanins, the European Food Safety Authority concluded that 1) there was no basis for a beneficial antioxidant effect from dietary anthocyanins in humans, 2) there was no evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between the consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods and protection of DNA , proteins , and lipids from oxidative damage , and 3) there
330-540: A book was written in French about his life and one of his greatest contributions, the Botanical Garden of Geneva . He is remembered in the plant genera Candollea and Candolleodendron , several plant species like Eugenia candolleana or Diospyros candolleana and the mushroom Psathyrella candolleana . Candollea , a scientific journal that publishes papers on systematic botany and phylotaxonomy,
385-556: A breeding program using introgression lines of genetically modified organisms (but not incorporating them in the final purple tomato) to define the genetic basis of purple coloration in wild species that originally were from Chile and the Galapagos Islands . The variety known as "Indigo Rose" became available commercially to the agricultural industry and home gardeners in 2012. Investing tomatoes with high anthocyanin content doubles their shelf-life and inhibits growth of
440-667: A century later demonstrated that "the internal biological clock" indeed exists. De Candolle's descendants continued his work on plant classification; son Alphonse and grandson Casimir de Candolle contributed to the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis , a catalog of plants begun by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born on 4 February 1778 in Geneva , Republic of Geneva , to Augustin de Candolle,
495-975: A close acquaintance of the Portuguese polymath, José Correia da Serra , who was Portuguese ambassador to Paris and who circulated in an international network of thinkers ranging from the Briton Joseph Banks to the Americans Thomas Jefferson and William Bartram , and the French scholars Antoine Laurent de Jussieu and Georges Cuvier . Correia's endorsement of the idea of emphasizing similarity and symmetry in classifying plants influenced de Candolle, who acknowledged as much in his writing. While in Montpellier , de Candolle published his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique (Elementary Theory of Botany, 1813), which introduced
550-651: A former official, and his wife, Louise Eléonore Brière. His family descended from one of the ancient families of Provence in France, but relocated to Geneva at the end of the 16th century to escape religious persecution. At age seven de Candolle contracted a severe case of hydrocephalus , which significantly affected his childhood. Nevertheless, he is said to have had great aptitude for learning, distinguishing himself in school with his rapid acquisition of knowledge in classical and general literature and his ability to write fine poetry. In 1794, he began his scientific studies at
605-502: A free-running period of leaf opening and closing of approximately 22–23 hours in constant light, significantly less than the approximate 24-hour period of the Earth's light-dark cycles. Since the period was shorter than 24 hours, he hypothesized that a different clock had to be responsible for the rhythm; the shortened period was not entrained—coordinated—by environmental cues, thus the clock appeared to be endogenous. Despite these findings,
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#1732798588718660-509: A lipophilic colorant for foods. Although anthocyanins have been shown to have antioxidant properties in vitro , there is no evidence for antioxidant effects in humans after consuming foods rich in anthocyanins. Unlike controlled test-tube conditions, the fate of anthocyanins in vivo shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically modified metabolites that are excreted rapidly. The increase in antioxidant capacity of blood seen after
715-400: A minor disruption in any of the mechanisms of these enzymes by either genetic or environmental factors, would halt anthocyanin production. While the biological burden of producing anthocyanins is relatively high, plants benefit significantly from the environmental adaptation, disease tolerance, and pest tolerance provided by anthocyanins. In anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, L -phenylalanine
770-545: A new classification system and the word taxonomy . Candolle moved back to Geneva in 1816 and in the following year was invited by the government of the Canton of Geneva to fill the newly created chair of natural history. De Candolle spent the rest of his life in an attempt to elaborate and complete his natural system of botanical classification. de Candolle published initial work in his Regni vegetabillis systema naturale , but after two volumes he realized he could not complete
825-454: A number of scientists continued to search for "factor X", an unknown exogenous factor associated with the Earth's rotation that was driving circadian oscillations in the absence of a light dark schedule, until the mid-twentieth century. In the mid-1920s, Erwin Bunning repeated Candolle's findings and came to similar conclusions, and studies that showed the persistence of circadian rhythm in
880-502: A parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the phenylpropanoid pathway. They can occur in all tissues of higher plants, including leaves , stems , roots , flowers , and fruits . Anthocyanins are derived from anthocyanidins by adding sugars. They are odorless and moderately astringent . Although approved as food and beverage colorant in the European Union, anthocyanins are not approved for use as
935-469: A post- harvest mold pathogen , Botrytis cinerea . Some tomatoes also have been modified genetically with transcription factors from snapdragons to produce high levels of anthocyanins in the fruits. Anthocyanins also may be found in naturally ripened olives , and are partly responsible for the red and purple colors of some olives. Content of anthocyanins in the leaves of colorful plant foods such as purple corn, blueberries, or lingonberries ,
990-473: A second edition in 1795. The third edition, which bears the name of both Lamarck and de Candolle, was in reality the work of the latter, the former having only lent his name and access to his collection. In 1804, de Candolle published his Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes and was granted a doctor of medicine degree by the medical faculty of Paris. Two years later, he published Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum . de Candolle then spent
1045-432: Is about ten times higher than in the edible kernels or fruit. The color spectrum of grape berry leaves may be analysed to evaluate the amount of anthocyanins. Fruit maturity, quality, and harvest time may be evaluated on the basis of the spectrum analysis. The reds, purples, and their blended combinations responsible for autumn foliage are derived from anthocyanins. Unlike carotenoids , anthocyanins are not present in
1100-492: Is best represented in temperate climates, with a few species growing on tropical mountains. Some of the more commonly known members include pinks and carnations ( Dianthus ), and firepink and campions ( Silene ). Many species are grown as ornamental plants , and some species are widespread weeds . Most species grow in the Mediterranean and bordering regions of Europe and Asia . The number of genera and species in
1155-589: Is converted to naringenin by phenylalanine ammonialyase, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, 4-coumarate CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, and chalcone isomerase. Then, the next pathway is catalyzed, resulting in the formation of complex aglycone and anthocyanin through composition by flavanone 3-hydroxylase, flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, anthocyanidin synthase , UDP-glucoside: flavonoid glucosyltransferase , and methyl transferase . The phenolic metabolic pathways and enzymes may be studied by mean of transgenesis of genes. The Arabidopsis regulatory gene in
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#17327985887181210-602: The Collège de France in 1802. Lamarck entrusted him with the publication of the third edition of the Flore française (1805–1815), and in the introduction entitled Principes élémentaires de botanique , de Candolle proposed a natural method of plant classification as opposed to the artificial Linnaean method. The premise of de Candolle's method is that taxa do not fall along a linear scale; they are discrete, not continuous. Lamarck had originally published this work in 1778, with
1265-603: The Collège de Genève , where he studied under Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher , who later inspired de Candolle to make botanical science the chief pursuit of his life. He spent four years at the Geneva Academy, studying science and law according to his father's wishes. In 1798, he moved to Paris after Geneva had been annexed to the French Republic. His botanical career formally began with the help of René Louiche Desfontaines , who recommended de Candolle for work in
1320-540: The Prodromus through his detailed, extensive research and characterization of the plant family Piperaceae . Augustin de Candolle's great-grandson, Richard Émile Augustin de Candolle , was also a botanist. Augustin de Candolle died on 9 September 1841 in Geneva , after being sick for many years. That same year, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society . In 2017,
1375-854: The Southern Hemisphere is rather small, although the family does contain Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis ), the world's southernmost dicot, which is one of only two flowering plants found in Antarctica . The name comes from Caryophyllus , an obsolete synonym of Dianthus . Despite its size and the somewhat doubtful mutual relationships, this family is rather uniform and easily recognizable. Most are herbaceous annuals or perennials , dying off above ground each year. A few species are shrubs or small trees, such as some Acanthophyllum species. Most plants are non- succulent ; i.e. having no fleshy stems or leaves. The nodes on
1430-474: The University of Edinburgh , and in the inception of Darwin's theory in 1838 he considered "the warring of the species", adding that it was even more strongly conveyed by Thomas Malthus , producing the pressures that Darwin later called natural selection . In 1839, de Candolle visited Britain and Darwin invited him to dinner, allowing the two scientists the opportunity to discuss the idea. De Candolle
1485-499: The herbarium of Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle during the summer of 1798. The position elevated de Candolle's reputation and also led to valuable instruction from Desfontaines himself. de Candolle established his first genus, Senebiera , in 1799. De Candolle's first books, Plantarum historia succulentarum (4 vols., 1799) and Astragalogia (1802), brought him to the notice of Georges Cuvier and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . de Candolle, with Cuvier's approval, acted as deputy at
1540-689: The seed coat of black soybean ( Glycine max L. Merr.) containing approximately 2 g per 100 g, in purple corn kernels and husks , and in the skins and pulp of black chokeberry ( Aronia melanocarpa L.) (see table). Due to critical differences in sample origin, preparation, and extraction methods determining anthocyanin content, the values presented in the adjoining table are not directly comparable. Nature, traditional agriculture methods, and plant breeding have produced various uncommon crops containing anthocyanins, including blue - or red-flesh potatoes and purple or red broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, and corn. Garden tomatoes have been subjected to
1595-516: The European Union, Australia, and New Zealand, having colorant code E163. In 2013, a panel of scientific experts for the European Food Safety Authority concluded that anthocyanins from various fruits and vegetables have been insufficiently characterized by safety and toxicology studies to approve their use as food additives . Extending from a safe history of using red grape skin extract and blackcurrant extracts to color foods produced in Europe,
1650-496: The German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart named a chemical compound that gives flowers a blue color, Anthokyan, in his treatise " Die Farben der Blüthen " (English: The Colors of Flowers). Food plants rich in anthocyanins include the blueberry, raspberry, black rice , and black soybean, among many others that are red, blue, purple, or black. Some of the colors of autumn leaves are derived from anthocyanins. Anthocyanins belong to
1705-939: The Silenoideae appear monophyletic at least for the most part, if some of the taxa misplaced in Alsinoideae are moved there; it may be that the name Caryophylloideae would apply for the revised delimitation. However, hybridization between many members of this family is rampant—particularly in the Silenoideae/Caryophylloideae—and some of the lineages of descent have been found to be highly complicated and do not readily yield to cladistic analysis. 102 genera are accepted. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame ) de Candolle ( UK : / k æ n ˈ d ɒ l / , US : / k ɒ̃ ˈ d ɔː l / , French: [kɑ̃dɔl] ; 4 February 1778 – 9 September 1841)
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1760-524: The South Pole and in a space lab further confirmed the existence of oscillations in the absence of environmental cues. Anthocyanins Anthocyanins (from Ancient Greek ἄνθος ( ánthos ) 'flower' and κυάνεος / κυανοῦς ( kuáneos/kuanoûs ) 'dark blue'), also called anthocyans , are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH , may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835,
1815-474: The anthocyanins. Not all land plants contain anthocyanin; in the Caryophyllales (including cactus , beets , and amaranth ), they are replaced by betalains . Anthocyanins and betalains have never been found in the same plant. Sometimes bred purposely for high anthocyanin content, ornamental plants such as sweet peppers may have unusual culinary and aesthetic appeal. Anthocyanins occur in
1870-722: The color and stability of anthocyanins. B-ring hydroxylation status and pH have been shown to mediate the degradation of anthocyanins to their phenolic acid and aldehyde constituents. Indeed, significant portions of ingested anthocyanins are likely to degrade to phenolic acids and aldehyde in vivo , following consumption. This characteristic confounds scientific isolation of specific anthocyanin mechanisms in vivo . Anthocyanins generally are degraded at higher pH. However, some anthocyanins, such as petanin (petunidin 3-[6- O -(4- O -( E )- p -coumaroyl- O -α- l -rhamnopyranosyl)-β- d -glucopyranoside]-5- O -β- d -glucopyranoside), are resistant to degradation at pH 8 and may be used effectively as
1925-442: The consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods may not be caused directly by the anthocyanins in the food, but instead by increased uric acid levels derived from metabolizing flavonoids (anthocyanin parent compounds) in the food. It is possible that metabolites of ingested anthocyanins are reabsorbed in the gastrointestinal tract from where they may enter the blood for systemic distribution and have effects as smaller molecules. In
1980-403: The discovery of an evolutionary relationship, de Candolle introduced the concept of homology . De Candolle also made contributions to the field of chronobiology . Building upon earlier work on plant circadian leaf movements contributed by such scientists as Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau , de Candolle observed in 1832 that the plant Mimosa pudica had
2035-895: The flowers of many plants, such as the blue poppies of some Meconopsis species and cultivars. Anthocyanins have also been found in various tulip flowers, such as Tulipa gesneriana , Tulipa fosteriana and Tulipa eichleri . Plants rich in anthocyanins are Vaccinium species, such as blueberry , cranberry , and bilberry ; Rubus berries, including black raspberry , red raspberry , and blackberry ; blackcurrant , cherry , eggplant (aubergine) peel , black rice , ube , Okinawan sweet potato , Concord grape , muscadine grape , red cabbage , and violet petals. Red-fleshed peaches and apples contain anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are less abundant in banana , asparagus , pea , fennel , pear , and potato , and may be totally absent in certain cultivars of green gooseberries . The highest recorded amount appears to be specifically in
2090-539: The idea of "Nature's war", which influenced Charles Darwin and the principle of natural selection . De Candolle recognized that multiple species may develop similar characteristics that did not appear in a common evolutionary ancestor; a phenomenon now known as convergent evolution . During his work with plants, de Candolle noticed that plant leaf movements follow a near-24-hour cycle in constant light, suggesting that an internal biological clock exists. Though many scientists doubted de Candolle's findings, experiments over
2145-687: The leaf throughout the growing season, but are produced actively, toward the end of summer. They develop in late summer in the sap of leaf cells, resulting from complex interactions of factors inside and outside the plant. Their formation depends on the breakdown of sugars in the presence of light as the level of phosphate in the leaf is reduced. Orange leaves in autumn result from a combination of anthocyanins and carotenoids. Anthocyanins are present in approximately 10% of tree species in temperate regions, although in certain areas such as New England , up to 70% of tree species may produce anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are approved for use as food colorants in
2200-576: The leaves from attacks by herbivores that may be attracted by green color. Anthocyanins are found in the cell vacuole, mostly in flowers and fruits, but also in leaves, stems, and roots. In these parts, they are found predominantly in outer cell layers such as the epidermis and peripheral mesophyll cells. Most frequently occurring in nature are the glycosides of cyanidin , delphinidin , malvidin , pelargonidin , peonidin , and petunidin . Roughly 2% of all hydrocarbons fixed in photosynthesis are converted into flavonoids and their derivatives, such as
2255-561: The next six summers making a botanical and agricultural survey of France at the request of the French government, which was published in 1813. In 1807, he was appointed professor of botany in the medical faculty of the University of Montpellier , where he would later become the first chair of botany in 1810. His teaching at the University of Montpellier consisted of field classes attended by 200–300 students, starting at 5:00 am and finishing at 7:00 pm. During this period, de Candolle became
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2310-608: The number at more than 550 different anthocyanins. The difference in chemical structure that occurs in response to changes in pH, is the reason why anthocyanins often are used as pH indicators, as they change from red in acids to blue in bases through a process called halochromism . Anthocyanins are thought to be subject to physiochemical degradation in vivo and in vitro . Structure, pH, temperature, light, oxygen, metal ions, intramolecular association, and intermolecular association with other compounds (copigments, sugars, proteins, degradation products, etc.) generally are known to affect
2365-614: The panel concluded that these extract sources were exceptions to the ruling and were sufficiently shown to be safe. Anthocyanin extracts are not specifically listed among approved color additives for foods in the United States; however, grape juice , red grape skin and many fruit and vegetable juices, which are approved for use as colorants, are rich in naturally occurring anthocyanins. No anthocyanin sources are included among approved colorants for drugs or cosmetics . When esterified with fatty acids, anthocyanins can be used as
2420-445: The perianth. The superior gynoecium has two to five carpels (members of a compound pistil) and is syncarpous; i.e. with these carpels united in a compound ovary. This ovary has one chamber inside the ovary. The fruit may be a utricle with a single seed or a capsule containing several seeds. Currently, Amaranthaceae and Caryophyllaceae are sister groups and considered closely related. Formerly, Caryophyllaceae were considered
2475-523: The potentially-edible fruits bearing these red, blue, or purple colors. Anthocyanins may have a protective role in plants against extreme temperatures. Tomato plants protect against cold stress with anthocyanins countering reactive oxygen species, leading to a lower rate of cell death in leaves. The absorbance pattern responsible for the red color of anthocyanins may be complementary to that of green chlorophyll in photosynthetically active tissues such as young Quercus coccifera leaves. It may protect
2530-413: The production of anthocyanin pigment 1 ( AtPAP1 ) may be expressed in other plant species. Anthocyanins have been used in organic solar cells because of their ability to convert light energy into electrical energy. The many benefits to using dye-sensitized solar cells instead of traditional p-n junction silicon cells, include lower purity requirements and abundance of component materials, as well as
2585-568: The project on such a large scale. Consequently, he began his less extensive Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824. However, he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. Even so, he was able to characterize over one hundred families of plants, helping to lay the empirical basis of general botany. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, throughout his career he also dabbled in fields related to botany, such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany, and economic botany . In 1827, he
2640-403: The sister family to all of the remaining members of the suborder Caryophyllineae because they have anthocyanins , and not betalain pigments. However, cladistic analyses indicate Caryophyllaceae evolved from ancestors that contained betalain, reinforcing betalain as an accurate synapomorphy of the suborder. This family is traditionally divided in three subfamilies: The last, however, are
2695-405: The stem are swollen. The leaves are almost always opposite, rarely whorled . The blades are entire, petiolate, and often stipulate. These stipules are not sheath-forming. The bisexual flowers are terminal, blooming singly or branched or forked in cymes . The inflorescence is usually dichasial at least in the lower parts, which means that in the axil of each peduncle (primary flower stalk) of
2750-820: The terminal flower in the cyme, two new single-flower branches sprout up on each side of and below the first flower. If the terminal flowers are absent, then this can lead to monochasia , i.e. a monoparous cyme with a single flower on each axis of the inflorescence . In the extreme, this leads to a single flower, such as in Githago or Arenaria . The flowers are regular and mostly with five petals and five sepals , but sometimes with four petals. The sepals may be free from one another or united. The petals may be entire, fringed or deeply cleft. The calyx may be cylindrically inflated, as in Silene . The stamens number five or 10 (or more rarely four or eight), and are mostly isomerous with
2805-507: Was a Swiss botanist . René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at a herbarium . Within a couple of years de Candolle had established a new genus, and he went on to document hundreds of plant families and create a new natural plant classification system. Although de Candolle's main focus was botany, he also contributed to related fields such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany, and economic botany . De Candolle originated
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#17327985887182860-608: Was also among the first to recognize the difference between the morphological and physiological characteristics of organs. He ascribed plant morphology as being related to the number of organs and their positions relative to each other rather than to their various physiological properties. Consequently, this made him the first to attempt to attribute specific reasons for structural and numerical relationships amongst organs, and thus to distinguish between major and minor aspects of plant symmetry. To account for modifications of symmetry in parts of different plants, an occurrence that could hinder
2915-540: Was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands . Augustin de Candolle was the first of four generations of botanists in the de Candolle dynasty. He married Mademoiselle Torras and their son, Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle , eventually succeeded to his father's chair in botany and continued the Prodromus . Casimir de Candolle , Augustin de Candolle's grandson, also contributed to
2970-622: Was named after de Candolle and his descendants in honor of their contribution to the field of botany. He was a mentor to the French-Mexican botanist Jean-Louis Berlandier and is credited with encouraging Marie-Anne Libert to investigate cryptogamic flora. De Candolle was the first to put forward the idea of "Nature's war", writing of plants being "at war one with another" with the meaning of different species fighting each other for space and resources. Charles Darwin studied de Candolle's "natural system" of classification in 1826 when at
3025-477: Was no evidence generally for consumption of anthocyanin-rich foods having any "antioxidant", " anti-cancer ", " anti-aging ", or "healthy aging" effects. The anthocyanins, anthocyanidins with sugar group(s), are mostly 3- glucosides of the anthocyanidins. The anthocyanins are subdivided into the sugar -free anthocyanidin aglycones and the anthocyanin glycosides. As of 2003, more than 400 anthocyanins had been reported, while later literature in early 2006, puts
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