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69-577: 45°34′19″N 122°33′32″W  /  45.572°N 122.559°W  / 45.572; -122.559 Cascade Station is a mixed-use development of a shopping center, office buildings, and hotels located in Northeast Portland, Oregon , along Airport Way and I-205 , near Portland International Airport . It features 1,325,000 square feet (123,100 m) of office space, 1,200 hotel rooms and 400,000 square feet (37,000 m) of retail space, on 120-acre (0.49 km) land. Cascade Station

138-482: A single family detached home on an entire lot. "Middle" housing options like this include duplexes , fourplexes, townhouses , and cottage court apartments which could provide options for lower and middle income individuals who cannot afford single family homes. Advocates for getting rid of single family zoning argue that by allowing housing options outside of only single family homes, more people would be able to stay in their cities without being priced out or relying on

207-593: A 1948 Supreme Court decision in Shelley v. Kraemer made them unenforceable, though they continued to be included on deeds until the 1968 Fair Housing Act deemed that illegal as well. "Single-family zoning became basically the only option to try to maintain both race and class segregation," - Jessica Trounstine (associate professor of political science at the University of California, Merced ) Sonia Hirt , professor of landscape architecture and urban planning at

276-421: A United States shopping mall is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mixed-use development Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns. However, with industrialization , governmental zoning regulations were introduced to separate different functions, such as manufacturing, from residential areas. Public health concerns and the protection of property values stood as

345-542: A catalyst for economic growth, may not serve their intended purpose if they simply shift economic activity, rather than create it. A study done by Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated (JLL) found that "90 percent of Hudson Yards' new office tenants relocated from Midtown." Some of the more frequent mixed-use scenarios in the United States are: The first large-scale attempt to create mixed-use development in Australia

414-594: A certain neighborhood. The goal of limiting certain neighborhoods to only single-family homes meant that only families who could afford to buy an entire house could live in the neighborhood. There was not the option to subdivide housing so that families who could not afford to buy the whole property could live in smaller units. After the US Supreme Court 's 1917 decision in Buchanan v. Warley , which declared explicit race-based zoning statutes unconstitutional,

483-716: A city can be impacted by mixed-use development. With the EPA putting models in the spreadsheet, it makes it much easier for municipalities, and developers to estimate the traffic, with Mixed-use spaces. The linking models also used as a resource tool measures the geography, demographics, and land use characteristics in a city. The Environmental Protection Agency has conducted an analysis on six major metropolitan areas using land usage, household surveys, and GIS databases. States such as California, Washington, New Mexico, and Virginia have adopted this standard as statewide policy when assessing how urban developments can impact traffic. Preconditions for

552-579: A combination of public and private interests, do not show a decrease in carbon emissions in comparison to metropolitan areas that have a low, dense configuration. This is possibly because hybrid metropolises are prone to attract car traffic from visitors. Due to the speculative nature of large scale real estate developments, mega-mixed-use projects often fall short on meeting equity and affordability goals. High-end residential, upscale retail, and Class A office spaces appealing to high-profile tenants are often prioritized due to their speculative potential. There

621-416: A natural incentive for homeowners and the government that likely influences policies seeking to protect property values to be as widely implemented and defended across the country as they are. Single-family zoning both increases housing costs and decreases the number of available units by reducing the number of units that can be built on a piece of land. As an example, an old, run-down, single family home on

690-415: A neighborhood, it merely allows for flexibility in options. For example, changing a single family zoning district to a multifamily residential zoning district would not mandate single family detached homes be converted, nor would it prohibit new single family homes, it would just allow owners of those single family detached homes to subdivide their property, or owners of empty lots to build something other than

759-521: A professor of city and regional planning at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill , one effect stems from the belief that higher density housing in neighborhoods decreases housing values, and that one role of the government is to keep homeowner's house values high, and because cities have prioritized single-family homeowners above other groups, this has turned city planners into wealth managers when city planners should be concerned with using zoning to prevent harm. Sonia Hirt supports this, stating, "In

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828-430: A proposal to allow fourplexes everywhere would be a more equitable proposal, and that research shows that the housing shortage is so large that limiting new housing to specific areas would not sufficiently address the shortage. In June 2023, Boise City Council unanimously approved a rewrite of the city's zoning code that allowed duplexes and cottage court homes on most of the city's residential land. Small portions of

897-417: A role in 1986 with a zoning bylaw that allowed for commercial and residential units to be mixed. At the time, Toronto was in the beginning stages of planning a focus on developing mixed-use development due to the growing popularity of more social housing. The law has since been updated as recently as 2013, shifting much of its focus outside the downtown area which has been a part of the main city since 1998. With

966-499: A shrinking supply of affordable units. Ending single family zoning is a controversial topic. Many residents and NIMBY (Not in My Backyard) advocates do not want development to increase the density of their neighborhood of exclusively single family homes. Some argue that having apartments will decrease the value of their single family homes. Some argue that upzoning initiatives will increase effects of gentrification by increasing

1035-509: A significant focus on affordable housing provisions in these plans. Mixed-use buildings can be risky given that there are multiple tenants residing in one development. Mega-mixed-use projects, like Hudson Yards , are also extremely expensive. This development has cost the City of New York over 2.2 billion dollars. Critics argue that taxpayer dollars could better serve the general public if spent elsewhere. Additionally, mixed-use developments, as

1104-618: A significant intersection in Toronto, portions of the Mirvish Village project site are zoned as "commercial residential" and others as "mixed commercial residential". Within the City of Toronto's zoning by-laws, commercial residential includes "a range of commercial, residential and institutional uses, as well as parks." Mirvish Village's programmatic uses include rental apartments, a public market, and small-unit retail, while also preserving 23 of 27 heritage houses on site. The project

1173-500: A single family home. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, multiple states including California and Oregon as well as cities like Minneapolis and Charlottesville, Virginia have signed bills, made proposals, or started investigations to effectively eliminate single-family zoning. This includes requiring cities to approve two units and under certain conditions up to four units on single-family lots for example. According to multiple sources, single-family zoning originated in 1916 in

1242-569: A strong ability to adapt to changing social and economic environments. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, New York retailers located on long, commercially oriented blocks suffered severely as they were no longer attracting an audience of passersby. By combining multiple functions into one building or development, mixed-use districts can build resiliency through their ability to attract and maintain visitors. More sustainable transportation practices are also fostered. A study of Guangzhou, China , done by

1311-765: A typical lot in Washington, DC, would sell for about $ 1 million, but if it were legal for a developer to build a three-story, six unit condominium building on that lot, those units would sell for about $ 600,000; which is 40% less per unit and 500% more units. In the 1970s, the American suburb became a new battleground for civil rights advocates. The standard American suburb was zoned to limit dense housing and rarely encouraged housing developments attainable for less affluent groups. Activists and scholars argue that these policies were borne out of racist motivations—fears of increased crime and property value degradation, as well as

1380-410: A variety of contexts, such as the following (multiple such contexts might apply to one particular project or situation): Any of the above contexts may also include parallel contexts such as: Mixed-use developments are home to significant employment and housing opportunities. Many of these projects are already located in established downtown districts, meaning that development of public transit systems

1449-493: Is "necessary as a first step in undoing a history of racist housing policies." San Francisco , where almost 75% of all land zoned residential allows only single-family homes or duplexes, is scheduled in 2021 to discuss a proposal to allow fourplexes on corner lots, and any lot within half a mile from a train station. David Garcia, policy director of the Terner Center for Housing Innovation at UC Berkeley , said that

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1518-442: Is a "lynchpin for the long-term distribution of resources," working in many ways as a replacement for the welfare state. The monetary value of the home is key not only for its own sake, but also for the quality of the education it provides access to. Additionally, home equity credit lines have become a key way for Americans to bear the cost of crises, like covering medical debt. Given the far reaching impacts of home value, this creates

1587-483: Is a type of planning restriction applied to certain residential zones in the United States and Canada in order to restrict development to only allow single-family detached homes . It disallows townhomes , duplexes , and multifamily housing (apartments) from being built on any plot of land with this zoning designation. It is a form of exclusionary zoning , and emerged as a way to keep minorities out of white neighborhoods. Single-family zoning both increases

1656-618: Is also a trend towards making residential spaces in mixed-use developments to be condominiums, rather than rental spaces. A study done by the Journal of the American Planning Association found that a focus on homeownership predominantly excludes individuals working in public services, trades, cultural, sales and service, and manufacturing occupations from living in amenity-rich city centers. Despite incentives like density bonuses, municipalities and developers rarely put

1725-535: Is also found in these districts. This development pattern is centered around the idea of "live, work, play," transforming buildings and neighborhoods into multi-use entities. Efficiency, productivity, and quality of life are also increased with regards to workplaces holding a plethora of amenities. Examples include gyms, restaurants, bars, and shopping. Mixed-use neighborhoods promote community and socialization through their bringing together of employees, visitors, and residents. A distinctive character and sense-of-place

1794-399: Is created by transforming single use districts that may run for eight hours a day (ex. commercial office buildings running 9am - 5pm) into communities that can run eighteen hours a day through the addition of cafes, restaurants, bars, and nightclubs. Safety of neighborhoods in turn may be increased as people stay out on the streets for longer hours. Mixed-use neighborhoods and buildings have

1863-434: Is expected to have minimal impact on neighborhoods, as experts estimated that it is only cost effective for 5% of single-family owners to upgrade their property. A study by the Terner Center for Housing Innovation at UC Berkeley estimated that this new law could potentially result in 700,000 new housing units statewide, about 20% of the homes necessary to alleviate the housing shortage of 3.5 million homes. In January 2021,

1932-422: Is incentivized in these regions. By taking undervalued and underutilized land, often former heavy industrial, developers can repurpose it to increase land and property values.  These projects also increase housing variety, density, and oftentimes affordability through their focus on multifamily, rather than single-family housing compounds. A more equal balance between the supply and demand of jobs and housing

2001-478: Is largely left up to judicial system, a more popular institution among Americans, rather than through municipal officials. Other academics highlight how the nature of zoning undermines the neoliberal values often seen as fundamental to the US. William Fischel, an economics professor at Dartmouth College, asserts that, from the outset of zoning policy, the protection of single-family homes from "incompatible" land use nearby

2070-582: Is notable for its public consultation process, which was lauded by Toronto city officials. Architect Henriquez and the developer had previously collaborated on mixed-use projects in Vancouver , British Columbia , including the successful Woodward's Redevelopment . In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) collaborates with local governments by providing researchers developing new data that estimates how

2139-455: Is routinely, as in the United States, considered to be so incompatible with all other types of urbanization as to warrant a legally defined district all its own, a district where all other major land uses and building types are outlawed." In many United States cities, 75% of land zoned for residential uses is zoned single-family, and across the state of California as a whole, that number is greater than 66%. Because this type of zoning reduces

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2208-457: Is simply zoned to be "General Urban," allowing for a variety of uses. Even zones that house the mansions and villas of the aristocrats focus on historical and architectural preservation rather than single family zoning. Single family zoning is also absent in Germany and Russia where zoning codes make no distinction between different types of housing. America's attachment to private property and

2277-529: Is the US's largest project to ever be financed by TIF ( tax increment financing ) subsidies. It did not require voter approval, nor did it have to go through the city's traditional budgeting process. Rather, the project is financed by future property taxes and the EB-5 Visa Program. This program provides VISAs to overseas investors in exchange for placing a minimum of $ 500,000 into US real estate. Single-family zoning Single-family zoning

2346-658: Is the answer to the housing shortage, so they see the increase in density of their neighborhood as justified. Prior to 2021, across the State of California as a whole, almost 66% of all residences were single-family homes and almost 75% of all developable land was zoned exclusively for single-family. In September 2021, governor Gavin Newsom signed Senate Bill 9 , which effectively eliminated single-family-only zoning, requiring cities to approve two units and under certain conditions up to four units on single-family lots. This law

2415-431: The 15-minute city concept. In October 2022, Ontario announced up to three units could be built on a residential property, known as More Homes, Built Faster Act , which would also prevent municipalities from setting restrictions to limit expansion. In May 2023 Toronto approved new zoning laws to accommodate up to four unit multiplexes in neighbourhoods across the city to ease its exclusionary zoning policy, starting with

2484-498: The Elmwood neighborhood of Berkeley, California , as an effort to keep minorities, specifically a Black dancehall and Chinese laundries, out of white neighborhoods. Real estate developer Duncan McDuffie was one of the early proponents of single-family zoning in this neighborhood of Berkeley to prevent a dance hall owned by a Black resident from moving into houses he was trying to sell. He worried that families of color moving into

2553-428: The University of Georgia , states that "In the early 1900s, the racially and ethnically charged private restrictions of the late nineteenth century were temporarily overshadowed by the rise of municipal zoning ordinances with the same explicit intent." Hirt says single-family zoning is a uniquely American phenomenon: "I could find no evidence in other countries that this particular form — the detached single-family home —

2622-506: The "moral corruption" that more diverse cities risked. Additionally, surrounding these homes with more like them prevented the existence of adjacent businesses that might bring types of people—primarily ethnic minorities and the poor—to the suburbs that these residents wanted to avoid. Since those excluded by these policies inherently could not afford to live in these communities, they lacked the franchise and political capital to secure enough influence to change these policies. Scholars argue that

2691-790: The Journal of Geographical Information Science, found that taxis located in regions where buildings housed a greater variety of functions had greatly reduced traveling distances. Shorter traveling distances, in turn, support the use of micro-mobility . Pedestrian and bike-friendly infrastructure are fostered due to increased density and reduced distances between housing, workplaces, retail businesses, and other amenities and destinations. Additionally, mixed-use projects promote health and wellness, as these developments often provide better access (whether it be by foot, bicycle, or transit) to farmer's markets and grocery stores. However, hybrid metropolises, areas that have large and tall buildings which accommodate

2760-443: The United States, private profit as a result of zoning ordinances that preserved and enhanced 'investment values' was not only fully expected, it was a major zoning goal." This effect is furthered by the unique reliance of Americans on homeownership and the value of such properties in securing a long-term, stable quality of life according to Monica Prasad, a professor of sociology at Northwestern University. She says that homeownership

2829-578: The amount of land available for new housing, it pushes development into poor, minority communities or to land beyond the borders of the city. Local public employees like teachers, firefighters, and police officers are often priced out of feasibly living in the communities they serve—even in municipalities that require these workers to do so. These cases are the most consistent exception to these policies that are "acceptable" to affluent residents. Housing developments in these areas designed to be affordable are frequently only granted an exception to zoning rules on

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2898-675: The bill in April 2022 and it went into effect July 27, 2022. In October 2024, the Anne Arundel County Council passed Bill No. 72-24, the Housing Attainability Act, legalizing missing middle housing in certain areas zoned for single-family homes. The bill legalizes triplexes, fourplexes, multiplexes, and stacked townhouses, which were not previously defined in the zoning code. The bill is set to take effect on July 1, 2025. In 2018, Minneapolis became

2967-508: The city council of Sacramento voted to permit up to four housing units on all residential lots to help the city reduce its housing shortage and to achieve equity goals by making neighborhoods with good schools accessible to people who cannot afford to purchase homes there. In February 2021, the City Council of Berkeley, California , voted unanimously to allow fourplexes in all neighborhoods, with Vice Mayor Lori Droste saying that this

3036-571: The city were excluded from the upzoning. The new code took effect on December 1, 2023. In April 2022, the Maine Legislature passed LD 2003, requiring cities and towns to increase housing density. It requires municipalities to allow additional units on lots zoned for single-family homes, and to allow at least one accessory dwelling unit on lots with existing single-family homes, hence ending single family zoning in Maine . The Governor signed

3105-480: The city. The antithesis to these practices came from activist and writer, Jane Jacobs , who was a major proponent of mixed-use zoning, believing it played a key role in creating an organic, diverse, and vibrant streetscape. These two figures went head-to-head during much of the 1960s. Since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as it works to combat urban sprawl and increase economic vitality. In most of Europe, government policy has encouraged

3174-522: The condition that they gave priority to those either living or working there. Even then, local concerns over affordability for existing town residents and public employees often fails to effect changes in zoning laws or the approval of new, denser, more-affordable developments due to local resistance. However, evidence suggests that larger, more heterogenous suburbs are more responsive to calls for change, likely due to an already-existing local population harmed by these policies. According to Andrew Whittemore,

3243-432: The continuation of the city center's role as a main location for business, retail, restaurant, and entertainment activity, unlike in the United States where zoning actively discouraged such mixed use for many decades. In England, for example, hotels are included under the same umbrella as "residential," rather than commercial as they are classified under in the US. France similarly gravitates towards mixed-use as much of Paris

3312-524: The cost of housing units and decreases the supply. In many United States cities, 75% of land zoned for residential uses is zoned single-family. Beginning in the late 2010's and early 2020's many cities across the United States have started looking at reforming their land-use regulations, particularly single-family zoning, in attempts to solve their housing shortages and reduce the racial inequities which arise from housing segregation . These upzoning efforts would not require that new housing types be built in

3381-637: The court in 1926 decided in Euclid v. Ambler that it was a legitimate use of the police power of cities to ban apartment buildings from certain neighborhoods, with Justice George Sutherland referring to an apartment complex as "a mere parasite" on a neighborhood. This enabled the spread of single-family zoning as a means to keep poor and minority people out of white neighborhoods. In many cases, homeowners and neighborhood associations adopted covenants to prevent homes in their neighborhood from being sold to buyers of color. Restrictive covenants were legal until

3450-531: The early 1990s, when the local government wanted to reduce the then-dominant car-oriented development style. The Metropolitan Area Express , Portland's light rail system, encourages the mixing of residential, commercial, and work spaces into one zone. With this one-zoning-type planning system, the use of land at increased densities provides a return in public investments throughout the city. Main street corridors provide flexible building heights and high density uses to enable "gathering places". Hudson Yards project

3519-652: The economic and racial diversity of neighborhoods. On July 2, 2019, the State of Oregon passed House Bill 2001 , requiring medium cities (more than 10,000 people) to allow duplexes in areas zoned for single-family homes and large cities (more than 25,000 people or more than 1,000 people if they are in the Portland metropolitan area ) to allow duplexes, triplexes, fourplexes, cottage court apartments, and townhouses in areas zoned for single-family homes. It went into effect on July 30, 2021, for medium cities and will go into effect July 30, 2022, for large cities. Almost 70% of

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3588-419: The economic segregation of living spaces deprives those in poor locales of economic opportunity and condemns them to being stuck in areas of concentrated poverty. At the same time, suburban residents get separated from racially-diverse urban areas and thus feel a decreased sense of responsibility for the issues contained there. A 2020 study from UC Berkeley stated "The greater proportion of single-family zoning,

3657-480: The first major city in the US to end single-family zoning (which had covered almost 75% of their residential land), by allowing duplexes and triplexes in every neighborhood, as well as higher-density housing along transit lines. By allowing triplexes in all neighborhoods their intention is to give all people opportunity to move to neighborhoods with good schools or jobs, as well as to increase affordability, reduce displacement of lower-income residents, and increase both

3726-500: The higher the observed level of racial residential segregation." According to Sonia Hirt, zoning, as opposed to centralized city planning favored by most other countries, grew popular in the US because of the opposition to state intervention prevalent in American politics. Zoning limits the need for bureaucrats by creating broad land-use guidelines for the private market to follow, rather than directing specific developments under centralized planning. Additionally, arbitration of disputes

3795-429: The housing costs in that area. Their argument is that homeowners will have a higher incentive to sell their properties at even higher rates because buyers or developers might be willing to pay more for houses they know they can convert into multiplexes. Those who are proponents of ending single family zoning call themselves YIMBYs (Yes in my Backyard) as a counter-movement to NIMBY sentiments. They argue that more housing

3864-797: The idea of reducing some of their exclusionary zoning rules (particularly single-family zoning) to allow for more housing affordability, where working-class Black residents have been disproportionately displaced to surrounding communities. On April 21, 2023, the State of Washington Senate passed HB 1110, which banned single-family zoning in medium to large cities statewide. The bill was signed into law by governor Jay Inslee on May 8, 2023. Gentle densification has been proposed in cities including Edmonton , where zoning laws have been unchanged for over 60 years. Upzoning would allow for different forms of development with greater density and height including semi-detached, row housing, backyard houses, and three-storey apartments. The proposed revisions help to idealize

3933-456: The initial one with new policies focused on economic and urban renewal issues. In particular, the 1988 Plan was designed in collaboration with a transport strategy and was the first to recommend higher development densities. Since then, Australian planning authorities have given greater priority to mixed-use development of inner-city industrial land as a way of revitalising areas neglected by the decline in manufacturing, consolidating and densifying

4002-423: The late 2010s, cities across the nation have started looking at reforming their land-use regulations, particularly single-family zoning, in attempts to solve their housing shortages and reduce the racial inequities which arise from housing segregation. A growing concern over " missing middle housing " developed in the United States housing market. This term refers to options in between renting apartments and buying

4071-578: The motivation behind this separation. In the United States, the practice of zoning for single-family residential use was instigated to safeguard communities from negative externalities , including air, noise, and light pollution, associated with heavier industrial practices. These zones were also constructed to alleviate racial and class tensions. The heyday of separate-use zoning in the United States came after World War II when planner and New York City Parks Commissioner , Robert Moses , championed superhighways to break up functions and neighborhoods of

4140-408: The neighborhood would decrease the desirability of the neighborhood and decrease property values. By advocating for single-family zoning, McDuffie and other developers at the time were attempting to price out social groups whom they deemed to be less desirable for the neighborhood. This makes single-family zoning one of many exclusionary zoning policies intended to limit who was able to afford living in

4209-413: The preservation of "community character" were core rationales of suburbanites for these policies. These fears align with some of the driving cultural forces behind White Flight and suburbanization, with industrialization making cities more dangerous. According to Sonia Hirt, zoning for detached single family homes in the suburbs provided upwardly mobile Whites more space to raise children in, and prevented

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4278-412: The previously underpopulated urban centres. This new urban planning approach has had a significant impact on the use of land parcels in major Australian cities: according to 2021 data from Australian Bureau of Statistics , mixed zoning already suppose more than 9% of new housing approvals. One of the first cities to adopt a policy on mixed-use development is Toronto . The local government first played

4347-501: The regulations in place, the city has overseen the development of high-rise condominiums throughout the city with amenities and transit stops nearby. Toronto's policies of mixed-use development have inspired other North American cities in Canada and the United States to bring about similar changes. One example of a Toronto mixed-use development is Mirvish Village by architect Gregory Henriquez . Located at Bloor and Bathurst Street ,

4416-404: The state (approximately 2.8 million people) lives in a city affected by the bill, and most of those live in a city affected by the provisions for large cities. In December 2023, Austin, Texas ' city council voted to allow up to three homes on every lot, effectively ending single-family zoning in the city. In August 2021, Charlottesville, Virginia 's planning commission started investigating

4485-408: The success of mixed-use developments are employment, population, and consumer spending . The three preconditions ensure that a development can attract quality tenants and financial success. Other factors determining the success of the mixed-use development is the proximity of production time, and the costs from the surrounding market. Mixed-use zoning has been implemented in Portland, Oregon , since

4554-554: The traditional 1950s suburban home, as well as deep racial and class divides, have marked the divergence in mixed-use zoning between the continents. As a result, much of Europe's central cities are mixed use "by default" and the term "mixed-use" is much more relevant regarding new areas of the city where an effort is made to mix residential and commercial activities – such as in Amsterdam's Eastern Docklands . Expanded use of mixed-use zoning and mixed-use developments may be found in

4623-427: Was "paramount." While many suburbanites would identify the class mobility represented by a move out to the suburbs as a manifestation of success in the free market, they sought legal protection of their neighborhoods from commercial or high-density residential developments. He notes that early legal court cases regarding zoning policies led to anti-regulation judges ruling strongly in favor of empowering zoning laws. In

4692-449: Was proposed in 2001. Because of the timing of the project's announcement (September 10, 2001) and the recession that followed, the project stalled for several years and the streets built for it remained mostly empty. In 2005, IKEA signed on as the shopping center's first tenant giving the project the boost it needed for construction to begin. The 280,000-square-foot (26,000 m) IKEA store opened on July 25, 2007. This article about

4761-670: Was the Sydney Region Outline Plan , a plan that identified Sydney 's need to decentralise and organise its growth around the metropolitan area. Its main objective was to control the city's rapid post-war population growth by introducing growth corridors and economic centres that would help prevent uncontrolled sprawl and the overuse of the car as a means of transport Several city centres such as Parramatta or Campbelltown benefited from these policies, creating economic hubs with his own inner-city amenities along Sydney's main thoroughfares. Subsequent plans complemented

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