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134-528: The original construction was ordered by Galeazzo II Visconti , a local nobleman, in 1358 – c. 1370; this castle was known as the Castello di Porta Giova (or Porta Zubia ), from the name of a gate in walls located nearby. It was built in the same area of the ancient Roman fortification of Castrum Portae Jovis , which served as castra pretoria when the city was the capital of the Roman Empire . It

268-632: A Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards, a regiment in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies , commanded by Guglielmo Pepe , a Carbonaro (member of the secret republican organization), mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I , agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, although, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of

402-574: A Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under the leadership of the pope in his 1842 book Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians . Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary and led the battle against liberalism and nationalism. Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic , which proved too extreme for most nationalists. The middle position

536-746: A constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee Paris , and the Second French Republic was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions—four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state. Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until

670-410: A diploma of a new vicariate for the three brothers was forged after Emperor Charles IV accepted a payment of 150000 florins from them. According to Jane Black, the imperial vicariate granted more privileges to the three brothers compared to the privileges that their predecessors had received. Most of the privileges the three brothers received from the vicariate were related to judicial processes such as

804-535: A longstanding struggle against the papacy, pulled the Visconti family back into battle during the War of Eight Saints in 1375. Another accomplishment of Galeazzo's was to claim Pavia in 1359, which helped him fund military expeditions. Pavia later became a principal residence of the Visconti family. Despite his accomplishments, Galeazzo II Visconti's legacy has largely been coloured by a select few aspects of his life. He

938-466: A means of intimidating the populace in order to cement their new-found rule. Unification of Italy Timeline The unification of Italy ( Italian : Unità d'Italia , Italian: [uniˈta ddiˈtaːlja] ), also known as the Risorgimento ( / r ɪ ˌ s ɔːr dʒ ɪ ˈ m ɛ n t oʊ / , Italian: [risordʒiˈmento] ; lit.   ' Resurgence ' ),

1072-465: A monument to King Umberto I . Allied bombardment of Milan in 1943 during World War II severely damaged the castle. The post-war reconstruction of the building for museum purposes was undertaken by the BBPR architectural partnership. The castle has a quadrangular plan, on a site across the city's walls. The wall which once faced the countryside north of Milan has square towers and an ogival gate. This

1206-598: A movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle-class professionals and businessmen and some intellectuals. The Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals and were strongly anticlerical. The Carbonari movement spread across Italy. Conservative governments feared

1340-534: A new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) , whose mottos were " Dio e Popolo " ('God and People') and " Unione, Forza e Libertà " ('Union, Strength and Freedom"), which sought the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of Piedmont ), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834 and was sentenced to death. He escaped to South America, although, spending fourteen years in exile, taking part in several wars, and learning

1474-537: A part of it adapted as a residence for his wife, Christina of Denmark . Under the Spanish domination which followed, the castle became a citadel , as the governor's seat was moved to the Ducal Palace (1535). Its garrison varied from 1,000 to 3,000 men, led by a Spanish castellan . In 1550 works began to adapt the castle to modern fortification style, as a hexagonal (originally pentagonal) star fort , following

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1608-579: A political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the barbarians ". The Italian Wars saw 65 years of French attacks on some of the Italian states, starting with Charles VIII's invasion of Naples in 1494. However, the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) saw parts of Italy fall under the direct or indirect control of the Spanish Habsburgs . The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 formally ended

1742-826: A political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé Carlo Arduini , had made a speech in which he had declared that the Temporal power of the Holy See was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality". In early March 1849, Giuseppe Mazzini arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic, religious freedom

1876-412: A position in the secular government. In this way, Matteo aided in establishing an enduring lordship over Milan; this moment in time significantly contributed to the hereditary quality of Visconti power. Yet regardless of his achievements, Matteo later died a condemned heretic. Galeazzo I succeeded Matteo I from 1322 to 1327 and preceded Galeazzo II's rule in 1354 by 27 years. Before Galeazzo II became

2010-568: A position of power. Matteo il Magno (roughly translated to mean ‘the Great’) ruled from 1294 to 1302 and then again from 1311 to 1322, preceding Galeazzo's rule. Matteo notably achieved control over Pavia, Vercelli , Novara and Como . Though he was temporarily ousted from power by a rebellion, Matteo later received the position of imperial vicar general during his second period of rule. Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV then eventually appointed Matteo as Lord of Milan, thirty years after he first obtained

2144-404: A reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister Pellegrino Rossi , Pius IX fled just before Giuseppe Garibaldi and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a Roman Republic on 9 February. On 2 February 1849, at

2278-554: A series of client republics were set up. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last Roman-German Emperor , Francis II , after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz . French rule destroyed the old structures of feudalism in Italy and introduced modern ideas and efficient legal authority; it provided much of the intellectual force and social capital that fueled unification movements for decades after

2412-408: A short fight, the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried " Viva l'Italia! " ('Long live Italy!') as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities

2546-559: A willingness to give the French whatever they wanted in return for essential military intervention. As a result of this France received Nice and Savoy in 1860. Secondly, the patriots realized that the pope was an enemy, and could never be the leader of a united Italy. Thirdly, they realized that republicanism was too weak a force. Unification had to be based on a strong monarchy, and in practice that meant reliance on Piedmont (the Kingdom of Sardinia ) under King Victor Emmanuel II (1820–1878) of

2680-552: Is also evidence of Petrarch being a guest of Galeazzo II's court, where he wrote for a number of years before his time in Padua . This is known through the extensive volumes of writing personally belonging to Petrarch which were brought from Padua to the Visconti Libraries for his stint under the Visconti. Galeazzo II's rule would serve to set up Gian Galeazzo's rule of Pavia. It is immediately evident just how influential

2814-528: Is his commitment to both the sponsorship and patronage of scholars and intellectual institutions. Galeazzo II Visconti is known to have established the University of Pavia in 1361, upon moving his court to that city in the face of growing rivalry with his brother, Bernabò Visconti. Galeazzo II's founding of this university came with the help of Emperor Charles IV of the Holy Roman Empire , with

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2948-444: Is largely remembered through the successes of his son, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who was able to wrest sole control of Milan from his uncle Bernabò Visconti after Galeazzo's death. Yet, there is obvious continuity between the power gained by Galeazzo II, and the power maintained, and even expanded upon by Gian Galeazzo, which can be attributed in part to the situation Galeazzo II left his son in. On top of his political legacy, Galeazzo II

3082-568: Is often remembered in conjunction with his patronage of intellectuals and writers, from his sponsorship of Petrarch to the founding of the University of Pavia . Finally, Galeazzo II is associated with a sinister legacy of brutal torture. This comes from his and his brother's introduction of the Querasima torture protocol at the beginning of their dual reign in Milan. Galeazzo II Visconti was

3216-566: Is that of embarking upon massive building projects. For Galeazzo II, this was the massive palace he constructed at Pavia, which was completed for him in 1363. For his son Gian Galeazzo, this tendency to build as a means of impressing the populace continued. Gian Galeazzo Visconti commissioned the construction of the Certosa of Pavia and provided help and counsel in the construction of the Duomo in Milan when he became Signore of all Milan, following

3350-599: Is the view presented at the Central Museum of the Risorgimento at Altare della Patria in Rome. Italy was unified by the Roman Republic in the latter part of the third century BC. For 700 years, it was a de facto territorial extension of the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire , and for a long time experienced a privileged status but was not converted into a province . Under Augustus ,

3484-556: Is the wing of the castle originally used as a ducal residence; it features a court with two loggias , a smaller one on the left and a larger one at its end, called Loggiato dell'Elefante due to the presence of a fresco of an elephant. The Sforza Castle complex includes the following museums: The Biblioteca Trivulziana holds a manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci , the Codex Trivulzianus . In 2012, new paintings attributed to Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio were discovered at

3618-810: The First French Empire collapsed in 1814. The French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleon Bonaparte 's choice of rulers. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones (among them Eugène de Beauharnais , Viceroy of Italy , and Joachim Murat , King of Naples ) further feeding nationalistic sentiments. Beauharnais tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, and on 30 March 1815, Murat issued

3752-516: The Frankish Empire , the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor ; however, the emperor was an absentee German -speaking foreigner who had little interest in governing Italy and indeed never controlled the entire peninsula. As a result, Italy gradually developed into a system of city-states . Southern Italy was governed by the long-lasting Kingdom of Sicily or Kingdom of Naples , which had been established by

3886-614: The Holy Alliance . Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to Paris . In Milan , Silvio Pellico and Pietro Maroncelli organized several attempts to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. In October 1820, Pellico and Maroncelli were arrested on the charge of carbonarism and imprisoned. Denis Mack Smith argues: Few people in 1830 believed that an Italian nation might exist. There were eight states in

4020-569: The Holy Alliance . Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily , including the scholar Michele Amari , were forced into exile during the decades that followed. The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa , who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under

4154-559: The House of Savoy . Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810–1861) provided critical leadership. He was a modernizer interested in agrarian improvements, banks, railways and free trade. He opened a newspaper as soon as censorship allowed it: Il Risorgimento called for the independence of Italy, a league of Italian princes, and moderate reforms. He had the ear of the king and in 1852 became prime minister. He ran an efficient active government, promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading

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4288-551: The House of Savoy . The Piedmont revolt started in Alessandria , where troops adopted the green, white, and red tricolore of the Cisalpine Republic . King Victor Emmanuel I abdicated in response, and the regent for the new king, Prince Charles Albert , approved a new constitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when King Charles Felix returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from

4422-554: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . His small force landed on the island of Ponza . It overpowered guards and liberated hundreds of prisoners. In sharp contrast to his hypothetical expectations, there was no local uprising and the invaders were quickly overpowered. Pisacane was killed by angry locals who suspected he was leading a Romani band trying to steal their food. The Second War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when

4556-498: The Porta del Carmine . The Porta della Ghirlanda gate was entered through a ravelin (now lost) and had two entrances accessed through runways, which led to an underground passage which continued along the walls. The external side which once faced the walled city has two round towers, commissioned by Francesco Sforza to replace the former square ones, which had become less suitable to defend against fire weapons. The central tower, called

4690-604: The Republic of San Marco was proclaimed under Daniele Manin . While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy–Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX. Initially, Pius IX had been something of

4824-760: The Rimini Proclamation , which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers. During the Napoleonic era , in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic , a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France , took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated

4958-500: The Torre del Filarete , is a modern reconstruction. The round towers lost their upper parts under the Austrians, who needed open space for their artillery; the towers' present-day upper sections are modern reconstructions. The Torre del Filarete and the Porta del Santo Spirito , located further to the south, are both preceded by a ravelin. The main gate leads to a large court from which several internal features can be seen. These include

5092-570: The anniversary of the unification on 17 March (the date of proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy ). Some of the states that had been envisaged as part of the unification process ( terre irredente ) did not join the Kingdom until after Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in World War I , culminating in the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920. Some historians see the Risorgimento as continuing to that time, which

5226-551: The capture of Rome and its designation as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Individuals who played a major part in the struggle for unification and liberation from foreign domination included King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy , Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , Giuseppe Garibaldi , and Giuseppe Mazzini . Borrowing from the old Latin title Pater Patriae of the Roman emperors , the Italians gave to King Victor Emmanuel II

5360-441: The cardinal - bishop of Sion retreated into the castle. However, King Francis I of France followed them into Milan, before his sappers placed mines under the castle's foundations, whereupon the defenders capitulated. In 1521, in a period in which it was used as a weapons depot, the Torre del Filarete exploded. When Francesco II Sforza returned briefly to power in Milan, he had the fortress restored and enlarged, in addition to

5494-663: The Austrian troops. Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centred in Modena faded. At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna , Ferrara , Ravenna , Forlì , Ancona and Perugia . These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in place of the Papal flag , quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed

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5628-547: The Austrians besieged Venice, which was defended by a volunteer army led by Daniele Manin and Guglielmo Pepe , who were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were hanged en masse in Belfiore , while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and re-establishing Papal control over the Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed. Morale

5762-528: The Austrians ten days later. There remained the Roman and Venetian Republics. In April, a French force under Charles Oudinot was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the pope. After a two-month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile—in 1850 Garibaldi went to New York City . Meanwhile,

5896-518: The Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with its 8 million inhabitants, seemed aloof and indifferent: Sicily and Naples had once been ruled by Spain, and it had always been foreign to the rest of Italy. The common people in each region, and even the intellectual elite, spoke their mutually unintelligible dialects, and lacked the least vestiges of national consciousness. They wanted good government, not self-government, and had welcomed Napoleon and

6030-571: The Carbonari, imposing stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Nevertheless, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned Napoleon III (who, as a young man, had fought on their side) to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858, when Felice Orsini , Giovanni Andrea Pieri , Carlo Di Rudio and Andrea Gomez threw three bombs at him. Many leaders of

6164-566: The French as more equitable and efficient than their native dynasties, many of which had died out in the 18th century. After 1830, revolutionary sentiment in favour of a unified Italy began to experience a resurgence, and a series of insurrections laid the groundwork for the creation of one nation along the Italian peninsula. The Duke of Modena , Francis IV , was an ambitious man, and he hoped to become king of northern Italy by increasing his territory. In 1826, Francis made it clear that he would not act against those who subverted opposition toward

6298-517: The House of Savoy and Gregory XI was compelled to sign a peace treaty with Galeazzo II and Bernabò in the spring of 1375. Peace between Pope Gregory XI and the Visconti family was transient in that soon after their agreement, Bernabò's alliance with Florence, who had a longstanding struggle with the papacy, called for their support in the War of Eight Saints, waged against Gregory XI. Galeazzo II fought against

6432-550: The King of France. Galeazzo II also helped his own son acquire political power through a marriage with the French princess Isabella of Valois, which granted his son the title Count of Vertus. On August 4, 1379, Galeazzo II Visconti died, leaving Bernabò as the last of the three co-ruling brothers of Milan. Bernabò would live until 1385 when he was thrown in jail due to a conspiracy hatched by Galeazzo II Visconti's son, Gian Galeazzo Visconti. Gian Galeazzo succeeded his father and became

6566-519: The King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and Savoy ), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria ( First Italian Independence War ). After initial successes at Goito and Peschiera , he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of Lombardy–Venetia save Venice itself, where

6700-569: The Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights—18–22 March ( Cinque giornate di Milano ). An Austrian army under Marshal Josef Radetzky besieged Milan, but due to the defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat to the Quadrilatero fortresses. Soon, Charles Albert ,

6834-554: The Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802–1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death. Meanwhile, artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; Vittorio Alfieri , Francesco Lomonaco and Niccolò Tommaseo are generally considered three great literary precursors of Italian nationalism , but

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6968-641: The Normans. Central Italy was governed by the pope as a temporal kingdom known as the Papal States . This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the early modern period . Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (including Austria ), Spain , and France . Harbingers of national unity appeared in

7102-576: The Papacy when Pope Gregory XI condemned both Bernabò and Galeazzo II Visconti as heretics as well as revoking their title as imperial vicar by the Holy Roman Emperor once more in 1372. In the year 1359, the Galeazzo II Visconti conquered the city of Pavia, which became his base of operations. Those who were exiled from Pavia prior to the Visconti conquest were allowed to return and they were granted political amnesty. Although

7236-489: The Papacy, Charles IV revoked the vicariate that he granted to the Visconti family in 1361, although he returned the title to them four years later on the condition that they remained loyal and obedient to the Holy Roman Empire and its emperor. Another war broke out in 1372 when Galeazzo II tried to retake the city of Asti, which was opposed by the Count of Savoy. Visconti military activity in the 1370s led to another conflict with

7370-639: The Sardinian Prime Minister Count Cavour found an ally in Napoleon III . Napoleon III signed a secret alliance and Cavour provoked Austria with military maneuvers and eventually led to the war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation. The Austrians planned to use their army to beat the Sardinians before the French could come to their aid. Austria had an army of 140,000 men, while

7504-401: The Sardinians had a mere 70,000 men by comparison. However, the Austrians' numerical strength was outweighed by an ineffectual leadership appointed by the Emperor on the basis of noble lineage, rather than military competency. Their army was slow to enter Piedmont, taking almost ten days to travel the 80 kilometres (50 mi) to Turin . By this time, the French had reinforced the Sardinians, so

7638-411: The Tower of Bona of Savoy (1476) and the Rocchetta , a sort of internal defensive ridotto with a gate of its own. At the right of the Porta del Carmine are the remains of two 15th-century courts. The Rocchetta , whose access gate from the main court (a modern addition) features the Sforza coat of arms, has an internal court with, on three sides, a portico with 15th-century arcades. The Corte Ducale

7772-440: The University of Pavia, Galeazzo II Visconti personally entertained scholarly figures at his court, and offered patronage to them while they remained there. Literary greats like Geoffrey Chaucer ventured from England to Milan whilst it was under the control of the Visconti to study the vast libraries of the Visconti family, which contained works by figures like: Virgil , Seneca , Ovid , Macrobius , Dante , and Petrarch. There

7906-429: The Visconti brothers of international mercenary support. The battle between the papacy and the Visconti brothers continued until Gregory signed a peace treaty with the brothers in the spring of 1378. Galeazzo's distinction and authority over different city-states was crucial in helping fund military campaigns against the papacy and in helping to perpetuate his rule over north Italy. The financing of military expeditions

8040-789: The Visconti family legacy. During the fourteenth century, the pope and emperor had little influence over Italian political affairs. Nobility did not ensure power. Therefore, Italian city-states were left to choose their leader whose responsibility was to defend their city from external enemies and to wage war on rival cities in hopes of gaining more territory. Members of powerful merchant families, such as Galeazzo II, would often be selected for these positions and would seize neighbouring cities in order to extend their rule; affluence and their family name would gain them recognition and help them to become elected as city-state leader. They would then be awarded designations such as ‘vicarite for life’ in order to legitimize their authority over civilians. Galeazzo II

8174-438: The Visconti family's incursions in Faenza. Galeazzo II encountered more conflicts with the Papacy during his rule as signore due to his own policy of expanding Visconti influence with his brother Bernabò in North Italy. When the Visconti tried to re-establish their influence in Bologna, a conflict between the Visconti family and the Papacy occurred and this led to the excommunication of Bernabò for heresy. Furthermore, persuaded by

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8308-403: The Visconti first became hereditary rulers of Milan starting in 1349. He is remembered in conjunction with his patronage of intellectuals and writers, from his sponsorship of Petrarch to the founding of the University of Pavia in 1361. Galeazzo II Visconti, and his brother Bernabò , are credited with the institution of the Quaresima Torture Protocol, a vicious means of torture. The founder of

8442-431: The Visconti house is a conflicted claim, though widespread credit goes to Galeazzo's ancestor, Ottone Visconti. Other notable figures in the Visconti family include Matteo I (1294–1302), Luchino I (1339–1349) and Bernabò (1354–1385). Prior to his rule over Milan, Galeazzo II was briefly exiled by his uncle, Luchino. During his exile he stayed in Savoy before eventually being invited to return to Milan and share rule over

8576-409: The Visconti influence, emperor Charles IV gave vicariate of Pavia to Giovanni Palaeologus II. After a rebellion led by the Augustinian friar Jacopo Bussolari broke out, calling for the city's independence, Galeazzo recognized Pavia's vulnerability and seized the city-state for himself. Though the citizens resisted his domination, they eventually gave in to Galeazzo's control. Throughout his rule, Galeazzo

8710-490: The Visconti legacy forged by Galeazzo II. Yet another legacy of Galeazzo II Visconti with his son is the importance placed on education. Gian Galeazzo, upon ascending to the throne at Pavia, remained content to study, retreating from the mess of Italian politics in Northern Italy, and focussing on his Humanist studies at the University of Pavia; the same university which his father had set up when he moved his seat of power there. The final Visconti legacy passed from father to son

8844-449: The Visconti name through various military campaigns in the fourteenth century. These military operations allowed him to come into control of densely populated areas and to, therefore, amass a significant amount of power that would be passed down to his son Gian Galeazzo Visconti. Gian Galeazzo's inheritance helped him come closest in uniting all of Italy under a central rule, therefore marking the important contribution that Galeazzo II made to

8978-416: The addition of 12 bastions. The external fortifications reached 3 km in length and covered an area of 25.9 hectares . The castle also remained in use as a fort after the Spaniards were replaced by the Austrians in Lombardy. Most of the outer fortifications were demolished during the period of Napoleonic rule in Milan under the Cisalpine Republic . The semi-circular Piazza Castello was constructed around

9112-399: The administration of the army and the financial and legal systems. He sought out support from patriots across Italy. In 1855, the kingdom became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War , which gave Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers. In 1857, Carlo Pisacane , an aristocrat from Naples who had embraced Mazzini's ideas, decided to provoke a rising in

9246-408: The area used as a ducal residence) and the Cortile della Ghirlanda . This ghirlanda refers to a wall, protected by a ditch filled with water, built under Francesco Sforza, of which few traces remain today, including the Porta del Soccorso . Remains of two later ravelins can be seen in correspondence of the point in which the castle was joined by the city walls (near the Porta Comasina gate) and

9380-636: The art of guerrilla warfare before his return to Italy in 1848. Many of the key intellectual and political leaders operated from exile; most Risorgimento patriots lived and published their work abroad after successive failed revolutions. Exile became a central theme of the foundational legacy of the Risorgimento as the narrative of the Italian nation fighting for independence. The exiles were deeply immersed in European ideas, and often hammered away at what Europeans saw as Italian vices, especially effeminacy and indolence. These negative stereotypes emerged from Enlightenment notions of national character that stressed

9514-401: The author of the lyrics, or Fratelli d'Italia , from its opening line . On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in Lombardy , as citizens stopped smoking cigars and playing the lottery , which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of Sicily and in Naples . In Sicily the revolt resulted in

9648-688: The behest of his remaining uncle, Giovanni Visconti . His uncle also made him governor of Bologna . The following year, Galeazzo commissioned the Visconti Castle, otherwise known as Castello Visconteo located in Pavia. The castle became the main Pavian residence of the Visconti family. During the same year, another significant event occurred in his life on September 28. Perhaps partially reflective of his fondness for Savoy as formed during his years in exile, Galeazzo went on to marry Bianca of Savoy . She

9782-519: The brothers and to revoke their territorial possessions. Galeazzo stood to lose Angevin cities in Piedmont after pope Gregory attempted to suppress his army by forming alliances with local and international powers such as Genoa, Amedeo of Savoy, the Marquis of Monferrato, Niccolo D’Este, Albert, Duke of Austria, Gerald, the elector of Nuremberg and Charles, the Holy Roman Empire. By doing so, Gregory XI looked to gain territory regionally and to deprive

9916-480: The castle. Galeazzo II Visconti Galeazzo II Visconti ( c.  1320 – 4 August 1378) was a member of the Visconti dynasty and a ruler of Milan , Italy. His most notable military campaigns were against Pope Gregory XI , around 1367. These battles fought between the papacy and the Visconti family ultimately ended in a peace treaty. Politically active, he expanded the power of his family, where

10050-456: The ceiling of the Sala delle Asse , painting decorations of vegetable motifs. In the following years, however, the castle was damaged by assaults from Italian, French and German troops; a bastion, known as tenaglia , was added, perhaps designed by Cesare Cesariano . After the French victory in the Battle of Marignano in 1515, the defeated Maximilian Sforza , his Swiss mercenaries, as well as

10184-480: The city side of the castle, surrounded by a radial street layout of new urban blocks bounded by the Foro Buonaparte. The area on the "country" side of the castle was laid out as a 700-by-700-metre (2,300 by 2,300 ft) square parade ground known as Piazza d'Armi. After the unification of Italy in the 19th century, the castle was transferred from military use to the city of Milan. Parco Sempione , one of

10318-497: The city with his relatives, Bernabò and Matteo II Visconti. Galeazzo's fame is outstripped by that of his son Gian Galeazzo; under Gian Galeazzo, the Visconti's status was elevated from mere rulers to dukes of Milan. Galeazzo II became co-ruler of Milan with his brothers Bernabò and Matteo II through a statute forged by the Milanese General Council. During his time as signore, Galeazzo II was focused on increasing

10452-528: The creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma , where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess Marie Louise left the city during the political upheaval. Insurrection provinces planned to unite as the Italian United Provinces , which prompted Pope Gregory XVI to ask for Austrian help against

10586-413: The dynastic power they were later infamous for. Previously, the Visconti family had only enjoyed limited privileges within the city. As a result of his efforts, Ottone was recognized as the official founder of the Visconti house over Azzone. As the archbishop of Milan from 1277 to 1294, Ottone wrested control over Milan from its previous rulers before skillfully manoeuvring his nephew Matteo I Visconti into

10720-548: The eastern one. In 1362 Galeazzo's own health worsened and he moved his court to Pavia, which he had reconquered two years earlier, and where he died in 1378. Though Galeazzo died of natural causes, the same cannot be said for his last remaining brother. Bernabò received a fate similar to Matteo's and was assassinated in 1385. Galeazzo's son, Gian Galeazzo succeeded his father and uncle's rule and went on to achieve fame greater than that of his sibling and father. Beginning his twenty-five-year rule in 1378, Gian Galeazzo eventually became

10854-477: The efforts of the Italian people towards freedom and independence. The Italian tricolour waved for the first time in the history of the Risorgimento on 11 March 1821 in the Cittadella of Alessandria , during the revolutions of 1820s , after the oblivion caused by the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes. An important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril , serving as vice-president of

10988-502: The epithet of Father of the Fatherland ( Italian : Padre della Patria ). Even after 1871, many ethnic Italian-speakers ( Trentino-Alto Adigan Italians, Savoyard Italians , Corfiot Italians , Niçard Italians , Swiss Italians , Corsican Italians , Maltese Italians , Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians ) remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy, planting the seeds of Italian irredentism . Italy celebrates

11122-403: The father had been on his son. It is thought that Galeazzo II and his brother, Bernabò Visconti, came to rule after a successful plot against their third brother, Matteo II. Very much in the same vein, Gian Galeazzo was able to mastermind a coup d'état against Bernabò, his uncle. This bloody legacy of homicide, at first taking the form of fratricide , and then avunculicide , is a large part of

11256-616: The first official duke of Milan in 1395. In his political life, Galeazzo II Visconti worked to expand the power of his family. The Visconti first became the hereditary rulers of Milan on May 31, 1349, when the General Council of Milan created a statute that the office of dominus generalis would be inherited by the legitimate male descendants of Matteo Visconti, who was the grandfather of Galeazzo II Visconti. One of Matteo Visconti's sons, Luchino Visconti, wanted his son Luchino Novello to succeed him as signore of Milan, but this proposal

11390-513: The fledgling revolutionary movement. In 1844, two brothers from Venice , Attilio and Emilio Bandiera , members of Young Italy , planned to make a raid on the Calabrian coast against the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in support of Italian unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near Crotone , intending to go to Cosenza , liberate

11524-505: The granting of the university's charter. The University of Pavia, carefully fostered by Galeazzo II, and in turn, by his son, Gian Galeazzo , would develop into a leader amongst the Northern Italian scholarly institutions, and would directly precipitate the widespread circulation of legal and medical texts throughout Pavia. Figures such as Lorenzo Valla would later be associated with the university. One step beyond establishing

11658-402: The ground and repeatedly dropped with the intention of dislodging the shoulder joints, resulting in immense pain. Galeazzo II Visconti, along with his brother Bernabò, is credited with the institution of this particularly vicious means of torture. It is thought that this torture protocol was proclaimed in an edict upon the ascent to the rulership of Milan by both Galeazzo II and Bernabò, likely as

11792-493: The influence of the environment and history on a people's moral predisposition. Italian exiles both challenged and embraced the stereotypes and typically presented gendered interpretations of Italy's political "degeneration". They called for a masculine response to feminine weaknesses as the basis of national regeneration and fashioned their image of the future Italian nation firmly in the standards of European nationalism. In 1820, liberal Spaniards successfully revolted , demanding

11926-427: The influence of the family as signore. Galeazzo II Visconti's most notable military campaigns were against Pope Gregory XI , beginning roughly around 1367. A series of battles were fought between the papacy and members of the Visconti family, including Bernarbò and Galeazzo Visconti that ultimately ended in a peace treaty. However, this agreement would be revoked when Bernarbò's alliance with Florence, who had also held

12060-521: The largest parks in the city, was created on the former parade grounds. The government of Milan undertook restoration works, directed by Luca Beltrami . The Via Dante was cut through the medieval street layout in the 1880s to provide a direct promenade between the castle and the Duomo on an axis with the main gate. Between 1900 and 1905 the Torre del Filarete was rebuilt, based on 16th-century drawings, as

12194-531: The most famous proto-nationalist work was Alessandro Manzoni 's I promessi sposi (The Betrothed) , widely read as thinly veiled allegorical criticism of Austrian rule. Published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years, the 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect , a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it. Three ideals of unification appeared. Vincenzo Gioberti ,

12328-512: The most prominent being Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi . Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified, and he formulated a program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. Following his release in 1831, he went to Marseille in France, where he organized

12462-637: The national self-determination . This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day . The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag , which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796. After Napoleon fell (1814), the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments. Italy

12596-531: The overthrow of Bernabò Visconti. Galeazzo II is famously known for instituting the Quaresima Torture Protocol. Rather than one method of torture, this marathon of depravity lasted for forty days with the express intention of resulting in the death of the individual, who, by undergoing this regimen, had already been branded a traitor by the state, and marked for execution. The Quaresima protocol involves several torture mechanisms employed on

12730-573: The papacy alongside his brother until his death in 1378. Along with his many accomplishments in life, Galeazzo II Visconti left behind a tangible and important legacy after his death in 1378. He was most well known for having left behind: continued Visconti rule under Gian Galeazzo Visconti, his son; his prolific patronage of intellectuals and their associated institutions; and finally, the Quaresima torture protocol, for which he has become infamous. The first, and most commendable legacy of Galeazzo II

12864-537: The papacy in 1373. Military figures such as John Hawkwood and Amadeo of Savoy were hired to attack the Visconti brothers and their city-states, Pavia and Piacenza. However, Amadeo of Savoy helped to end the long-standing battle between the papacy and the Visconti brothers after recognizing the increasingly oppressive nature of the papacy, which hoped to destroy the Milanese family at all costs, and which did not recognize their legitimate territorial dominions. Galeazzo II's marriage to Bianca of Savoy re-formed an alliance with

12998-548: The papacy, battles between the two factions occurred frequently. Both groups would form alliances with local and international powers in order to suppress their rival's army and to prevent their opponent's accumulation of power. Galeazzo II was drawn into warfare with Pope Gregory XI when serving an alliance with his brother, Bernabò V; the papacy became his biggest military opponent during his reign of northern Italian city-states. The rivalry between Bernabò and Pope Gregory XI had been carried down from Pope Urban V , who sought to expel

13132-530: The peninsula, each with distinct laws and traditions. No one had had the desire or the resources to revive Napoleon's partial experiment in unification. The settlement of 1814–15 had merely restored regional divisions, with the added disadvantage that the decisive victory of Austria over France temporarily hindered Italians in playing off their former oppressors against each other. ... Italians who, like Ugo Foscolo and Gabriele Rossetti , harboured patriotic sentiments, were driven into exile. The largest Italian state,

13266-558: The political prisoners, and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards La Sila . They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the Corsican Pietro Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of gendarmes and volunteers were sent against them, and after

13400-527: The prestige and influence of the Visconti. He forged ties with Holy Roman emperor Charles IV , who granted him and his two brothers, the shared title of imperial vicar. Although Visconti military activities in North Italy allowed Galeazzo II to set up his base of operations in Pavia , it also drew him into conflict with the Papacy. His death on August 4, 1378, allowed his son Gian Galeazzo Visconti to expand

13534-750: The previous differences in municipal and political rights were abolished and Roman Italy was subdivided into administrative regions ruled directly by the Roman Senate. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and after 568 was disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire , losing its unity for centuries. Following conquest by

13668-726: The proclamation of the Kingdom of Sicily with Ruggero Settimo as chairman of the independent state until 1849, when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force. In February 1848, there were revolts in Tuscany that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke Leopold II granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, Pope Pius IX granted

13802-513: The rebels. Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich warned Louis-Philippe that Austria had no intention of letting Italian matters be and that French intervention would not be tolerated. Louis-Philippe sent a naval expedition to Ancona, which restored Papal authority there and even arrested Italian patriots living in France. In early 1831, the Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula, slowly crushing resistance in each province that had revolted. This military action suppressed much of

13936-519: The regency of Bona of Savoy , the tower bearing her name was built. In 1494 Ludovico Sforza became lord of Milan, and called on numerous artists to decorate the castle. These include Leonardo da Vinci (who frescoed several rooms, in collaboration with Bernardino Zenale and Bernardino Butinone ) and Bramante , who painted frescoes in the Sala del Tesoro ; the Sala della Balla was decorated with Francesco Sforza's deeds. Around 1498, Leonardo worked on

14070-425: The republicans, began reconstruction of the castle to turn it into his princely residence. In 1452 he hired the sculptor and architect Filarete to design and decorate the central tower, which is still known as the Torre del Filarete . After Francesco's death, the construction was continued by his son Galeazzo Maria , under the architect Benedetto Ferrini. The decoration was executed by local painters. In 1476, during

14204-441: The right to raise imperial taxes. The diploma also granted the Visconti brothers full control over communal laws and customs in their territory. The title of imperial vicar was also hereditary, meaning that the future lords of Milan would be granted the same rights that were granted to the Visconti brothers by Charles IV. Although Galeazzo II and Bernabò continued to refer to themselves as dominus generalis in their official documents,

14338-842: The rule of the Holy Roman Emperors in Italy. However, the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg , which ruled the Spanish Empire , continued to rule southern Italy and the Duchy of Milan until the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). Following this war the Austrian Habsburgs struggled for dominance with the Spanish Bourbons until the end of the War of the Austrian Succession . A sense of Italian national identity

14472-634: The ruler of Milan he was preceded by: Azzone (1329–1339), Luchino I (1339–1349), and Giovanni (1339–1354). Prior to his rule, Galeazzo was a fairly self-possessed individual. He had proven himself to be a capable diplomat and a lover of the arts. In particular, he was one of Petrarch's many patrons. Galeazzo also expressed a love for travelling: in 1343, he embarked on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem . He briefly resided in Savoy for several years, where his uncle Luchino had exiled him in 1345. Following his exile and Luchino's death, Galeazzo returned to Milan in 1349 at

14606-434: The signore of all the lands that were controlled by his father. After his death in 1367, Cardinal Albonoz left Italy particularly susceptible to control by mercenaries. This would give rise to merchant families within Italian city-states, like the Visconti family who came to dominate Milan and the rest of northern Italy by the fifteenth century. Galeazzo II Visconti, alone, played an important role in centralizing power under

14740-504: The son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria . The House of Visconti held family ties to Pisa , Sardinia and Milan . Originally, the founding of the Milanese Visconti line was a particularly contested issue. Galeazzo's ancestors, Azzone and Ottone Visconti both held legitimate claims to be considered the founder of their house. However, it was under Ottone that the power of the Visconti house expanded before becoming

14874-441: The title of imperial vicar from the Holy Roman Emperor and although the exact cause of his death was unknown, he left his brothers Galeazzo II and Bernabò as the two remaining co-rulers of Milan. During the reign of the three brothers, they wanted to increase their privileges and governing powers, so they decided to re-establish good relations with Holy Roman Empire so they could acquire the status of imperial vicars. On May 8, 1355,

15008-643: The treaty of the Italic League , in 1454, and the 15th century foreign policy of Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo de' Medici . Leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante , Petrarch , Boccaccio , Machiavelli and Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the "ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead" in Italia Mia . Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince , which looked forward to

15142-436: The two brothers eventually referred to themselves as imperial vicars as well to demonstrate their abundance of power to their subjects. Prior to Galeazzo II Visconti's ascension to power, Milan was ruled by Giovanni Visconti, who brought Galeazzo II and Bernabò back from exile. Giovanni's military activities drew the ire of the Papacy during the late 1340s, which led to the Papacy writing a letter of complaint to Galeazzo II for

15276-409: The two brothers had agreed on sharing authority in Milan, Galeazzo's absence from the city allowed his brother Bernabò to possess complete authority over the city. In 1361, Galeazzo II was also able to officially establish a university in Pavia due to a charter that was granted to him by Emperor Charles. Galeazzo II had also married off his son Gian Galeazzo to Isabella of Valois, who was the daughter of

15410-404: The unification movement were at one time or other members of this organization. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish constitutional government. Although contributing some service to the cause of Italian unity, historians such as Cornelia Shiver doubt that their achievements were proportional to their pretensions. Many leading Carbonari revolutionaries wanted a republic, two of

15544-890: The unification of Italy. Encouraged by the declaration, revolutionaries in the region began to organize. During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, revolutionaries forced King Charles X to abdicate and created the July Monarchy with encouragement from the new French king, Louis-Philippe I . Louis-Philippe had promised revolutionaries such as Ciro Menotti that he would intervene if Austria tried to interfere in Italy with troops. Fearing he would lose his throne, Louis-Philippe did not, however, intervene in Menotti's planned uprising. The Duke of Modena abandoned his Carbonari supporters, arrested Menotti and other conspirators in 1831, and once again conquered his duchy with help from

15678-568: The victim for an entire day. This is followed by a reprieve of one day's time, to allow the victim to recuperate enough to endure yet another day of suffering. The prescribed tortures included: the Rack , the Wheel , Flaying , Eye-gouging, the cutting off of facial features and limbs, as well as the Strappado ; a form of torture where the subject's hands were bound behind his back, and then hoisted off

15812-463: The war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at Novara on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II , and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in Brescia on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by

15946-484: Was tyrannical . The use of violent tactics, assistance from exiled opponents, expansionist ideals which challenged the papacy at the expense of subjects, and seizing power over regions without permission of the rightful overload, empire or papacy were traits found within Galeazzo's rule. An example of his alleged tyranny was when Galeazzo II unrightfully seized the city-state, Pavia, on 13 November 1359. In order to weaken

16080-437: Was a daughter named Violante . She was born in 1354, the same year Galeazzo assumed shared rule over Milan with his two brothers, Matteo II and Bernabò . He married his daughter off to Lionel of Antwerp , son of Edward III of England , and gave a dowry of 200,000 gold florins. Matteo was assassinated early on in their rule in 1355. Upon Matteo's death, Galeazzo obtained the western part of Lombardy , while Bernabò received

16214-485: Was again controlled largely by the Austrian Empire , as they directly controlled the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia and indirectly the duchies of Parma , Modena and Tuscany . With the fall of Napoleon and the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes , the Italian tricolour went underground, becoming the symbol of the patriotic ferments that began to spread in Italy and the symbol which united all

16348-477: Was also accused of heresy , seeking to kill the pope, and fighting to claim lordship of all of Italy, which support the allegations of tyrannical rule. Galeazzo's brother Bernabò Visconti, whom he fought alongside when challenging the papacy, has also been considered a tyrant. Bernabò was particularly brutal towards the church and was listed as an enemy as a result. Together, the brothers fought against Pope Urban V and Pope Gregory XI and were both excommunicated by

16482-433: Was dependent on the taxation of Galeazzo's city-states, some of which included Milan and Pavia, which he claimed in 1359 and made the primary residence of the Visconti family. However, multiple wars, heavy taxation and refusal to align with the papacy generated disapproval amongst Galeazzo's subjects. Inconsistent and costly governance caused resistance against Galeazzo II's rule. It has been argued that Galeazzo II's reign

16616-454: Was enlarged by Galeazzo's successors, Gian Galeazzo , Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria Visconti , until it became a square-plan castle with 200 m-long sides, four towers at the corners and up to 7-metre-thick (23 ft) walls. The castle was the main residence in the city of its Visconti lords, and was destroyed by the short-lived Golden Ambrosian Republic which ousted them in 1447. In 1450, Francesco Sforza , once he had shattered

16750-433: Was granted this title as was his brother, Bernabò Visconti, once they gained territory in northern Italy. The Visconti family's seizing of territory, in particular, was seen as a major threat to the Papacy. Members of the merchant family often took spiritual authority into their own hands and regulated temporal affairs throughout their land. As this served to further centralize the Visconti power and drew authority away from

16884-620: Was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali , while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the Titolo I . Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general Albert Chrzanowski , renewed

17018-428: Was of course badly weakened, but the dream of Risorgimento did not die. Instead, the Italian patriots learned some lessons that made them much more effective at the next opportunity in 1860. Military weakness was glaring, as the small Italian states were completely outmatched by France and Austria. France was a potential ally, and the patriots realized they had to focus all their attention on expelling Austria first, with

17152-594: Was once accessed through a drawbridge . The northern tower is known as the Torre della Corte , and its counterpart to the west is the Torre del Tesoro ; both received wide windows during the Sforza age. The corner defended by the Torre Ducale is characterized by a loggia bridge, attributed to Bramante, and commissioned by Ludovico Sforza in the late 15th century to connect the Corte Ducale (the court in

17286-469: Was proposed by Cesare Balbo (1789–1853) as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont . One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari , a secret political discussion group formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections. A void was left that the Carbonari filled with

17420-544: Was reflected in Gian Rinaldo Carli 's Della Patria degli Italiani , written in 1764. It told how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. " 'Then what are you?' they asked. 'I am an Italian', he explained." The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792–97 when

17554-601: Was rejected by Galeazzo II, Matteo II and Bernabò Visconti, who were the sons of Stefano Visconti. After the death of Giovanni Visconti, who was the brother of Galeazzo, Luchino and Stefano Visconti, the General Council of Milan created another statute which proclaimed that Galeazzo II, Matteo II and Bernabò Visconti were to govern Milan as co-rulers because they were the only male adult descendants of their grandfather Matteo Visconti. Other territories under Visconti jurisdiction were to be divided among them as well. Matteo II Visconti died five months after he and his two brothers obtained

17688-579: Was the 19th century political and social movement that in 1861 ended in the annexation of various states of the Italian Peninsula and its outlying isles to the Kingdom of Sardinia , resulting in the creation of the Kingdom of Italy . Inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the Congress of Vienna , the unification process was precipitated by the Revolutions of 1848 , and reached completion in 1871 after

17822-466: Was the daughter of Aimone, Count of Savoy and the sister of Amadeo of Savoy . The marriage between the two consequently further cemented the alliance between Savoy and Milan. Together, the couple had two known children. Almost immediately after getting married, the two had their first and most well-known child, a son by the name of Gian Galeazzo in 1351 who was married off to Isabelle , the daughter of King John of France . Their only other known child

17956-451: Was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions. In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song Il Canto degli Italiani , the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place. Il Canto degli Italiani , written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro , is also known as the Inno di Mameli , after

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