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74-577: See List of Castilleja species Castilleja , commonly known as paintbrush , Indian paintbrush , or prairie-fire , is a genus of about 200 species of annual and perennial mostly herbaceous plants native to the west of the Americas from Alaska south to the Andes , northern Asia , and one species as far west as the Kola Peninsula in northwestern Russia. These plants are classified in

148-410: A collection of polyphagous heterotrophic consumers that network and cycle the flow of energy and nutrients from a productive base of self-feeding autotrophs . The base or basal species in a food web are those species without prey and can include autotrophs or saprophytic detritivores (i.e., the community of decomposers in soil , biofilms , and periphyton ). Feeding connections in

222-414: A few woody shrubs . They may grow as annual plants, but most of the species are perennial. Their roots are equally diverse in structure ranging from taproots to fibrous root systems . Some species also have modified underground stems called rhizomes to spread short distances. Stem lengths range from a minute 1 centimeter to as much as 2 meters. In almost all species the leaves are attached to

296-543: A food chain was described by a medieval Afro-Arab scholar named Al-Jahiz : "All animals, in short, cannot exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn." The earliest graphical depiction of a food web was by Lorenzo Camerano in 1880, followed independently by those of Pierce and colleagues in 1912 and Victor Shelford in 1913. Two food webs about herring were produced by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton and Alister Hardy in 1923 and 1924. Charles Elton subsequently pioneered

370-532: A food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank", "web of life", "web of complex relations", and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth". Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life". Interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores suggesting that food web complexity

444-418: A food web. In a simple predator-prey example, a deer is one step removed from the plants it eats (chain length = 1) and a wolf that eats the deer is two steps removed from the plants (chain length = 2). The relative amount or strength of influence that these parameters have on the food web address questions about: In a pyramid of numbers, the number of consumers at each level decreases significantly, so that

518-469: A food web. Ecologists use these simplifications in quantitative (or mathematical representation) models of trophic or consumer-resource systems dynamics. Using these models they can measure and test for generalized patterns in the structure of real food web networks. Ecologists have identified non-random properties in the topological structure of food webs. Published examples that are used in meta analysis are of variable quality with omissions. However,

592-460: A food web. Sometimes in food web terminology, complexity is defined as product of the number of species and connectance., though there have been criticisms of this definition and other proposed methods for measuring network complexity. Connectance is "the fraction of all possible links that are realized in a network". These concepts were derived and stimulated through the suggestion that complexity leads to stability in food webs, such as increasing

666-487: A food-web illustrate direct trophic relations among species, but there are also indirect effects that can alter the abundance, distribution, or biomass in the trophic levels. For example, predators eating herbivores indirectly influence the control and regulation of primary production in plants. Although the predators do not eat the plants directly, they regulate the population of herbivores that are directly linked to plant trophism. The net effect of direct and indirect relations

740-539: A living system (e.g., ecosystem) sways from equilibrium, the greater its complexity. Complexity has multiple meanings in the life sciences and in the public sphere that confuse its application as a precise term for analytical purposes in science. Complexity in the life sciences (or biocomplexity ) is defined by the "properties emerging from the interplay of behavioral, biological, physical, and social interactions that affect, sustain, or are modified by living organisms, including humans". Several concepts have emerged from

814-409: A long history in ecology. Like maps of unfamiliar ground, food webs appear bewilderingly complex. They were often published to make just that point. Yet recent studies have shown that food webs from a wide range of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine communities share a remarkable list of patterns. Links in food webs map the feeding connections (who eats whom) in an ecological community . Food cycle

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888-409: A measure mass or energy per m per unit time. Different consumers are going to have different metabolic assimilation efficiencies in their diets. Each trophic level transforms energy into biomass. Energy flow diagrams illustrate the rates and efficiency of transfer from one trophic level into another and up through the hierarchy. It is the case that the biomass of each trophic level decreases from

962-412: A process called biomineralization . Bacteria that live in detrital sediments create and cycle nutrients and biominerals. Food web models and nutrient cycles have traditionally been treated separately, but there is a strong functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sources, sinks, and recycling of mineral nutrients. Food webs are necessarily aggregated and only illustrate

1036-400: A single top consumer , (e.g., a polar bear or a human ), will be supported by a much larger number of separate producers. There is usually a maximum of four or five links in a food chain, although food chains in aquatic ecosystems are more often longer than those on land. Eventually, all the energy in a food chain is dispersed as heat. Ecological pyramids place the primary producers at

1110-527: A single species can directly and indirectly influence many others. Microcosm studies are used to simplify food web research into semi-isolated units such as small springs, decaying logs, and laboratory experiments using organisms that reproduce quickly, such as daphnia feeding on algae grown under controlled environments in jars of water. While the complexity of real food webs connections are difficult to decipher, ecologists have found mathematical models on networks an invaluable tool for gaining insight into

1184-514: A tangled web of omnivores." A central question in the trophic dynamic literature is the nature of control and regulation over resources and production. Ecologists use simplified one trophic position food chain models (producer, carnivore, decomposer). Using these models, ecologists have tested various types of ecological control mechanisms. For example, herbivores generally have an abundance of vegetative resources, which meant that their populations were largely controlled or regulated by predators. This

1258-413: A threat to the genetic integrity of certain endangered Castilleja species. The author Gregory L. Tilford claims that the flowers of Indian paintbrush are edible. However, these plants have a tendency to absorb and concentrate selenium in their tissues from the soils in which they grow, and can be potentially very toxic if the roots or green parts of the plant are consumed. Highly alkaline soils increase

1332-493: A tiny portion of the complexity of real ecosystems. For example, the number of species on the planet are likely in the general order of 10 , over 95% of these species consist of microbes and invertebrates , and relatively few have been named or classified by taxonomists . It is explicitly understood that natural systems are 'sloppy' and that food web trophic positions simplify the complexity of real systems that sometimes overemphasize many rare interactions. Most studies focus on

1406-413: A top carnivore, without specifying which end." Nonetheless, real differences in structure and function have been identified when comparing different kinds of ecological food webs, such as terrestrial vs. aquatic food webs. Food webs serve as a framework to help ecologists organize the complex network of interactions among species observed in nature and around the world. One of the earliest descriptions of

1480-434: A very general sense, energy flow (E) can be defined as the sum of metabolic production (P) and respiration (R), such that E=P+R. Biomass represents stored energy. However, concentration and quality of nutrients and energy is variable. Many plant fibers, for example, are indigestible to many herbivores leaving grazer community food webs more nutrient limited than detrital food webs where bacteria are able to access and release

1554-509: Is an obsolete term that is synonymous with food web. Ecologists can broadly group all life forms into one of two trophic layers, the autotrophs and the heterotrophs . Autotrophs produce more biomass energy, either chemically without the sun's energy or by capturing the sun's energy in photosynthesis , than they use during metabolic respiration . Heterotrophs consume rather than produce biomass energy as they metabolize, grow, and add to levels of secondary production . A food web depicts

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1628-437: Is attributed to different sizes of producers. Aquatic communities are often dominated by producers that are smaller than the consumers that have high growth rates. Aquatic producers, such as planktonic algae or aquatic plants, lack the large accumulation of secondary growth as exists in the woody trees of terrestrial ecosystems. However, they are able to reproduce quickly enough to support a larger biomass of grazers. This inverts

1702-422: Is called trophic cascades. Trophic cascades are separated into species-level cascades, where only a subset of the food-web dynamic is impacted by a change in population numbers, and community-level cascades, where a change in population numbers has a dramatic effect on the entire food-web, such as the distribution of plant biomass. The field of chemical ecology has elucidated multitrophic interactions that entail

1776-518: Is different from Wikidata Multitrophic interaction The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that link an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of consumer–resource interactions that can be roughly divided into herbivory , carnivory , scavenging , and parasitism . Some of

1850-414: Is known as the top-down hypothesis or 'green-world' hypothesis . Alternatively to the top-down hypothesis, not all plant material is edible and the nutritional quality or antiherbivore defenses of plants (structural and chemical) suggests a bottom-up form of regulation or control. Recent studies have concluded that both "top-down" and "bottom-up" forces can influence community structure and the strength of

1924-442: Is plants, then herbivores (level 2), and then carnivores (level 3). The trophic level equals one more than the chain length, which is the number of links connecting to the base. The base of the food chain (primary producers or detritivores ) is set at zero. Ecologists identify feeding relations and organize species into trophic species through extensive gut content analysis of different species. The technique has been improved through

1998-424: Is the fraction of all possible links that are realized (L/S ) and represents a standard measure of food web complexity..." The distance (d) between every species pair in a web is averaged to compute the mean distance between all nodes in a web (D) and multiplied by the total number of links (L) to obtain link-density (LD), which is influenced by scale-dependent variables such as species richness . These formulas are

2072-1185: The Rockies . Telluride, Colorado: Western Eye Press. p. 57. ISBN   978-0-941283-00-7 . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ Egger, J. Mark; Zika, Peter F.; Wilson, Barbara L.; Brainerd, Richard E.; Otting, Nick (5 February 2024). " Castilleja - FNA" . Flora of North America . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . ^ " Castilleja Mutis ex L.f." Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 5 June 2024 . ^ " Castilleja eggeri Franc.Gut., Cházaro & Avendaño" . World Flora Online . Retrieved 5 June 2024 . ^ " Castilleja Mutis ex L.f." World Flora Online . Retrieved 5 June 2024 . ^ " Castilleja cognata Greene" . World Flora Online . Retrieved 29 June 2024 . Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Castilleja_species&oldid=1246217095 " Categories : Castilleja Lists of plant species Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description

2146-409: The World Online (POWO) as of 2024. This list largely agrees with World Flora Online (WFO) with some exceptions. WFO lists Castilleja eggeri as unchecked. It also spells some species names differently, Castilleja rhexiifolia with a single "i" instead of a double "ii", Castilleja tolucensis as Castilleja toluccensis , and Castilleja virgatoides as Castilleja virgayoides . In addition one of

2220-454: The Younger using a partial description by José Celestino Bruno Mutis in 1782. The type species was Castilleja fissifolia from Columbia. The genus as a whole has never been renamed, however five others were described and named that are considered to be synonyms of Castilleja . For example, in 1818 Thomas Nuttall described a genus that he named Euchroma meaning finely colored, moving

2294-548: The base of the chain to the top. This is because energy is lost to the environment with each transfer as entropy increases. About eighty to ninety percent of the energy is expended for the organism's life processes or is lost as heat or waste. Only about ten to twenty percent of the organism's energy is generally passed to the next organism. The amount can be less than one percent in animals consuming less digestible plants, and it can be as high as forty percent in zooplankton consuming phytoplankton . Graphic representations of

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2368-430: The base. They can depict different numerical properties of ecosystems, including numbers of individuals per unit of area, biomass (g/m ), and energy (k cal m yr ). The emergent pyramidal arrangement of trophic levels with amounts of energy transfer decreasing as species become further removed from the source of production is one of several patterns that is repeated amongst the planets ecosystems. The size of each level in

2442-422: The basis for comparing and investigating the nature of non-random patterns in the structure of food web networks among many different types of ecosystems. Scaling laws, complexity, chaos, and pattern correlates are common features attributed to food web structure. Food webs are extremely complex. Complexity is a term that conveys the mental intractability of understanding all possible higher-order effects in

2516-442: The biomass or productivity at each tropic level are called ecological pyramids or trophic pyramids. The transfer of energy from primary producers to top consumers can also be characterized by energy flow diagrams. A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. Food chain length is another way of describing food webs as a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from

2590-466: The broomrape family Orobanchaceae (following major rearrangements of the order Lamiales starting around 2001; sources which do not follow these reclassifications may place them in the Scrophulariaceae ). They are hemiparasitic on the roots of grasses and forbs . The genus was named after Spanish botanist Domingo Castillejo . Castilleja was scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus

2664-413: The butterfly larvae. Another example of this sort of multitrophic interaction in plants is the transfer of defensive alkaloids produced by endophytes living within a grass host to a hemiparasitic plant that is also using the grass as a host. The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 discovery that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. In other words,

2738-581: The concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text. After Charles Elton's use of food webs in his 1927 synthesis, they became a central concept in the field of ecology . Elton organized species into functional groups , which formed the basis for the trophic system of classification in Raymond Lindeman 's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. The notion of

2812-400: The decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth". Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life". Food webs are limited representations of real ecosystems as they necessarily aggregate many species into trophic species , which are functional groups of species that have the same predators and prey in

2886-1514: The detrital web and the grazing web. Mushrooms produced by decomposers in the detrital web become a food source for deer, squirrels, and mice in the grazing web. Earthworms eaten by robins are detritivores consuming decaying leaves. "Detritus can be broadly defined as any form of non-living organic matter, including different types of plant tissue (e.g. leaf litter , dead wood, aquatic macrophytes, algae), animal tissue (carrion), dead microbes, faeces (manure, dung, faecal pellets, guano, frass), as well as products secreted, excreted or exuded from organisms (e.g. extra-cellular polymers, nectar, root exudates and leachates , dissolved organic matter, extra-cellular matrix, mucilage). The relative importance of these forms of detritus, in terms of origin, size and chemical composition, varies across ecosystems." Ecologists collect data on trophic levels and food webs to statistically model and mathematically calculate parameters, such as those used in other kinds of network analysis (e.g., graph theory), to study emergent patterns and properties shared among ecosystems. There are different ecological dimensions that can be mapped to create more complicated food webs, including: species composition (type of species), richness (number of species), biomass (the dry weight of plants and animals), productivity (rates of conversion of energy and nutrients into growth), and stability (food webs over time). A food web diagram illustrating species composition shows how change in

2960-592: The diet of the most specialized species is a subset of the diet of the next more generalized species, and its diet a subset of the next more generalized, and so on." Until recently, it was thought that food webs had little nested structure, but empirical evidence shows that many published webs have nested subwebs in their assembly. Food webs are complex networks . As networks, they exhibit similar structural properties and mathematical laws that have been used to describe other complex systems, such as small world and scale free properties . The small world attribute refers to

3034-439: The diets of smaller predators tend to be nested subsets of those of larger predators (Woodward & Warren 2007; YvonDurocher et al. 2008), and phylogenetic constraints, whereby related taxa are nested based on their common evolutionary history, are also evident (Cattin et al. 2004)." "Compartments in food webs are subgroups of taxa in which many strong interactions occur within the subgroups and few weak interactions occur between

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3108-458: The ecosystem concept, which assumes that the phenomena under investigation (interactions and feedback loops) are sufficient to explain patterns within boundaries, such as the edge of a forest, an island, a shoreline, or some other pronounced physical characteristic. In a detrital web, plant and animal matter is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then carnivores. There are often relationships between

3182-450: The ecosystem to another. The trophic dynamic concept has served as a useful quantitative heuristic, but it has several major limitations including the precision by which an organism can be allocated to a specific trophic level. Omnivores, for example, are not restricted to any single level. Nonetheless, recent research has found that discrete trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as

3256-436: The flowers, as well as hummingbirds for some species. Castilleja species can play an important role in plant community dynamics and multitrophic interactions . For example, Castilleja hemiparasitic reliance on other plant species may affect competition and dominance among other plant species in its community. Additionally, the foliage of some Castilleja species naturally contains defensive compounds that are sequestered in

3330-496: The influence is environmentally context dependent. These complex multitrophic interactions involve more than two trophic levels in a food web. For example, such interactions have been discovered in the context of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and aphid herbivores that utilize the same plant species . Another example of a multitrophic interaction is a trophic cascade , in which predators help to increase plant growth and prevent overgrazing by suppressing herbivores. Links in

3404-483: The inverted pyramidal pattern. Population structure, migration rates, and environmental refuge for prey are other possible causes for pyramids with biomass inverted. Energy pyramids, however, will always have an upright pyramid shape if all sources of food energy are included and this is dictated by the second law of thermodynamics . Many of the Earth's elements and minerals (or mineral nutrients) are contained within

3478-618: The larger influences where the bulk of energy transfer occurs. "These omissions and problems are causes for concern, but on present evidence do not present insurmountable difficulties." There are different kinds or categories of food webs: Within these categories, food webs can be further organized according to the different kinds of ecosystems being investigated. For example, human food webs, agricultural food webs, detrital food webs, marine food webs , aquatic food webs, soil food webs , Arctic (or polar) food webs, terrestrial food webs, and microbial food webs . These characterizations stem from

3552-594: The many loosely connected nodes, non-random dense clustering of a few nodes (i.e., trophic or keystone species in ecology), and small path length compared to a regular lattice. "Ecological networks, especially mutualistic networks, are generally very heterogeneous, consisting of areas with sparse links among species and distinct areas of tightly linked species. These regions of high link density are often referred to as cliques, hubs, compartments, cohesive sub-groups, or modules...Within food webs, especially in aquatic systems, nestedness appears to be related to body size because

3626-436: The mass of any one element at the beginning of a reaction will equal the mass of that element at the end of the reaction. Food webs depict energy flow via trophic linkages. Energy flow is directional, which contrasts against the cyclic flows of material through the food web systems. Energy flow "typically includes production, consumption, assimilation, non-assimilation losses (feces), and respiration (maintenance costs)." In

3700-403: The number of empirical studies on community webs is on the rise and the mathematical treatment of food webs using network theory had identified patterns that are common to all. Scaling laws , for example, predict a relationship between the topology of food web predator-prey linkages and levels of species richness . Food webs are the road-maps through Darwin's famous 'entangled bank' and have

3774-414: The number of trophic levels in more species rich ecosystems. This hypothesis was challenged through mathematical models suggesting otherwise, but subsequent studies have shown that the premise holds in real systems. At different levels in the hierarchy of life, such as the stability of a food web, "the same overall structure is maintained in spite of an ongoing flow and change of components." The farther

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3848-426: The nutrient and energy stores. "Organisms usually extract energy in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These polymers have a dual role as supplies of energy as well as building blocks; the part that functions as energy supply results in the production of nutrients (and carbon dioxide, water, and heat). Excretion of nutrients is, therefore, basic to metabolism." The units in energy flow webs are typically

3922-408: The organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as sugars , provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from microscopic to many tonnes - from cyanobacteria to giant redwoods , and from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales . Charles Elton pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle'

3996-417: The plants to top predators. There are different ways of calculating food chain length depending on what parameters of the food web dynamic are being considered: connectance, energy, or interaction. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in

4070-437: The pyramid generally represents biomass, which can be measured as the dry weight of an organism. Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes. Pyramid structure can vary across ecosystems and across time. In some instances biomass pyramids can be inverted. This pattern is often identified in aquatic and coral reef ecosystems. The pattern of biomass inversion

4144-424: The pyramid. Primary consumers have longer lifespans and slower growth rates that accumulates more biomass than the producers they consume. Phytoplankton live just a few days, whereas the zooplankton eating the phytoplankton live for several weeks and the fish eating the zooplankton live for several consecutive years. Aquatic predators also tend to have a lower death rate than the smaller consumers, which contributes to

4218-466: The same predators and prey in a food web. Common examples of an aggregated node in a food web might include parasites , microbes, decomposers , saprotrophs , consumers , or predators , each containing many species in a web that can otherwise be connected to other trophic species. Food webs have trophic levels and positions. Basal species, such as plants, form the first level and are the resource-limited species that feed on no other living creature in

4292-590: The selenium levels in the plants. In addition Castilleja species will take up alkaloids from other plants when parasitizing them. Castilleja linariifolia is the state flower of Wyoming . List of Castilleja species List of paintbrush species This is a list of the species in the genus Castilleja . They are commonly called paintbrushes , painted-cups , or owl’s-clovers in English. These 218 species and two natural hybrids are considered valid by Plants of

4366-508: The species now known as Castilleja coccinea out of Bartsia where it had been placed by Carl Linnaeus and also named another species as Euchroma grandiflora . However, Nutttall's Euchroma grandiflora had already been named and correctly placed as Castilleja sessiliflora by Frederick Traugott Pursh in 1813. There are 216 species that are considered valid by Plants of the World Online . More than half, 119 species, are native to North America north of Mexico. The name Castilleja

4440-576: The stems and alternating. The inflorescences are always at the ends of the stems, which may or may not branch. The inflorescence usually have bracts that are brightly colored for the whole length or towards their ends. Castilleja species are eaten by the larvae of some lepidopteran species , including Schinia cupes (which has been recorded on C. exserta ) and Schinia pulchripennis (which feeds exclusively on C. exserta ), and checkerspot butterflies, such as Euphydryas species. Pollinators aid these plants in reproduction, with insects visiting

4514-406: The structure, stability, and laws of food web behaviours relative to observable outcomes. "Food web theory centers around the idea of connectance." Quantitative formulas simplify the complexity of food web structure. The number of trophic links (t L ), for example, is converted into a connectance value: where, S(S-1)/2 is the maximum number of binary connections among S species. "Connectance (C)

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4588-405: The study of complexity in food webs. Complexity explains many principals pertaining to self-organization, non-linearity, interaction, cybernetic feedback, discontinuity, emergence, and stability in food webs. Nestedness, for example, is defined as "a pattern of interaction in which specialists interact with species that form perfect subsets of the species with which generalists interact", "—that is,

4662-508: The subgroups. Theoretically, compartments increase the stability in networks, such as food webs." Food webs are also complex in the way that they change in scale, seasonally, and geographically. The components of food webs, including organisms and mineral nutrients, cross the thresholds of ecosystem boundaries. This has led to the concept or area of study known as cross-boundary subsidy . "This leads to anomalies, such as food web calculations determining that an ecosystem can support one half of

4736-423: The sulfur bacterium Thiobacillus , which lives in hot sulfur springs . The top level has top (or apex) predators that no other species kills directly for their food resource needs. The intermediate levels are filled with omnivores that feed on more than one trophic level and cause energy to flow through several food pathways starting from a basal species. In the simplest scheme, the first trophic level (level 1)

4810-427: The tissues and diets of organisms. Hence, mineral and nutrient cycles trace food web energy pathways. Ecologists employ stoichiometry to analyze the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as C:P and C:N ratios are much higher in terrestrial systems while N:P ratios are equal between

4884-482: The tissues of larvae of specialist insect species that have developed a tolerance for these compounds and are able to consume the foliage. These sequestered compounds then confer chemical protection against predators to larvae. Some species in the Castilleja genus are able to hybridize, especially when ploidy levels match, and hybrids may produce viable seed. This hybridization potential has been identified as

4958-620: The transfer of defensive compounds across multiple trophic levels. For example, certain plant species in the Castilleja and Plantago genera have been found to produce defensive compounds called iridoid glycosides that are sequestered in the tissues of the Taylor's checkerspot butterfly larvae that have developed a tolerance for these compounds and are able to consume the foliage of these plants. These sequestered iridoid glycosides then confer chemical protection against bird predators to

5032-16468: The two hybrids, Castilleja × cognata , is listed in WFO as a species rather than as a hybrid. Photo Scientific name Common name [REDACTED] Castilleja affinis Hook. & Arn. coast paintbrush Castilleja albobarbata Iltis & G.L.Nesom Castilleja alpicola T.I.Chuang & Heckard [REDACTED] Castilleja ambigua Hook. & Arn. salt-marsh owl-clover Castilleja angustata Eastw. [REDACTED] Castilleja angustifolia (Nutt.) G.Don northwestern paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja applegatei Fernald wavyleaf paintbrush Castilleja aquariensis N.H.Holmgren Aquarius Plateau paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja arachnoidea Greenm. cobwebby paintbrush Castilleja arctica Krylov & Serg. [REDACTED] Castilleja arvensis Schltdl. & Cham. field paintbrush Castilleja aspera Eastw. [REDACTED] Castilleja attenuata (A.Gray) T.I.Chuang & Heckard valley tassels Castilleja aurea B.L.Rob. & Greenm. Castilleja auriculata Eastw. Castilleja beldingii (Greene) Tank & J.M.Egger [REDACTED] Castilleja bella Standl. Castilleja brevilobata Piper short-lobed paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja brevistyla (Hoover) T.I.Chuang & Heckard shortstyle paintbrush Castilleja bryantii Brandegee [REDACTED] Castilleja campestris (Benth.) T.I.Chuang & Heckard vernal pool paintbrush Castilleja cerroana Edwin Castilleja cervina Greenm. deer paintbrush Castilleja chambersii M.Egger & Meinke chambers' paintbrush Castilleja chlorosceptron G.L.Nesom Castilleja chlorotica Piper green-tinged paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja christii N.H.Holmgren Christ's paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja chromosa A.Nelson desert paintbrush Castilleja chrymactis Pennell Glacier Bay paintbrush Castilleja chrysantha Greenm. Yellow Wallowa paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja cinerea A.Gray ash-gray paintbrush Castilleja citrina Pennell lemon paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja coccinea (L.) Spreng. painted-cup paintbrush Castilleja × cognata Greene [REDACTED] Castilleja collegiorum J.M.Egger & Malaby collegial paintbrush Castilleja conzattii Fernald Castilleja covilleana Hend. Coville's paintbrush Castilleja crista-galli Rydb. mountainside paintbrush Castilleja cryptantha Pennell & G.N.Jones obscure paintbrush Castilleja ctenodonta Eastw. [REDACTED] Castilleja cusickii Greenm. Cusick's paintbrush Castilleja dendridion G.L.Nesom [REDACTED] Castilleja densiflora (Benth.) T.I.Chuang & Heckard denseflower paintbrush Castilleja dissitiflora N.H.Holmgren remote-flowered paintbrush Castilleja disticha Eastw. distichous paintbrush Castilleja durangensis G.L.Nesom Castilleja ecuadorensis N.H.Holmgren Ecuador paintbrush Castilleja eggeri Franc.Gut., Cházaro & Avendaño [REDACTED] Castilleja elata Piper siskiyou paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja elegans Malte elegant paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja elmeri Fernald Elmer's paintbrush Castilleja exigua J.M.Egger [REDACTED] Castilleja exserta (A.Heller) T.I.Chuang & Heckard purple owl's-clover Castilleja falcata Eastw. Castilleja filiflora G.L.Nesom Castilleja fissifolia L.f. Castilleja flava S.Watson yellow paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja foliolosa Hook. & Arn. felt paintbrush Castilleja fraterna Greenm. fraternal paintbrush Castilleja fruticosa Moran Castilleja galactionovae Nikolin Castilleja galehintoniae G.L.Nesom Gale Hinton's paintbrush Castilleja genevievana G.L.Nesom Genevieve's paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja glandulifera Pennell glandular paintbrush Castilleja gleasoni Elmer frosted paintbrush Castilleja gonzaleziae G.L.Nesom Castilleja gracilis Benth. Castilleja gracillima Rydb. slender paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja grisea Dunkle San Clemente Island paintbrush Castilleja guadalupensis Brandegee Guadalupe Island paintbrush ( extinct ) Castilleja halophila Singhurst, J.M.Egger, Mink & W.C.Holmes Texas seaside paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja haydenii (A.Gray) Cockerell Hayden's paintbrush Castilleja hidalgensis J.M.Egger Castilleja hirsuta M.Martens & Galeotti [REDACTED] Castilleja hispida Benth. harsh paintbrush Castilleja holmgrenii J.M.Egger Castilleja hololeuca Greene island paintbrush Castilleja hyparctica Rebrist. Castilleja hyperborea Pennell northern paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja indivisa Engelm. Texas paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja integra A.Gray orange paintbrush wholeleaf paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja integrifolia L.f. Castilleja irasuensis Oerst. Castilleja jiquilpana G.L.Nesom [REDACTED] Castilleja kaibabensis N.H.Holmgren Kaibab Plateau paintbrush Castilleja kerryana J.M.Egger Kerry's paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja kraliana J.R.Allison Cahaba paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja lacera (Benth.) T.I.Chuang & Heckard cutleaf paintbrush Castilleja laciniata Hook. & Arn. [REDACTED] Castilleja lanata A.Gray wooly paintbrush Castilleja lapponica Gand. ex Rebrist. [REDACTED] Castilleja lasiorhyncha (A.Gray) T.I.Chuang & Heckard San Bernardino Mountains owl's-clover Castilleja lassenensis Eastw. Lassen paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja latifolia Hook. & Arn. Monterey paintbrush Castilleja lebgueana G.L.Nesom [REDACTED] Castilleja lemmonii A.Gray Lemmon's paintbrush Castilleja lentii N.H.Holmgren Castilleja leschkeana J.T.Howell Glacier Bay paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja levisecta Greenm. golden paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja linariifolia Benth. Wyoming paintbrush Castilleja lindheimeri A.Gray Lindheimer's paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja lineariloba (Benth.) T.I.Chuang & Heckard linear-lobed owl's-clover [REDACTED] Castilleja lineata Greene marshmeadow paintbrush Castilleja linifolia N.H.Holmgren Castilleja litoralis Pennell littoral paintbrush Castilleja longiflora Kunze [REDACTED] Castilleja lutescens (Greenm.) Rydb. stiff yellow paintbrush Castilleja macrostigma B.L.Rob. Castilleja madrigalii C.Medina & E.Carranza Castilleja martini Abrams Camp Martin paintbrush Castilleja mcvaughii N.H.Holmgren [REDACTED] Castilleja mendocinensis (Eastw.) Pennell Mendocino Coast paintbrush Castilleja meridensis Pennell Castilleja mexicana (Hemsl.) A.Gray Mexican paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja miniata Douglas ex Benth. scarlet paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja minor (A.Gray) A.Gray thread-torch paintbrush Castilleja mogollonica Pennell Mogollon paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja mollis Pennell soft-leaved paintbrush Castilleja montigena Heckard Heckard’s paintbrush Castilleja moranensis Kunth [REDACTED] Castilleja nana Eastw. dwarf paintbrush Castilleja nelsonii Eastw. southern mountains paintbrush Castilleja nervata Eastw. nerved paintbrush Castilleja nitricola Eastw. Castilleja nivea Pennell & Ownbey snowy paintbrush Castilleja nivibractea G.L.Nesom Castilleja nubigena Kunth [REDACTED] Castilleja occidentalis Torr. western yellow paintbrush Castilleja ophiocephala Tank & J.M.Egger Castilleja oresbia Greenm. pale wallowa paintbrush Castilleja organorum Standl. Organ Mountains paintbrush Castilleja ornata Eastw. ornate paintbrush Castilleja ortegae Standl. [REDACTED] Castilleja pallescens (A.Gray) Greenm. pale paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja pallida (L.) Kunth pale paintbrush Castilleja palmeri Eastw. Castilleja papilionacea G.L.Nesom Castilleja paramensis F.González & Pabón-Mora [REDACTED] Castilleja parviflora Bong. rosy paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja parvula Rydb. Tushar Mountains paintbrush Castilleja patriotica Fernald native paintbrush Castilleja pavlovii Rebrist. Castilleja peckiana Pennell Peck’s paintbrush Castilleja pectinata M.Martens & Galeotti [REDACTED] Castilleja peirsonii Eastw. Peirson’s paintbrush Castilleja perelegans G.L.Nesom Castilleja peruviana T.I.Chuang & Heckard Peruvian paintbrush Castilleja pilosa (S.Watson) Rydb. hairy paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja plagiotoma A.Gray Mojave Desert paintbrush Castilleja porphyrosceptron G.L.Nesom Castilleja × porterae Cockerell Porter's paintbrush Castilleja praeterita Heckard & Bacig. Salmon Creek paintbrush Castilleja pringlei Fernald Castilleja profunda T.I.Chuang & Heckard [REDACTED] Castilleja pruinosa Fernald frosted paintbrush Castilleja pseudohyperborea Rebrist. Castilleja pseudopallescens Edwin Castilleja pterocaulon N.H.Holmgren Castilleja puberula Rydb. short-flowered paintbrush Castilleja pulchella Rydb. showy paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja pumila (Benth.) Wedd. lancetilla del páramo Castilleja purpurascens Greenm. yoho paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja purpurea (Nutt.) G.Don purplish paintbrush Castilleja quiexobrensis G.L.Nesom Castilleja quirosii Standl. Castilleja racemosa (Breedlove & Heckard) T.I.Chuang & Heckard [REDACTED] Castilleja raupii Pennell Raup’s paintbrush Castilleja revealii N.H.Holmgren Bryce Canyon paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja rhexiifolia Rydb. rhexia-leaved paintbrush Castilleja rhizomata N.H.Holmgren Castilleja rigida Eastw. rigid paintbrush Castilleja roei Crosswh. [REDACTED] Castilleja rubicundula (Jeps.) T.I.Chuang & Heckard cream sacs Castilleja rubida Piper purple alpine paintbrush Castilleja rubra (Drobow) Rebrist. [REDACTED] Castilleja rupicola Piper ex Fernald cliff paintbrush Castilleja salaisolaveae J.M.Egger, Velazco & Huereca Castilleja salsuginosa N.H.Holmgren Monte Neva paintbrush Castilleja saltensis Eastw. Castilleja scabrida Eastw. rough paintbrush Castilleja schaffneri Hemsl. [REDACTED] Castilleja schizotricha Greenm. split-haired paintbrush Castilleja scorzonerifolia Kunth scorzonera-leafed paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja septentrionalis Lindl. sulfur paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja sessiliflora Pursh downy paintbrush Castilleja sphaerostigma Eastw. Castilleja spiranthoides Standl. Castilleja stenophylla M.E.Jones Castilleja steyermarkii Pennell Castilleja stipifolia G.L.Nesom Castilleja subalpina Eastw. [REDACTED] Castilleja subinclusa Greene longleaf paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja suksdorfii A.Gray Suksdorf’s paintbrush Castilleja talamancensis N.H.Holmgren Castilleja tapeinoclada Loes. Castilleja tayloriorum N.H.Holmgren Castilleja tenella Rebrist. Castilleja tenuiflora Benth. Santa Catalina paintbrush Castilleja tenuifolia M.Martens & Galeotti [REDACTED] Castilleja tenuis (A.Heller) T.I.Chuang & Heckard hairy owl’s clover [REDACTED] Castilleja thompsonii Pennell Thompson’s paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja tolucensis Kunth Castilleja tomentosa A.Gray tomentose paintbrush Castilleja trujillensis Pennell Castilleja uliginosa Eastw. Pitkin Marsh paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja unalaschcensis (Cham. & Schltdl.) Malte coastal paintbrush Castilleja vadosa T.I.Chuang & Heckard Castilleja variocolorata A.P.Khokhr. Castilleja venusta Rzed. [REDACTED] Castilleja victoriae Fairbarns & J.M.Egger Victoria’s owl’s-clover Castilleja virgata (Wedd.) Edwin Castilleja virgatoides Edwin Castilleja viscidula A.Gray sticky paintbrush Castilleja wallowensis Pennell Wallowa paintbrush [REDACTED] Castilleja wightii Elmer Wight’s paintbrush Castilleja wootonii Standl. Wooton’s paintbrush Castilleja xanthotricha Pennell yellow-hairy paintbrush Castilleja zempoaltepetlensis G.L.Nesom References [ edit ] ^ Waidhofer, Linde; Tejada-Flores, Lito (1987). High Color : Spectacular Wildflowers of

5106-422: The two systems. Mineral nutrients are the material resources that organisms need for growth, development, and vitality. Food webs depict the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow through organisms. Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not consumed, but is recycled by detritus back into useful nutrients. Many of the Earth's microorganisms are involved in the formation of minerals in

5180-422: The use of stable isotopes to better trace energy flow through the web. It was once thought that omnivory was rare, but recent evidence suggests otherwise. This realization has made trophic classifications more complex. The trophic level concept was introduced in a historical landmark paper on trophic dynamics in 1942 by Raymond L. Lindeman . The basis of trophic dynamics is the transfer of energy from one part of

5254-520: The web are called trophic links. The number of trophic links per consumer is a measure of food web connectance . Food chains are nested within the trophic links of food webs. Food chains are linear (noncyclic) feeding pathways that trace monophagous consumers from a base species up to the top consumer , which is usually a larger predatory carnivore. Linkages connect to nodes in a food web, which are aggregates of biological taxa called trophic species . Trophic species are functional groups that have

5328-467: The web. Basal species can be autotrophs or detritivores , including "decomposing organic material and its associated microorganisms which we defined as detritus, micro-inorganic material and associated microorganisms (MIP), and vascular plant material." Most autotrophs capture the sun's energy in chlorophyll , but some autotrophs (the chemolithotrophs ) obtain energy by the chemical oxidation of inorganic compounds and can grow in dark environments, such as

5402-852: Was chosen by Mutis as an honor for the Spanish naturalist Domingo Castillejo . Castillejo was a professor of medical materials and botany at the Cadiz Royal College of Surgery between 1770 and 1786. Mutis wrote in Latin, "Ab Stemodia quantum ex characteríbus video, valde diversa haec singularissimeplanta, proculdubio numeranda ínter Didynamas. Castillejam dixi in merítissimum honorem D. Castillejo Botanici Gadensis." The species in Castilleja are quite varied in form and lifecycle. The genus includes many species that are completely herbaceous, lacking woody material in their above-ground parts. Though it also includes some slightly woody subshrubs and even

5476-520: Was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text. Elton organized species into functional groups , which was the basis for Raymond Lindeman 's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. Lindeman emphasized the important role of decomposer organisms in a trophic system of classification . The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank", "web of life", "web of complex relations", and in reference to

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