Ongoing low-level violence
96-436: [REDACTED] [REDACTED] MFDC [REDACTED] Abdou Diouf (1982–2000) [REDACTED] Abdoulaye Wade (2000–2012) [REDACTED] Macky Sall (from 2012) [REDACTED] João Bernardo Vieira (1998–1999) The Casamance conflict is an ongoing low-level conflict that has been waged between the Government of Senegal and the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) since 1982. On May 1, 2014,
192-640: A MFDC meeting near Ziguinchor. On December 18, 1983, militants with weapons marched in Ziguinchor. This demonstration turned violent, with many casualties. Following this attack, the Senegalese government drove the MFDC underground into the forests. This caused the MDFC to form a more radicalized, armed wing that engaged in guerrilla combat against the Senegalese army and symbols of statehood in 1985. The armed wing
288-481: A Serer kingdom, his body was dragged out of the country and left for the vultures to feast on if there is no family or friend to claim the body and bury it elsewhere. They were also never accompanied by grave goods . No matter how long a Mauritanian Moor has lived in the area as a migrant, he could never achieve high status within the Serer aristocracy. The best position he could ever wish for within Serer high society
384-553: A bank robbery perpetrated by the MFDC in the town of Kafoutine; the rebels stole a total of $ 8,400. On 1 May 2014, one of the leaders of the MFDC, Salif Sadio, sued for peace and declared a unilateral ceasefire after secret talks held at the Vatican between his forces and the Government of Senegal led by Macky Sall. Sadio consequently lost much power among MFDC, with much of the movement no longer regarding him as leader. In 2016,
480-483: A clash 50 kilometers (31 mi) north of Ziguinchor . The Senegalese government blamed the conflict on separatists in the region on February 14, 2012. Two attacks occurred on 11 and 23 March 2012, leaving 4 soldiers killed and 8 injured. Since April 2012, peace in the Casamance has been a top priority for the administration of Senegalese President Macky Sall . On 3 February 2013, four people were killed during
576-511: A new flag, designed with a different geometrical arrangement of the elements of the flag adopted in 1983. The flag is horizontally divided green-yellow with a red triangle placed along the hoist, charged with a white star tilted to the upper hoist. Serer people The Serer people ( Serer proper : Seereer or Sereer ) are a West African ethnoreligious group . They are the third-largest ethnic group in Senegal, making up 15% of
672-520: A presidential election resulted in the surprise defeat of Yahya Jammeh who had ruled the Gambia autocratically since 1994. He refused to accept his defeat, leading to a constitutional crisis . The Economic Community of West African States responded with a military intervention in 2017 during which MFDC rebels supported pro-Jammeh forces. Jammeh ultimately fled, resulting in Adama Barrow becoming
768-477: A sedentary settled culture and have been known for their farming expertise and transhumant stock-raising. The Serer people have been historically noted as an ethnic group practicing elements of both matrilineality and patrilineality that long resisted the expansion of Islam. They fought against jihads in the 19th century, and subsequently opposed the French colonial rule. In the 20th century, most of
864-515: A standard couscous . The Serer traditional attire is called Serr . It is normally woven by Serer men and believed to bring good luck among those who wear it. Marriages are usually arranged. In the event of the death of an elder, the sacred "Gamba" (a big calabash with a small hollow-out) is beaten followed by the usual funeral regalia to send them off to the next life. Senegalese wrestling called "Laamb" or Njom in Serer originated from
960-414: A title of honour. According to some, the history of this position goes back to an early Moor in Serer country who had a child by his own daughter. Serers and Toucouleurs are linked by a bond of "cousinage". This is a tradition common to many ethnic groups of West Africa known as Maasir (var : Massir ) in Serer language ( Joking relationship ) or kal , which comes from kalir (a deformation of
1056-462: Is a favourite pastime for Senegalese and Gambians alike. "The Serer people are known especially for their rich knowledge of vocal and rhythmic practices that infuse their everyday language with complex overlapping cadences and their ritual with intense collaborative layerings of voice and rhythm." Ali Colleen Neff The Sabar (drum) tradition associated with the Wolof people originated from
SECTION 10
#17327764019821152-406: Is a matter of conjecture. Although matrilineality ( tim in Serer ) is very important in Serer culture, the Serer follow a bilineal system. Both matrilineality and patrilineality are important in Serer custom. Inheritance depends on the nature of the asset being inherited. That is, whether the asset is a maternal ( ƭeen yaay ) or paternal ( kucarla ) asset. The hierarchical highest status among
1248-587: Is also a recent phenomenon among some Serers. For the Serer, the soil (where their ancestors lay in rest) is very important to them and they guard it with jealousy. They have a legal framework governing every aspect of life, even land law , with strict guidelines. Apart from agriculture (and other forms of production or occupation such as animal husbandry, fishing especially among the Serer-Niominka , boat building, etc.), some occupations , especially trade, they viewed as vulgar, common and ignoble. Hence in
1344-429: Is called Chere (or saay) in the Serer language (pounded coos). They control all the phases of this dish from production to preparation. Other ethnic groups (or Serers), tend to buy it from Serer women market traders or contract it out to them especially if they are holding major ceremonial events. Chere is very versatile and can be eaten with fermented milk or cream and sugar as a breakfast cereal or prepared just as
1440-471: Is called a ƭat Roog ('the way of the Divine'). It believes in a universal Supreme Deity called Roog (var : Rog ). The Cangin-language speakers refer to the supreme being as Koox . Serer religious beliefs encompasses ancient chants and poems; veneration and offerings to Serer gods, goddesses, and the pangool ( ancestral spirits and saints ); astronomy ; rites of passage ; medicine ; cosmology ; and
1536-408: Is just a sample of the power of the bur kevel who was also a member of the griot caste. The slave castes continue to be despised, they do not own land and work as tenant farmers, marriage across caste lines is forbidden and lying about one's caste prior to marriage has been a ground for divorce. The land has been owned by the upper social strata, with the better plots near the villages belonging to
1632-457: Is part of the national curriculum of Senegal. Historically the Serer people's unwillingness to trade directly during the colonial era was a double edged sword to the Serer language as well as the Cangin languages . That resulted in the Wolof language being the dominant language in the market place as well as the factories. However, the Serer language, among other local languages, is now part of
1728-459: Is that the Serer people have retained a matrilineal inheritance system. According to historian Martin A. Klein the caste systems among the Serer emerged as a consequence of the Mandinka people's Sine-Saloum guelowar conquest, and when the Serer people sought to adapt and participate in the new Senegambian state system. The previously held view that the Serer only follow a matrilineal structure
1824-488: Is the southern region of Senegal which, although connected in the East, is separated from the rest of Senegal. The Gambia divides Senegal along nearly 300 kilometers by a width of 50 kilometers. Casamance contains two administrative regions named for their capitals: Ziguinchor to the west and Kolda to the east. The Ziguinchor region has been the most affected by the conflict, where it was initially confined. Beginning in 1995,
1920-479: The Mandinka cleric Ma Ba Jaxoo. The inter-ethnic wars involving the Serer continued till 1887, when the French colonial forces conquered Senegal. Thereafter, the conversion of the Serer people accelerated. By the early 1910s, about 40% of the Serer people had adopted Islam, and by the 1990s about 85% of them were Muslims. Most of the newly converted Serer people have joined Sufi Muslim Brotherhoods, particularly
2016-501: The Mouride and Tijaniyyah Tariqas. The Serer practice trade, agriculture, fishing, boat building and animal husbandry. Traditionally the Serer people have been farmers and landowners. Although they practice animal husbandry , they are generally less known for that, as in the past, Serer nobles entrusted their herds to the pastoralist Fula, a practice that continues today. However, they are known for their mixed-farming. Trade
SECTION 20
#17327764019822112-428: The Serer ethnic group. The first proposal for the autonomy of Casamance emerged under French rule. In the late 1970s, a separatist movement first developed in Casamance. Political frustrations mounted from the lack of economic growth for Casamançais people. One of the recurring themes was that Northerners dominated the economy of the region. The administration in Ziguinchor was dominated by Northerners, predominantly of
2208-552: The Serer-Laalaa (sometimes known as "Laa", "La" or "Lâ" or just "Serer"). Each group speaks Serer or a Cangin language . "Serer" is the standard English spelling. "Seereer" or "Sereer" reflects the Serer pronunciation of the name and are spellings used mostly by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars. The meaning of the word "Serer" is uncertain. Issa Laye Thiaw views it as possibly pre-Islamic and suggests four possible derivations: Professor Cheikh Anta Diop , citing
2304-757: The Toucouleur people in the Senegal River valley area. Serer people resisted Islamization and later Wolofization from possibly the 11th century during the Almoravid movement. They migrated south where they intermixed with the Diola people . After the Ghana Empire was sacked as certain kingdoms gained their independence, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar , leader of the Almoravids , launched a jihad into
2400-610: The Wolof kingdoms , such as Jolof , Waalo , Cayor and Baol. The Kingdom of Baol was originally an old Serer Kingdom ruled by the Serer paternal dynasties, such as Joof family , the Njie family, etc. and the Wagadou maternal dynasty prior to the Battle of Danki in 1549. The Faal (var: Fall) paternal dynasty of Cayor and Baol that ruled after 1549 following the Battle of Danki were originally Black Moors ( Naari Kajoor ). Prior to
2496-531: The history of the Serer people . In contemporary times, about 85% of the Serers are Muslim, while others are Christian. Some Serer still follow Serer spiritual beliefs. According to James Olson , professor of History specializing in Ethnic Group studies, the Serer people "violently resisted the expansion of Islam" by the Wolof people in the 19th century. They were a target of the 1861 jihad led by
2592-426: The oral tradition through songs and music. Of these, all castes had a taboo in marrying a griot, and they could not be buried like others. Below the artisan castes in social status have been the slaves, who were either bought at slave markets, seized as captives, or born to a slave parent. The view that the jambur (or jambuur ) caste were among the lower echelons of society is a matter of debate. The jaraff , who
2688-404: The 1990s, but none lasted, often also due to splits within the MFDC along ethnic lines and between those ready negotiate and those who refused to lay down their weapons. In 1992 the MFDC divided into two main groups, Front Sud and Front Nord. Whereas Front Sud was dominated by Jola and called for full independence, Front Nord included both Jola as well as non-Jola tribesmen and was ready to work with
2784-586: The April 2012 election of Macky Sall . Peace negotiations under the auspices of Saint Egidio community took place in Rome and on 14 December 2012, President Sall announced that Casamance would be a test-case for advanced decentralization policy. The distinct regional identity of the Casamance region has contributed to separatist arguments that distinguish the region and its people from the North. The Casamance region
2880-501: The Casamance conflict. Though Senegal was colonized by France in the nineteenth century, Portugal was the first European country to make contact with the country. Portuguese administration was established in Ziguinchor in 1645 and remained until 1888. In the period which followed, French, Portuguese, and British powers competed for influence in the area. After French colonial rule was established, French Catholic missionaries concentrated their efforts among Jola in lower Casamance, along with
2976-634: The Faal dynasty of Cayor and Baol , these two kingdoms were ruled by the Serer people with the patrilineages "Joof" or Diouf , Faye and Njie, and the maternal lineage of Wagadou – members of the royal families from the Ghana Empire (proper "Wagadou Empire") who married into the Serer aristocracy. All the kings that ruled Serer Kingdoms had Serer surnames, with the exception of the Mboge and Faal paternal dynasties whose reigns are very recent. They did not provide many kings. The Serer traditional religion
Casamance conflict - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-436: The Gambia's president; he was known as being close to Macky Sall, meaning that the MFDC lost an important foreign ally. Members of the group were suspected of being behind an ambush that left 13 people dead near the town of Ziguinchor on 6 January 2018. Leaders of the MFDC, however, have denied responsibility for the execution-style killing, which they say was connected with the illegal harvesting of teak wood and rosewood from
3168-721: The Gambian "Kombo". The Serer (also known as "Seex" or "Sine-Sine") occupy the Sine and Saloum areas (now part of modern-day independent Senegal). The Serer people include the Seex (Serer or Serer-Sine ), Serer-Noon (sometimes spelt "Serer-None", "Serer-Non" or just Noon ), Serer-Ndut (also spelt "N’doute"), Serer-Njeghene (sometimes spelt "Serer-Dyegueme" or "Serer-Gyegem" or "Serer-N'Diéghem"), Serer-Safene , Serer-Niominka , Serer-Palor (also known as "Falor", "Palar", "Siili", "Siili-Mantine", "Siili-Siili", "Waro" or just "Serer"), and
3264-408: The Gambian border supported by heavy weapons, such as mortars and machine guns. They were repulsed with several casualties by Senegalese soldiers who suffered seven dead in the engagement. On 21 December 2011, Senegal media reported that 12 soldiers were killed in Senegal's Casamance region following a separatist rebel attack on an army base near the town of Bignona. Three soldiers were killed during
3360-562: The MFDC and the government which promised to provide the voluntary integration of MFDC fighters into the country's paramilitary forces, economic recovery programmes for Casamance, de-mining and aid to returning refugees. Nevertheless, some hard-line factions of the MFDC soon defected from elements of the MFDC who had signed the agreement and no negotiations took place following the breakdown of talks in Foundiougne on 2 February 2005. Fighting again emerged in 2010 and 2011 but waned following
3456-609: The MFDC transforming into a political party, but the talks were hindered by the MFDC's factionalism, and the refusal of the Senegalese government to even consider Casamance's independence. As result, the peace talks collapsed in November 2000, with MFDC leader Augustin Diamacoune Senghor declaring that his group would continue to fight until achieving independence. A new ceasefire was agreed to in March 2001, but failed to stop
3552-595: The MFDC's armed wing. On 9 June 2009, radical MDFC militants killed a former MFDC member, who at the time was serving as a peace process mediator. In October 2010, an illegal shipment of arms from Iran was seized in Lagos , Nigeria . The Senegalese government suspected that the arms were destined for the Casamance, and recalled its ambassador to Tehran over the matter. Heavy fighting occurred in December 2010 when about 100 MDFC fighters attempted to take Bignona south of
3648-411: The MFDC, which was officially founded in 1982. This initial movement managed to unite Jola and other ethnic groups in the region, such as Fulani , Mandinka and Bainuk , and led to rising popular resistance against the government and northerners. On December 26, 1982, several hundred protesters gathered in Ziguinchor despite the arrest of most of the demonstration's leaders. This peaceful demonstration
3744-578: The Sahara." Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar -speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has clouded the origins of shared "terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices." If one is to believe the economist and demographer Étienne Van de Walle who gave a slightly later date for their ethnogenesis, writing that "The formation of
3840-492: The Senegalese military launched another counter-insurgency operation, this time in the area around Badème . Its aim was to close the border to Guinea-Bissau for the rebels and reduce wood as well as drug smuggling, and the army claimed to have captured several MFDC posts and bases. In January 2022, MFDC rebels attacked Senegalese soldiers operating as part of the ECOWAS mission in the Gambia, killing four and capturing seven. Though
3936-485: The Senegalese population. They are also found in northern Gambia and southern Mauritania . The Serer people originated in the Senegal River valley, at the border of present-day Senegal and Mauritania, and moved south in the 11th and 12th century. They migrated again in the 15th and 16th centuries as their villages were invaded and they were subjected to religious pressures from Islamic forces. They have had
Casamance conflict - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-575: The Sereer ethnicity goes back to the thirteenth century, when a group came from the Senegal River valley in the north fleeing Islam, and near Niakhar met another group of Mandinka origin, called the Gelwar, who came from the southeast (Gravrand 1983). The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system". Their own oral traditions recite legends that relate their being part of, or related to
4128-626: The Serer Kingdom of Sine and spread to the Kingdom of Saloum . The Wolof people who migrated to Serer Saloum picked it up from there and spread it to Wolof Kingdoms. Each motif has a purpose and is used for different occasions. Individual motifs represent the history and genealogy of a particular family and are used during weddings, naming ceremonies, funerals etc. The Njuup (progenitor of Mbalax ) and Tassu traditions (also Tassou ) ( progenitor of rap music ) both originated from
4224-473: The Serer Kingdom of Sine . It was a preparatory exercise for war among the warrior classes. That style of wrestling (a brutal and violent form) is totally different from the sport wrestling enjoyed by all Senegambian ethnic groups today, nevertheless, the ancient rituals are still visible in the sport version. Among the Serers, wrestling is classified into different techniques and each technique takes several years to master. Children start young trying to master
4320-530: The Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were incorporated into independent Senegal, which had gained its independence from France in 1960. The Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum are two of the few pre-colonial African kingdoms whose royal dynasty survived up to the 20th century. Serer kingdoms included the Kingdom of Sine and the Kingdom of Saloum. In addition to these twin Serer kingdoms, the Serer ruled in
4416-408: The Serer converted to Islam ( Sufism ), but some are Christians or follow their traditional religion . The Serer society, like other ethnic groups in Senegal, has had social stratification featuring endogamous castes and slaves. Other historians, such as Thiaw, Richard and others, believe that the Serer did not maintain a slave culture, or at least not to the same extent as other ethnic groups in
4512-533: The Serer people has been those of hereditary nobles and their relatives, which meant blood links to the Mandinka conquerors. Below the nobles, came tyeddo , or the warriors and chiefs who had helped the Mandinka rulers and paid tribute. The third status, and the largest strata came to be the jambur , or free peasants who lacked the power of the nobles. Below the jambur were the artisan castes, who inherited their occupation. These castes included blacksmiths, weavers, jewelers, leatherworkers, carpenters, griots who kept
4608-606: The Serer people. The Tassu was used when chanting ancient religious verses. The people would sing then interweave it with a Tassu. The late Serer Diva Yandé Codou Sène who was the griot of the late and former president of Senegal ( Leopold Sedar Senghor ) was proficient in the "Tassu". She was the best Tassukat (one who Tassu) of her generation. Originally religious in nature, the griots of Senegambia regardless of ethnic group or religion picked it up from Serer religious practices and still use it in different occasions e.g. marriages, naming ceremonies or when they are just singing
4704-461: The Serer word kucarla meaning paternal lineage or paternal inheritance). This joking relationship enables one group to criticise another, but also obliges the other with mutual aid and respect. The Serers call this Maasir or Kalir . This is because the Serers and the Toucouleurs are related – according to Wiliam J. foltz "Tukulor are a mixture of Fulani and Serer" The Serers also maintain
4800-520: The Serer word "Kalir" a deformation of "kurcala" which means paternal lineage or inheritance and is used exactly in that context by many Senegambians. The word gamo derives from the old Serer word gamohu – an ancient divination ceremony. Most people who identify themselves as Serer speak the Serer language . This is spoken in Sine-Saloum , Kaolack , Diourbel , Dakar , and in Gambia , and
4896-734: The Serer-Palor occupy the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area. The Serer people are diverse. Although they lived throughout the Senegambia region, they are more numerous in places such as old Baol , Sine , Saloum and in The Gambia , which was a colony of the Kingdom of Saloum. There they occupy parts of old "Nuimi" and "Baddibu" as well as
SECTION 50
#17327764019824992-469: The Serers who were the victims of Islamic jihads and enslavements did not participate much in slavery and when they do, it was merely in revenge. This view is supported by scholars such as François G. Richard who posits that: The Serer ethnic group is rather diverse, and as Martin A. Klein notes, the institution of slavery did not exist among the Serer-Noon and N'Dieghem. The Serer's favourite food
5088-615: The Sikoun faction, even though Diatta maintained his own following. There was a general lull in fighting during 2020. However, an ally of Senegalese President Macky Sall, Umaro Sissoco Embaló , became President of Guinea-Bissau in that year, resulting in an increased cooperation of the countries. On 26 January 2021 , the Armed Forces of Senegal began an offensive against the MFDC factions of Sané and Diatta. The operation included 2,600 infantry, 11 Panhard AMLs , as well as artillery, and
5184-558: The Sine-Salum, their present habitat." Other historians such as R. G. Schuh have refuted Diop's thesis. Professor Dennis Galvan writes that "The oral historical record, written accounts by early Arab and European explorers, and physical anthropological evidence suggest that the various Serer peoples migrated south from the Fuuta Tooro region (Senegal River valley) beginning around the eleventh century when Islam first came across
5280-469: The Wolof ethnic group. Zinginchor and coastal areas underwent developmental expropriations, and many local officials from the northern regions gave relatives and clients access to land. This resulted in protests in Ziguinchor and Cap Skirring . In the 1980s, resentment about the marginalization and exploitation of Casamance by the Senegalese central government gave rise to an independence movement in form of
5376-402: The area also harbors Mandinka , Mankanya , Pulaar (a Fula group), Manjak , Balanta , Papel , Bainuk , and a small minority of Wolof . By contrast, the Wolof are the overall largest ethnic group in Senegal, dominating the north. The sentiment has existed amongst Jola that they do not benefit sufficiently from the region's richness and that Dakar , the capital, reaps most of the profit from
5472-544: The army continued in 2006, prompting thousands of civilians to flee across the border to the Gambia. At the same time, the MFDC factions of Sadio and Badiatte also fought each other. On 13 January 2007, Senghor died in Paris . His death hastened the split of the MDFC, which divided into three major armed factions, led by Salif Sadio, Caesar Badiatte, and Mamadou Niantang Diatta respectively. In addition, several smaller groups also emerged later on. Sadio claimed overall leadership of
5568-515: The basics before moving on to the more advance techniques like the "mbapatte" , which is one of the oldest techniques and totally different from modern wrestling. Yékini (real name: "Yakhya Diop"), who is a professional wrestler in Senegal is one of the top wrestlers proficient in the "mbapatte" technique. Lamba and sabar ( musical instruments ) are used as music accompaniments in wrestling matches as well as in circumcision dances and royal festivals. Serer wrestling crosses ethnic boundaries and
5664-410: The colonial era probably due to anti-Serer sentiments ) has now been discarded as there is nothing in the Serer oral tradition that speaks of a military conquest, but a union based on marriage. A marriage between the noble Guelowar maternal clan and the noble Serer patriclans . This view is supported by Senegalese historians and writers such as Alioune Sarr , Biram Ngom and Babacar Sédikh Diouf . With
5760-435: The colonial era, especially among the Serer nobles, they would hire others to do the trading on their behalf (e.g. Moors) acting as their middlemen. The Serer people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, like many West African ethnic groups with castes . The mainstream view has been that the Mandinka (or Malinka) Guelowars of Kaabu conquered and subjugated the Serer people. That view (propelled during
5856-541: The conflict spread into the Kolda region, largely affecting the department of Sédhiou . The region's terrain differs from that of the northern Sahel landscape. Casamance terrain is filled with rivers, forests, and mangrove swamps. The principal inhabitants of the region are members of the Jola (Djiola, Diola) ethnic group, although they are overall a minority if all other ethnic groups of Casamance are combined. Besides Jola,
SECTION 60
#17327764019825952-404: The conflict. Meanwhile, internal divisions deepened among the MFDC about the movement's aims and Senghor's leadership. On 30 December 2004, the two sides of the conflict signed a truce, which lasted until August 2006. Since the split, low-level fighting has continued in the region. Another round of negotiations took place in 2005. Its results proved partial, and armed clashes between the MFDC and
6048-569: The exception of Maysa Wali , this would explain why none of the kings of Sine and Saloum (two of the Serer precolonial kingdoms) bore Mandinka surnames, but Serer surname throughout the 600 years reign of the Guelwar maternal dynasty. The Serer noble patriclans simply married Guelowar women, and their offsprings bearing Serer surnames reigned in Sine and Saloum. The Guelowars also viewed themselves as Serer and assimilated in Serer culture. The alliance
6144-620: The first time, causing numerous civilian casualties and the displacement of 20,000 people along the Senegal–Guinea-Bissau border. From then on, fighting mostly took place in the eastern Kolda Region . Another attempt at peace talks started in December 1999, with Senegalese and MFDC representatives meeting in Banjul . Both sides agreed to a ceasefire. By the end of the 1990s, the MFDC had made little progress in both its diplomatic as well as militant attempts at furthering its cause. In addition,
6240-485: The following MFDC-sympathetic regime was also overthrown in May 1999. Meanwhile, tensions within the MFDC resulted in rebel leader Salif Sadio killing 30 of his rivals; however, one of his main opponents among the insurgents, Caesar Badiatte, survived an assassination attempt. In a renewed offensive against the separatists between April and June 1999, the Senegalese military shelled Casamance's de facto capital Ziguinchor for
6336-489: The forested region, not the gathering of firewood. By 2020, most MFDC factions, including those of Badiate and Sadio, were still upholding ceasefires. In April of that year, tensions in the MFDC's Sikoun faction operating in the Goudomp Department resulted in a split. Diatta, until then leader of the faction, fell under suspicions of being in contact with the government. Adama Sané consequently assumed command of
6432-467: The government based on a failed agreement of 1991. Another ceasefire in 1993 led to the break-off of hardline rebel groups from the MFDC. These continued to attack the military. In 1994, Yahya Jammeh took power in the Gambia through a coup d'état . Jammeh would start to provide the MFDC with substantial support, and was even known to recruit MFDC fighters into the Gambian military, reportedly since they were more inclined to be loyal to Jammeh's regime than
6528-484: The government expressed hope that other MFDC groups would join the agreement. Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance The Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance ( French : Mouvement des forces démocratiques de Casamance ; MFDC ) is the main separatist movement in the Casamance region of Senegal , founded in 1982. It was supported by Guinea-Bissau President João Bernardo Vieira until he
6624-456: The hardline Diakaye faction of Fatoma Coly (which supports Sané and Diatta) nor the groups of Sadio and Badiatte had been targeted. However, security analyst Andrew McGregor argued that the ease with which the Senegalese military had overrun the MFDC bases during the offensive pointed at the separatists having become extremely weak. He concluded that "the movement has clearly lost any broad support it might have once enjoyed". From May to June 2021,
6720-425: The king to the battlefield and recount the glory or bravery of his ancestors in battle. They retain and pass down the genealogy and family history of the king. The bur Kevel could make or break a king, and destroy the entire royal dynasty if they so wish. The abdication of Fakha Boya Fall from the throne of Saloum was led and driven by his own bur kevel. After being forced to abdicate, he was chased out of Saloum. During
6816-409: The leader of the MFDC sued for peace and declared a unilateral ceasefire. The MFDC has called for the independence of the Casamance region, whose population is religiously and ethnically distinct from the rest of Senegal. The bloodiest years of the conflict were during the 1992–2001 period and resulted in over a thousand battle related deaths. On December 30, 2004, an agreement was reached between
6912-458: The national curriculum of Senegal. About 200,000 Serer speak various Cangin languages , such as Ndut and Saafi , which are not closely related to Serer proper ( Serer-Sine language ). There are clear lexical similarities among the Cangin languages. However, they are more closely related to other languages than to Serer, and vice versa. For comparison in the table below, 85% is approximately
7008-408: The nobles. The social status of the slave has been inherited by birth. Serer religion and culture forbids slavery. "To enslave another human being is regarded as an enslavement of their soul thereby preventing the very soul of the slave owner or trader from entering Jaaniiw – the sacred place where good souls go after their physical body has departed the world of the living. In accordance with
7104-555: The party's reputation as a genuine separatist forces started to suffer, as it became evident that many MFDC commanders were less motivated by politics and more by money in their insurgency. Several would accept ceasefires with the Senegalese government as long as they received rewards by the authorities. Peace talks resumed in January 2000, with both sides attempting to end the military conflict and aiming at restoring political and economic normality to Casamance. Discussions were held about
7200-425: The peace deal and continued their fighting. This division has deeply divided Casamance's independence movement. The movement was rumored to have involved itself militarily in the 2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis and the subsequent ECOWAS military intervention in the Gambia on Yahya Jammeh 's side. [REDACTED] Since 2013 photos indicate that the MDFC - or, at least one of its armed branches - uses
7296-576: The people of the Gambia. The Senegalese military relocated thousands of soldiers from the northern provinces to Casamance in 1995 in an attempt to finally crush the uprising. The northern soldiers often mistreated the local population and did not differentiate between those who supported the rebels and government loyalists. By this time, the rebels had established bases in Guinea-Bissau , reportedly being supplied with arms by Bissau-Guinean military commander Ansumane Mané . Mané's alleged support for
7392-406: The praises of their patrons. Most Senegalese and Gambian artists use it in their songs even the younger generation like " Baay Bia ". The Senegalese music legend Youssou N'Dour , uses "Tassu" in many of his songs. In the pre-colonial era, Moors from Mauritania who came to settle in the Serer kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Sine , etc., were ill-treated by their Serer masters. If a Moor dies in
7488-636: The prisoners were later released, the Senegalese military took this incident as reason for launching an operation against the Sadio faction which operated at the Senegalese-Gambian border. The offensive started on 13 March 2022, and caused 6,000 civilians to flee across the border into the Gambia. In early August 2022, Caesar Badiatte signed a peace deal with the Senegalese government following mediation by Guinea-Bissau's President Umaro Sissoco Embaló. Though Badiatte only agreed on behalf of his faction,
7584-401: The region's products. This feeling of unequal treatment is widespread in Casamance, even among those who do not support separatism. Many people within Casamance are Christians or animists , unlike the majority of Senegalese who are Muslims . However, relations between Senegal's Muslim and Christian populations have historically been mutually respectful. Religion has played no important part in
7680-442: The region. The Serer people are also referred to as: The Serer people are primarily found in contemporary Senegal , particularly in the west-central part of the country, running from the southern edge of Dakar to the border of The Gambia . The Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern-day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès. The Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol ;
7776-497: The region. According to Serer oral history, a Serer bowman named Amar Godomat shot and killed Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar with an arrow. They also violently resisted the 19th-century jihads and Marabout movement to convert Senegambia to Islam. The last kings of Sine and Saloum were Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof (also spelled: Mahecor Diouf) and Maad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof (also spelled: Fodé N’Gouye Diouf or Fode Ngui Joof), respectively. They both died in 1969. After their deaths,
7872-469: The reign of Sanou Mon Faye – king of Sine, one of the key notables who plotted to dethrone the king was the king's own bur kevel. After influencing the king's own estranged nephew Prince Semou Mak Joof to take up arms against his uncle, the Prince who despised his uncle took up arms with the support of the bur kevel and other notables. The Prince was victorious and was crowned Maad a Sinig (King of Sine). That
7968-436: The same bond with the Jola people with whom they have an ancient relationship. In the Serer ethnic group, this same bond exists between the Serer patronym, for example between Joof and Faye . Many Senegambian people also refer to this joking relations as "kal" (used between first cousins for example between the children of a paternal aunt and a maternal uncle) and "gamo" (used between tribes ). "Kal" derives from
8064-570: The separatists was one factor which led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War that erupted in 1998. When Senegal decided to send its military into Guinea-Bissau to fight for the local government against Mané's forces, the latter and the MFDC formed a full alliance. The two rebel movements started to fight side by side in both Senegal as well as Guinea-Bissau. Although the Senegal-supported government of Guinea-Bissau collapsed,
8160-406: The side of Senegal. At Badjom, the government forces seized a significant amount of rebel weaponry including mortars. The Senegalese troops also seized several hectares of marijuana cultivation. Both the military as well as the rebels claimed to have inflicted casualties on each other. Despite the offensive's success, the Senegalese military admitted that several rebel bases remained active, as neither
8256-495: The situation of Casamance's population. By the end of the 1980s, the military wing of the MDFC had an estimate of 300-600 trained fighters. The discovery of oil in the region emboldened the MFDC to organise mass demonstrations for immediate independence in 1990, which were brutally suppressed by the Senegalese military. This pushed the MFDC into a full armed rebellion. The following fighting was vicious, and 30,000 civilians were displaced by 1994. Several ceasefires were agreed during
8352-461: The teachings of Seereer religion, bad souls will not enter Jaaniiw. Their departed souls will not be guided by the ancestors to this sacred abode, but will be rejected thereby making them lost and wandering souls. In order to be reincarnated (( ciiɗ , in Seereer) or sanctified as a Pangool in order to intercede with the Divine [ Roog ], a person's soul must first enter this sacred place." As such,
8448-402: The work of 19th-century French archeologist and Egyptologist, Paul Pierret, states that the word Serer means "he who traces the temple." Diop continued: "That would be consistent with their present religious position: they are one of the rare Senegalese populations who still reject Islam. Their route is marked by the upright stones found at about the same latitude from Ethiopia all the way to
8544-593: Was an alliance based on marriage. In other regions where Serer people are found, state JD Fage, Richard Gray and Roland Oliver, the Wolof and Toucouleur peoples introduced the caste system among the Serer people. The social stratification historically evidenced among the Serer people has been, except for one difference, very similar to those found among Wolof, Fulbe, Toucouleur and Mandinka peoples found in Senegambia . They all have had strata of free nobles and peasants, artisan castes, and slaves. The difference
8640-468: Was attended by men and women of all classes as well as of Jola and other ethnic groups in the region. During the event, the protestors marched to the regional governor's office and replaced the Senegalese flag with a white flag. In response, the Senegalese government targeted Jola people. The MFDC began to organise demonstrations, and tensions eventually escalated in massive riots in December 1983. On December 6, three gendarmes were killed while intervening at
8736-582: Was known as Attika ("warrior" in Diola ). The Senegalese government answered by dividing the Casamance province into two smaller regions, probably in order to split and weaken the independence movement. This only heightened tensions, and the government began to jail MFDC leaders such as Augustin Diamacoune Senghor . Another factor in the growing independence movement was the failure of the Senegambia Confederation in 1989, which had economically benefited Casamance and whose end only worsened
8832-402: Was overthrown in 1999. It relies mainly on the Jola people . Its armed wing was formed in 1985 and is called Atika ( Diola for "the combatant"). Its leader was Father Augustin Diamacoune Senghor , who died on 13 January 2007. Senghor signed a peace agreement with the government of Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade in 2004. However, several factions of the MFDC refused to participate in
8928-489: Was responsible for advising the king was also made up of jamburs as well as the bur kuvel/guewel (the chief griot of the king) who was extremely powerful and influential, and very rich in land and other assets. The buur kevel who also came from the griot caste were so powerful that they could influence a king's decision as to whether he goes to war or not. They told the king what to eat, and teach them how to eat, how to walk, to talk and to behave in society. They always accompany
9024-608: Was supported by the Senegalese Air Force . The Senegalese forces were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mathieu Diogoye Sène and Lieutenant Colonel Clément Hubert Boucaly. With aid by the military of Guinea-Bissau, Senegalese troops overran four MFDC bases in Blaze forest during February, namely those at Bouman, Boussouloum, Badiong, Sikoun. The MFDC also alleged the involvement of the Turkish Armed Forces on
9120-487: Was the most important person after the king ( Maad a Sinig or Maad Saloum ) came from the jambur caste. The Jaraff was the equivalent of a prime minister. He was responsible for organising the coronation ceremony and for crowning the Serer kings. Where a king dies without nominating an heir ( buumi ), the Jaraff would step in and reign as regent until a suitable candidate can be found from the royal line. The noble council that
9216-625: Was to work as a Bissit (Bissik). Apart from spying for the Serer Kings, the Bissit's main job was to be a clown – for the sole entertainment of the Serer King, the Serer aristocracy and the common people. He was expected to dance in ceremonies before the king and liven up the king's mood and the king's subjects. This position was always given to the Moors. It was a humiliating job and not
#981018