The various names used since classical times for the people known today as the Celts are of disparate origins.
164-515: The modern Celts ( / k ɛ l t s / KELTS , see pronunciation of Celt ) are a related group of ethnicities who share similar Celtic languages , cultures and artistic histories, and who live in or descend from one of the regions on the western extremities of Europe populated by the Celts . A modern Celtic identity emerged in Western Europe following the identification of
328-546: A Guardian editorial in 1990 pointed to these differences, and said that they should be constitutionally recognised: Smaller minorities also have equally proud visions of themselves as irreducibly Welsh, Irish, Manx or Cornish. These identities are distinctly national in ways which proud people from Yorkshire , much less proud people from Berkshire will never know. Any new constitutional settlement which ignores these factors will be built on uneven ground. The Republic of Ireland, on surpassing Britain 's GDP per capita in
492-616: A skeptic Bayle only partially accepted the philosophy and principles of rationality. He did draw a strict boundary between morality and religion. The rigor of his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique influenced many of the Enlightenment Encyclopédistes . By the mid-18th century the French Enlightenment had found a focus in the project of the Encyclopédie . The philosophical movement
656-505: A "politically correct disdain for the use of 'Celt. ' " Traditionally, the essential defining criterion of Celticity is seen as peoples and countries that do, or once did, use Celtic languages and it is asserted that an index of connectedness to the Celtic languages has to be borne in mind before branching out into other cultural domains. An alternative approach to defining the Celts is
820-530: A Celtic tribe who originally lived in southern Germany and then emigrated to Gaul; for two centuries they barred the southward expansion of the Germanic tribes . Most modern Celticists consider Uolcae to be related to Welsh gwalch ' hawk ', and perhaps more distantly to Latin falco (id.) The name would have initially appeared in Proto-Germanic as *wolk- and become *walh- via Grimm's Law . In
984-695: A Franco-Celtic macro-culture. Less common is the assumption of Celticity for European cultures deriving from Continental Celtic roots ( Gauls or Celtiberians ). These were either Romanised or Germanised much earlier, before the Early Middle Ages. Nevertheless, Celtic origins are many times implied for continental groups such as the Asturians , Galicians , Portuguese , Swiss , Northern Italians , Belgians and Austrians . The names of Belgium and Aquitaine hark back to Gallia Belgica and Gallia Aquitania , respectively, in turn named for
1148-525: A God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion]," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law,
1312-446: A beul from Scotland, Ireland, and Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Sean-nós singing from Ireland and Kan ha diskan from Brittany. Other traditional unaccompanied styles sung currently are waulking songs and psalm singing or lining out , both from Scotland. The emergence of folk-rock led to the creation of a popular music genre labelled Celtic music which "frequently involves the blending of traditional and modern forms, e.g.
1476-554: A conscious attempt to promote an Irish national identity, which, with its counterparts in other countries, subsequently became known as the " Celtic Revival ". The initial consonant of the English words Celt and Celtic is primarily pronounced /k/ and occasionally /s/ in both modern British and American English , although /s/ was formerly the norm. In the oldest attested Greek form, and originally also in Latin , it
1640-787: A contributor to The Celt states, "The Greeks called us Keltoi," expressing a position of ethnic essentialism that extends "we" to include both 19th-century Irish people and the Danubian Κελτοί of Herodotus. This sense of "Celtic" is preserved in its political sense in the Celtic nationalism of organisations such as the Celtic League , but it is also used in a more general and politically neutral sense in expressions such as " Celtic music ." Latin Galli might be from an originally Celtic ethnic or tribal name , perhaps borrowed into Latin during
1804-421: A definition of Celticity-based mainly upon language. Celtic languages have survived (or in some cases been revived) and continue to be used to varying degrees in these six geographical areas. There are also Celtic nomads: Irish Travellers called "Pavee" that speak a language called Shelta that is a creole of Irish Gaelic and other languages, and Indigenous Highland Scottish Travellers called "Tinkers" who speak
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#17327723582101968-797: A demonstrated descent from the Celts (such as family history or DNA ancestry). Since the Enlightenment , the term Celtic has been applied to a wide variety of peoples and cultural traits present and past. Today, Celtic is often used to describe people of the Celtic nations (the Bretons , the Cornish , the Irish , the Manx , the Scots and the Welsh ) and their respective cultures and languages. Except for
2132-579: A drab period in the history of science. The century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy ; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry. The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Richard Blackmore committed
2296-575: A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology. Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism . According to Thomas Paine , deism is the simple belief in God
2460-568: A holy day. Pilgrimages are still an important feature of country life, particularly in Ireland, Brittany and Galicia. The most impressive pilgrimages include Croagh Patrick on the west coast of Ireland on the last Sunday in July (the beginning of harvest) and Santiago de Compostela in Galicia. The inspiration for famous Celtic singer and harpist Loreena McKennitt 's million-selling CD The Mask and
2624-556: A knighthood and a very lucrative government office. A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts." Slavery frequently showed
2788-474: A language called Beurla Reagaird that is an acrolect of Scottish Gaelic. A number of activists on behalf of other regions/nations have also sought recognition as modern Celts, reflecting the wide diffusion of ancient Celts across Europe. Notable regions include Galicia , Northern Portugal , Asturias and Cantabria . A Celtic language did not survive in Galicia / Northern Portugal (together Gallaecia), Asturias nor Cantabria, and as such they fall outside of
2952-630: A mixture of Celtae and Iberi . Aside from the Celtiberians — Lusones , Titii , Arevaci , and Pellendones , among others – who inhabited large regions of central Spain , Greek and Roman geographers also spoke of a people or group of peoples called Celtici or Κελτικοί living in the south of modern-day Portugal , in the Alentejo region, between the Tagus and Guadiana rivers. They are first mentioned by Strabo , who wrote that they were
3116-679: A number of inscriptions , as the Celtici Flavienses did. Several villages and rural parishes still bear the name Céltigos (from Latin Celticos ) in Galicia. This is also the name of an archpriesthood of the Roman Catholic Church , a division of the archbishopric of Santiago de Compostela , encompassing part of the lands attributed to the Celtici Supertamarici by ancient authors. The name Celtae
3280-575: A people of the La Tène horizon in the region of the upper Rhine and Danube during the 6th to 1st centuries BC in Graeco-Roman ethnography . The etymology of this name and that of the Gauls Γαλάται Galátai / Galli is uncertain. The linguistic sense of Celts , a grouping of all speakers of Celtic languages , is modern. There is scant record of the term "Celt" being used prior to
3444-516: A privileged significance to their descent from the Gauls . The struggles of Vercingetorix were portrayed as a forerunner of the 19th-century struggles in defence of French nationalism, including the wars of both Napoleons ( Napoleon I of France and Napoleon III of France ). Basic French history textbooks emphasised the ways in which Gauls ( "Nos ancêtres les Gaulois..." , 'our ancestors the Gauls') could be seen as an example of cultural assimilation. In
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#17327723582103608-463: A scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity . Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by Dugald Stewart was the basis of classical liberalism . In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations , often considered
3772-479: A slightly different account: he says that the ethnonym Galli (nominative singular * Gallos ) is from the present stem of the verb that he reconstructs for Proto-Celtic as * gal-nV- ( V denotes a vowel whose unclear identity does not permit full reconstruction). He writes that this verb means "to be able to, to gain control of", and that Galatai comes from the same root and is to be reconstructed as nominative singular * galatis < * gelH-ti-s . Schumacher gives
3936-482: A society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of
4100-467: A team of 150 others. The Encyclopédie helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other publications of the Enlightenment included Berkeley's A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), Voltaire's Letters on the English (1733) and Philosophical Dictionary (1764); Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (1740); Montesquieu's The Spirit of
4264-792: A threat. In 1998, Simon James of the University of Leicester in the Antiquity article "Celts, politics and motivation in archaeology" replied to Ruth and Vincent Megaw's article questioning the suitability of the term Celtic in the historic sense. The core of his argument was that the Iron Age peoples of Britain should be considered not as generic Celts, but as a mosaic of different societies, each with their own traditions and histories. Later in 1998, this line of reasoning came under criticism, being labelled an intellectual extension of modern British cultural colonialism, as well as for simplifying
4428-526: A true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone . He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Anthony Collins , one of the English freethinkers , published his "Essay concerning
4592-402: A valid linguistic connection, its use for both Insular and Continental Celtic cultures is misleading, as archaeology does not suggest a unified Celtic culture during the Iron Age. With the rise of Celtic nationalism in the early to mid-19th century, the term "Celtic" also came to be a self-designation used by proponents of a modern Celtic identity . Thus, in a discussion of "the word Celt,"
4756-576: Is Jaille , which is found in several western placenames. Similarly, French Gallois , "Welsh," is not from Latin Galli but (with suffix substitution) from Proto-Germanic * walhisks "Celtic, Gallo-Roman, Romance" or from its Old English descendant wælisċ (= Modern English Welsh ). Wælisċ originates from Proto-Germanic * walhiska- 'foreign' or "Celt" (South German Welsch(e) "Celtic speaker," "French speaker," "Italian speaker"; Old Norse valskr , pl. valir "Gaulish," "French,"). In Old French,
4920-574: Is a summer feast and was dedicated to the god Lug . Of great interest is the use in the Coligny calendar of the word Saman , a word that is still in use in Gaelic refer to Hallowe'en (evening of the saints), an important day and night and feast among the Celts (in Welsh it is called Calan Gaeaf ). In Gaelic folklore, it was considered a particularly dangerous time, when magical spirits wandered through
5084-729: Is an annual 3-day event that promotes the languages and cultures of the Celtic Nations and Regions in media. This festival takes place in a different Celtic nation every year and has been running since 1980. The birthdays of the most important Celtic Saints of Celtic Christianity for each Celtic nation have become the focus for festivals, feasts and marches: Ireland – Saint Patrick's Day , Wales – Saint David's Day , Scotland – Saint Andrew's Day , Cornwall – Saint Piran's Day , Isle of Man – St Maughold 's Feast Day and Brittany – Fête de la St-Yves and Grand Pardon of Sainte-Anne-d'Auray Pilgrimage. Attitudes and customs associated with
Celts (modern) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5248-426: Is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on
5412-457: Is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by Hutcheson's protégés in Edinburgh : David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in
5576-882: The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben . The name of the Gallaeci (earlier form Callaeci or Callaici), a Celtic federation in northwest Iberia, may seem related to Galli but is not. The Romans named the entire region north of the Douro , where the Castro culture existed, in honour of the Castro people who settled in the area of Calle – the Callaeci . English Gaul / Gaulish are unrelated to Latin Gallia / Galli , despite superficial similarity. The English words ultimately stem from
5740-605: The philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution . Francis Hutcheson , a moral philosopher and founding figure of the Scottish Enlightenment , described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue
5904-527: The Age of Reason and the Enlightenment ) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe in the 17th and the 18th centuries. The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of rationalism and of empiricism and political ideals such as natural law , liberty , and progress , toleration and fraternity , constitutional government , and
6068-768: The Belgae and the Aquitani . The Latin name of the Swiss Confederacy , Confoederatio Helvetica , harks back to the Helvetii , the name of Galicia to the Gallaeci and the Auvergne of France to the Averni . 'Celt' has been adopted as a label of self-identification by a variety of peoples at different times. 'Celticity' can refer to the inferred links between them. During the 19th century, French nationalists gave
6232-632: The Brittonic ( Breton , Cornish , and Welsh variants) and Goidelic ( Irish , Manx , and Gaelic variants) languages, and the people who speak them are considered modern Celts. The concept of modern Celtic identity evolved during the course of the 19th century into the Celtic Revival . By the late 19th century, it often took the form of ethnic nationalism , particularly within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , where
6396-733: The Celts of the European Iron Age , the group of Celtic-speaking peoples in historical linguistics , and the modern Celtic identity derived from the Romanticist Celtic Revival . After its use by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, the use of the word "Celtic" as an umbrella term for the pre-Roman peoples of the British Isles gained considerable popularity. Lhuyd was the first to recognise that the Irish, British, and Gaulish languages were related to one another, and
6560-498: The Declaration of Independence ; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787. Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of
6724-670: The Fathers of Confederation which saw the formation of Canada was Gaelic . There is a movement in Cape Breton for a separate province in Canada, as espoused by the Cape Breton Labour Party and others. In some former British colonies, or particular regions within them, the term Anglo-Celtic has emerged as a descriptor of an ethnic grouping. In particular, Anglo-Celtic Australian is a term comprising about 80% of
Celts (modern) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6888-476: The French Revolution of 1789—both had some intellectual influence from Thomas Jefferson. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the " consent of the governed " philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the " divine right of kings ." In this view,
7052-586: The Gallic Wars of the 4th century BCE. Its root may be the Common Celtic *galno- , meaning "power" or "strength". The Greek Γαλάται Galatai (cf. Galatia in Anatolia) seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source that gave us Galli (the suffix -atai simply indicates that the word is an ethnic name). Linguist Stefan Schumacher presents
7216-555: The Indo-European roots * ḱel , 'to cover or hide' (cf. Old Irish celid ), * ḱel -, 'to heat', or * kel - 'to impel'. Several authors have supposed the term to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the latter group; she suggests that it means "the tall ones". The Romans preferred the name Gauls ( Latin : Galli ) for those Celts whom they first encountered in northern Italy ( Cisalpine Gaul ). In
7380-537: The Irish War of Independence resulted in the secession of the Irish Free State , in 1922. There were also significant Welsh , Scottish , and Breton nationalist movements, giving rise to the concept of Celtic nations . After World War II , the focus of the Celtic movement shifted to linguistic revival and protectionism , e.g. with the foundation of the Celtic League in 1961, dedicated to preserving
7544-917: The Lusitania , because of their religion, language, and because of the names of their cities". In Galicia in the north of the Iberian Peninsula , another group of Celtici dwelt along the coasts. They comprised several populi , including the Celtici proper: the Praestamarici south of the Tambre river ( Tamaris ), the Supertamarici north of it, and the Nerii by the Celtic promontory ( Promunturium Celticum ). Pomponius Mela affirmed that all inhabitants of Iberia's coastal regions, from
7708-794: The MC1R gene , possibly an adaptation to the cloudy weather of the areas where they live. Although they are not usually considered a Celtic nation, the Faroe Islands have a population with a large Celtic heritage in genetic terms. Recent DNA analyses have revealed that Y chromosomes , tracing male descent, are 87% Scandinavian , whereas the mitochondrial DNA , tracing female descent, is 84% Celtic. The same can be said about Icelanders . The founder population of Iceland came from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia: studies of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomes indicate that 62% of Icelanders' matrilineal ancestry derives from Scotland and Ireland (with most of
7872-409: The National Museum Wales , during that century "people who spoke Celtic languages were seen as Celts." At the same time, there was also a tendency to stress other heritages in the British Isles at certain times. For example, in the Isle of Man, in the Victorian era , the Viking heritage was emphasised, and in Scotland, both Norse and Anglo-Saxon heritage was emphasised. A romantic image of
8036-469: The Scottish Parliament and the Senedd (Welsh Parliament). More broadly, distinct identities in opposition to that of the metropolitan capitals have been forged and taken strong root. These latter evolutions have proceeded hand in hand with the growth of a pan-Celtic or inter-Celtic dimension, seen in many organisations and festivals operating across various Celtic countries. Celtic studies departments at many universities in Europe and beyond, have studied
8200-464: The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom . Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into
8364-431: The bagpipe and the harp . The harp is considered to be the national instrument of Wales and is used to accompany penillion singing (or cerdd dant ) where the harpist plays a melody and the singer sings in counterpoint to it. The roots revival , applied to Celtic music , has brought much inter-Celtic cross-fertilisation, as, for instance, the revival by Welsh musicians of the use of the mediaeval Welsh bagpipe under
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#17327723582108528-399: The eponymous ancestor of Celts. In Latin, Celta came in turn from Herodotus 's word for the Gauls , Keltoi . The Romans used Celtae to refer to continental Gauls, but apparently not to Insular Celts . The latter are divided linguistically into Goidels and Brythons . The name Celtiberi is used by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC, of a people whom he considered
8692-500: The litmus test used by the Celtic League , and the Celtic Congress . Nevertheless, many organisations organised around Celticity consider that Galicia / Northern Portugal ( Douro , Minho and Tras-os-Montes ) and Asturias "can claim a Celtic cultural or historic heritage". These claims to Celticity are rooted in the long historical existence of Celts in these regions and ethnic connections to other Atlantic Celtic peoples (see Celtiberians , Celtici and Castro culture ). In 2009,
8856-468: The skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for
9020-544: The state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life , liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on
9184-563: The suppression of the Jesuits , and the expulsion of religious orders . Contemporary criticism, particularly of these anti-religious concepts, has since been dubbed the Counter-Enlightenment by Sir Isaiah Berlin . The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the Scientific Revolution . Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon , Pierre Gassendi , René Descartes , Thomas Hobbes , Baruch Spinoza , John Locke , Pierre Bayle , and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz . Some of figures of
9348-416: The "temples of the Ancient Celts" such as Stonehenge (actually a pre-Celtic structure). In his 1733 book History of the Temples of the Ancient Celts , he recast the "Celts" " Druids ". James Macpherson 's Ossian fables, which he claimed were ancient Scottish Gaelic poems that he had "translated," added to this romantic enthusiasm. The "Irish revival" came after the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 as
9512-427: The 17th century in connection with the inhabitants of Ireland and Great Britain during the Iron Age . However, Parthenius writes that Celtus descended through Heracles from Bretannos , which may have been a partial (because the myth's roots are older) post– Gallic War epithet of Druids who traveled to the islands for formal study, and was the posited seat of the order's origins. The first recorded use of
9676-445: The 17th century. Until the mid-19th century, the sole pronunciation in English was /s/ , in keeping with the inheritance of the letter ⟨ c ⟩ from Old French to Middle English . From the mid-19th century onward, academic publications advocated the variant with /k/ on the basis of a new understanding of the word's origins. The /s/ pronunciation remained standard throughout the 19th to early 20th century, but /k/ gained ground during
9840-407: The 1990s for the first time, was given the moniker " Celtic tiger ". Thanks in part to campaigning on the part of Cornish regionalists, Cornwall was able to obtain Objective One funding from the European Union . Scotland and Wales obtained agencies like the Welsh Development Agency , and in the first two decades of the 21st century Scottish and Welsh Nationalists have supported the institutions of
10004-413: The 1st century BC, Caesar referred to the Gauls as calling themselves "Celts" in their own tongue. According to the 1st-century poet Parthenius of Nicaea , Celtus ( Κελτός , Keltos ) was the son of Heracles and Celtine ( Κελτίνη , Keltine ), the daughter of Bretannus ( Βρεττανός , Brettanos ); this literary genealogy exists nowhere else and was not connected with any known cult. Celtus became
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#173277235821010168-445: The Affairs of Europe now turn." Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . Some philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism , the scientific method, religious tolerance , and
10332-410: The Bretons (if discounting Norman and Channel Islander connections), all groups mentioned have been subject to strong Anglicisation since the Early Modern period , and hence are also described as participating in an Anglo-Celtic macro-culture. By the same token, the Bretons have been subject to strong Frenchification since the Early Modern period , and can similarly be described as participating in
10496-424: The British Isles is unclear and the object of much speculation, but it is clear that by the 1st century BC most of Great Britain and Ireland was inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples now known as the Insular Celts . These peoples were divided into two large groups, Britons (speaking " P-Celtic ") and Gaels (speaking "Q-Celtic"). The Brythonic groups under Roman rule were known in Latin as Britanni , while use of
10660-440: The Celt as a noble savage was cultivated by the early William Butler Yeats , Lady Gregory , Lady Charlotte Guest , Lady Llanover , James Macpherson , Chateaubriand , Théodore Hersart de la Villemarqué and the many others influenced by them. This image coloured not only the English perception of their neighbours on the so-called " Celtic fringe " (compare the stage Irishman ), but also Irish nationalism and its analogues in
10824-425: The Celtic [fields] roamed the utmost Isles. (I.520, here in the 1674 spelling). Use of Celtic in the linguistic sense arises in the 18th century, in the work of Edward Lhuyd . In the 18th century, the interest in " primitivism ", which led to the idea of the " noble savage ", brought a wave of enthusiasm for all things "Celtic." The antiquarian William Stukeley pictured a race of "ancient Britons" constructing
10988-667: The Celtic nations and regions and people with a Celtic heritage. Historically, some people in Celtic areas could recite their genealogy back though the generations as history, moving rhythmically from one name to another using only Christian names as illustrated by lyrics of the Runrig song Sìol Ghoraidh "The Genealogy of Goraidh". The genetic disorder hereditary haemochromatosis has by far its highest prevalence rate among people of Celtic ancestry. Other traits far more prevalent among people of Celtic ancestry include lactase persistence and red hair , with 46% of Irish and at least 36% of Highland Scots being carriers of red-head variants of
11152-464: The Celtic-punk of The Pogues , the ambient music of Enya ... the Celtic-rock of Runrig , Rawlins Cross and Horslips ." Pan-Celtic music festivals were established, notably the Festival Interceltique de Lorient founded in 1971, which has occurred annually since. The Scottish Mod and Irish Fleadh Cheoil (and Gaelic Céilidh ) are seen as an equivalent to the Breton Fest Noz , Cornish Troyl and Welsh Eisteddfod . The Celtic Media Festival
11316-664: The Creator with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed , which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in
11480-457: The Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law. The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by
11644-414: The Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria , George Berkeley , Denis Diderot , David Hume , Immanuel Kant , Lord Monboddo , Montesquieu , Jean-Jacques Rousseau , Adam Smith , Hugo Grotius , and Voltaire . One influential Enlightenment publication was the Encyclopédie ( Encyclopedia ). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert , and
11808-584: The Enlightenment were individual liberty , representative government, the rule of law , and religious freedom , in contrast to an absolute monarchy or single party state and the religious persecution of faiths other than those formally established and often controlled outright by the State. By contrast, other intellectual currents included arguments in favour of anti-Christianity , Deism , and even Atheism , accompanied by demands for secular states , bans on religious education, suppression of Monasteries ,
11972-543: The Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world, and by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism , along with increased questioning of religious dogma — an attitude captured by Kant's essay Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? , where the phrase sapere aude ('dare to know') can be found. The central doctrines of
12136-556: The Foreigners". Germanic w regularly becomes gu / g in French (cf. guerre 'war', garder 'ward'), and the diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before another consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux ). Gaule or Gaulle can hardly be derived from Latin Gallia , since g would become j before a ( gamba > jambe ), and the diphthong au would be unexplained. Note that the regular outcome of Latin Gallia in French
12300-469: The French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit." The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the American Revolution of 1776 and
12464-897: The Gallaic Revival Movement, sponsored by the Liga Celtiga Galaica (the Galician Celtic League), claimed to be reconstructing the Q-Celtic Gallaic language based on the Atebivota Dictionary and Old Celtic Dictionary compiled by Vincent F. Pintado. Elements of Celtic music, dance, and folklore can be found within England (e.g. Yan Tan Tethera , well dressing , Halloween ), and the Cumbric language survived until
12628-599: The Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland,
12792-725: The History of Civil Society , Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract. Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights , which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from Locke's Second Treatise, when he introduces
12956-492: The Laws (1748); Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Cesare Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments (1764); Adam Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. Descartes' attempt to construct
13120-657: The Middle Ages, territories with primarily Romance -speaking populations, such as France and Italy, were known in German as Welschland in contrast to Deutschland . The Proto-Germanic root word also yielded Vlach , Wallachia , Walloon , and the second part in Cornwall . The surnames Wallace and Walsh are also cognates. The term Gael is, despite superficial similarity, also completely unrelated to either Galli or Gaul . The name ultimately derives from
13284-731: The Mirror came in part from a visit to Galicia and in particular Santiago de Compostela. Some of her songs are about Celtic feast days such as All Souls Night about Samhain on The Visit CD which featured in the erotic thriller film Jade starring David Caruso and "Huron Beltane Fire Dance" on the Parallel Dreams CD. Names of the Celts#Pronunciation The names Κελτοί ( Keltoí ) and Celtae are used in Greek and Latin , respectively, to denote
13448-761: The Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a " science of man ," which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett , Adam Ferguson , John Millar , and William Robertson , all of whom merged
13612-591: The Old Irish word Goídel . Lenition rendered the /d/ silent, though it still appears as ⟨dh⟩ in the orthography of the modern Gaelic languages": ( Irish and Manx ) Gaedheal or Gael , Scottish Gaelic Gàidheal . Compare also the modern linguistic term Goidelic . The Celtic-speaking people of Great Britain were known as Brittanni or Brittones in Latin and as Βρίττωνες in Greek. An earlier form
13776-557: The Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. Some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became
13940-559: The Scots-Irish Shaped America , controversially asserts that the early "pioneering" immigrants to North America were of Scots-Irish origins. He goes on to argue that their distinct Celtic traits (loyalty to kin, mistrust of governmental authority, and military readiness), in contrast to the Anglo-Saxon settlers, helped construct the modern American identity . Irish Americans also played an important role in
14104-482: The University of Sheffield wrote a book titled The Celts: Origins, Myths and Invention , itself criticised in 2004 by Ruth and Vincent Megaw in Antiquity . Six nations tend to be most associated with a modern Celtic identity , and are considered the "Celtic nations". These six nations alone are considered Celtic by the Celtic League and the Celtic Congress , amongst others. These organisations ascribe to
14268-681: The Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In the Jefferson Bible , Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death , as he tried to extract
14432-472: The absolutist government was very strong. The early enlightenment emerged in protest to these circumstances, gaining ground under the support of Madame de Pompadour , the mistress of Louis XV . Called the Siècle des Lumières, the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment had already started by the early 18th century, when Pierre Bayle launched the popular and scholarly Enlightenment critique of religion. As
14596-460: The anthropological correlation between material culture and ethnicity. Ruth and Vincent Megaw in the Antiquity article "The Mechanism of (Celtic) Dreams?': A Partial Response to Our Critics." attacked 'Celt-sceptics' for being motivated by English nationalism or anxieties about the decline of British imperial power. Simon James, in 1998, wrote a response arguing that the rejection of a Celtic past
14760-679: The bays of southern Galicia to the Astures , were also Celtici: "All (this coast) is inhabited by the Celtici, except from the Douro river to the bays, where the Grovi dwelt (…) In the north coast first there are the Artabri , still of the Celtic people ( Celticae gentis ), and after them the Astures ." He also wrote that the fabulous isles of tin , the Cassiterides , were situated among these Celtici. The Celtici Supertarmarci have also left
14924-481: The beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of Immanuel Kant in 1804. In reality, historical periods do not have clearly defined start or end dates. Philosophers and scientists of
15088-536: The clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism. Roy Porter argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot , Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supportive of
15252-515: The collapse of the Kingdom of Strathclyde in about 1018. England as a whole comprises many distinct regions, and some of these regions, such as Cumbria , Lancashire , Northumbria , Western Yorkshire and Devon can claim more Celtic heritage than others. In 2009, it was claimed that revival of the Cumbric language was being attempted in Cumberland , England, however the idea that "Cumbric"
15416-400: The contemporary inclusive and associative definition proposed by Vincent and Ruth Megaw (1996) and Raimund Karl (2010). It holds that a Celt is someone who uses a Celtic language or produces or uses a distinctive Celtic cultural expression (such as art or music) or has been referred to as a Celt in historical materials or has identified themselves or been identified by others as a Celt or has
15580-503: The cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. In the 18th century, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over 70 official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined
15744-520: The development of free speech and thought. There were immediate practical results. The experiments of Antoine Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot air balloon in 1783. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and
15908-665: The entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison , Edward Gibbon , John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope , Joshua Reynolds , and Jonathan Swift . Freethinking , a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when Anthony Collins wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked
16072-952: The first modern geologist. Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland and Matthew Tindal . There
16236-501: The first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot 's drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator. Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician and one of
16400-472: The formal separation of church and state . The Enlightenment was preceded by and overlaps the Scientific Revolution and the work of Johannes Kepler , Galileo Galilei , Francis Bacon , Pierre Gassendi , and Isaac Newton , among others, as well as the rationalist philosophy of Descartes , Hobbes , Spinoza , Leibniz , and John Locke . Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to
16564-419: The fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be " representative " and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever
16728-410: The government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority. These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with
16892-502: The great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Dei delitti e delle pene (Of Crimes and Punishments, 1764). His treatise, translated into 22 languages, condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the classical school of criminology by promoting criminal justice . Francesco Mario Pagano wrote important studies such as Saggi politici (Political Essays, 1783); and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on
17056-648: The inclusion of the Insular Celts under the term "Celtic" from this time forward expresses this linguistic relationship. By the late 18th century, the Celtic languages were recognised as one branch within the larger Indo-European family. The Celts are an ethnolinguistic group of Iron Age European peoples, including the Gauls (including subgroups such as the Lepontii and the Galatians ), Celtiberians , and Insular Celts . The timeline of Celtic settlement in
17220-404: The inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from
17384-706: The influence of the Breton binioù , Irish uilleann pipes and famous Scottish pipes, or the Scots have revived the bodhran from Irish influence. Charles le Goffic introduced the Scottish Highland pipes to Brittany. Unaccompanied or A cappella styles of singing are performed across the modern Celtic world due to the folk music revival, popularity of Celtic choirs , world music, scat singing and hip hop rapping in Celtic languages. Traditional rhythmic styles used to accompany dancing and now performed are Puirt
17548-495: The key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice—in other words, be a " philosopher-king ." In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick
17712-461: The land, particularly at nightfall. The other important feast days that also continued to be celebrated under Christian guise, but often with a pagan spirit were Imbolc ( Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau in Welsh), the start of lambing, now the feast day of St Brigit and Beltane , the spring feast, now May Day ( Calan Mai in Welsh). In their pilgrimages the people combined the celebration of a holy place and
17876-405: The large-scale studies by Robert Darnton , Roy Porter , and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as Catherine II of Russia , Joseph II of Austria , and Frederick II of Prussia tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism . Many of
18040-403: The late 20th century, some authors criticised the idea of modern Celtic identity, usually by downplaying the value of the linguistic component in defining culture and cultural connection, sometimes also arguing that there never was a common Celtic culture, even in ancient times. Malcolm Chapman's 1992 book The Celts: The Construction of a Myth led to what archaeologist Barry Cunliffe has called
18204-523: The late Middle Ages, some French writers believed (incorrectly) that their language was primarily Celtic, rather than Latin. A similar use of Celticity for 19th-century nationalism was made in Switzerland , when the Swiss were seen to originate in the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii , a link still found in the official Latin name of Switzerland, Confœderatio Helvetica , the source of the nation code CH and
18368-630: The later 20th century. A notable exception is that the /s/ pronunciation remains the most recognized form when it occurs in the names of sports teams, most notably Celtic Football Club in Scotland, and the Boston Celtics basketball team in the United States. The title of the Cavan newspaper The Anglo-Celt is also pronounced with the /s/ . In current usage, the terms "Celt" and "Celtic" can take several senses depending on context:
18532-465: The law does not explicitly forbid. Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality , respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed , is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines
18696-462: The law of nature because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute, and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights. The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as
18860-763: The limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a plantation economy fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the Haitian Revolution , a slave rebellion by emancipated slaves against French colonial rule in the colony of Saint-Domingue , broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to "[give support] to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle." The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of
19024-485: The main goal of enlightenment. According to Derek Hirst , the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All
19188-506: The major political and intellectual figures behind the American Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into
19352-446: The middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton
19516-582: The model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland. Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by
19680-473: The moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and Christian Wolff , which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be deistic whereas
19844-454: The moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury , wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom
20008-518: The most numerous people inhabiting that region. Later, Ptolemy referred to the Celtici inhabiting a more reduced territory, comprising the regions from Évora to Setúbal , i.e. the coastal and southern areas occupied by the Turdetani . Pliny mentioned a second group of Celtici living in the region of Baeturia (northwestern Andalusia ); he considered that they were "of the Celtiberians from
20172-467: The name of Celts – as Κελτοί ( Keltoí ) – to refer to an ethnic group was by Hecataeus of Miletus , the Greek geographer, in 517 BC when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille ). In the 5th century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube and also in the far west of Europe. The etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible origins include
20336-533: The name used on postage stamps (Helvetia). Before the advance of Indo-European studies , philologists established that there was a relationship between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages , as well as a relationship between these languages and the extinct Celtic languages such as Gaulish , spoken in classical times. The terms Goidelic and Brythonic were first used to describe the two Celtic language families by Edward Lhuyd in his 1707 study and, according to
20500-579: The names Celtae or Galli / Galatai was restricted to the Gauls . There are no examples of text from Goidelic languages prior to the appearance of Primitive Irish inscriptions in the 4th century AD; however, there are earlier references to the Iverni (in Ptolemy c. 150, later also appearing as Hierni and Hiberni ) and, by 314, to the Scoti . Simon James argues that while the term "Celtic" expresses
20664-414: The native peoples of the Atlantic fringe as Celts by Edward Lhuyd in the 18th century. Lhuyd and others (notably the 17th century Breton chronologist Pezron ) equated the Celts described by Greco-Roman writers with the pre-Roman peoples of France , Great Britain , and Ireland . They categorised the ancient Irish and British languages as Celtic languages . The descendants of these ancient languages are
20828-546: The organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change. Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government
20992-473: The other Celtic-speaking countries. Among the enduring products of this resurgence of interest in a romantic, pre-industrial, brooding, mystical Celticity are Gorseddau , the revival of the Cornish language , and the revival of the Gaelic games . The modern Celtic groups' distinctiveness as national , as opposed to regional, minorities has been periodically recognised by major British newspapers. For example,
21156-496: The period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies , Masonic lodges , literary salons , coffeehouses and in printed books , journals , and pamphlets . The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, socialism , and neoclassicism , trace their intellectual heritage to
21320-600: The political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power." It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of
21484-613: The population. The claim that distinctly Celtic styles of music exist was made during the nineteenth century, and was associated with the revival of folk traditions and pan-Celtic ideology. The Welsh anthem " Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau " was adopted as a pan-Celtic anthem. Though there are links between Scots Gaelic and Irish Gaelic folk musics, very different musical traditions existed in Wales and Brittany. Nevertheless, Gaelic styles were adopted as typically Celtic even by Breton revivalists such as Paul Ladmirault . Celticism came to be associated with
21648-503: The populations of the United States , Canada , Australia and New Zealand is composed of people whose ancestors were from one of the "Celtic nations". This concerns the Irish diaspora most significantly (see also Irish American ), but to a lesser extent also the Welsh diaspora and the Cornish diaspora . There are three areas outside Europe with communities of Celtic language speakers: The most common mother-tongue amongst
21812-566: The practical Christian moral code of the New Testament . Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law ). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed
21976-455: The publication of René Descartes ' Discourse on the Method in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason for accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum, Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and
22140-465: The radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment which sought a return to faith. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. After the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, the relationship between church and
22304-521: The reconstructed Proto-Germanic root *walhaz , "foreigner, Romanized person." In the early Germanic period, this exonym seems to have been applied broadly to the peasant population of the Roman Empire , most of whom lived in the areas being settled by Germanic peoples; whether the peasants spoke Celtic or Latin did not matter. The Germanic root likely made its way into French via Latinization of Frankish Walholant "Gaul," literally "Land of
22468-470: The rest being from Scandinavia), while 75% of their patrilineal ancestry derives from Scandinavia (with most of the rest being from the Irish and British Isles). In addition, there are some areas of the accepted Celtic countries whose population are mostly not of Celtic heritage: for example, the Orkney and Shetland Islands in Scotland have populations of mostly Scandinavian descent. A significant portion of
22632-417: The result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions." The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to Locke. According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that
22796-407: The revolutions were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. A governance philosophy where the king was never wrong would be in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. Alexis de Tocqueville proposed the French Revolution as
22960-572: The routine of the year's work, religious beliefs and practices survived the coming of Christianity in the conservative rural areas of much of the Celtic countries. All over these lands there were sacred places which had earned their status in pre-Christian times and which had only been gingerly adopted by the Christian church and given a garnish of Christian names or dedications, hills, stones, and especially wells which can still be seen festooned with rags in observance of an old ritual. Certain days in
23124-501: The same father and creatures of the same God? Voltaire (1763) Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War . Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining
23288-454: The same meaning for both reconstructions, namely German : Machthaber , "potentate, ruler (even warlord)", or alternatively German : Plünderer, Räuber , "raider, looter, pillager, marauder"; and notes that if both names were exonyms , it would explain their pejorative meanings. The Proto-Indo-European verbal root in question is reconstructed by Schumacher as * gelH- , meaning German : Macht bekommen über , "to acquire power over" in
23452-522: The same way as has been done successfully in Derbyshire , another area where elements of Celtic culture survive. Similarly, in France outside of Brittany, in Auvergne chants are sung around bonfires remembering a Celtic god. There are also modern attempts to revive the polytheistic religion of the Gauls . A profound interest in genealogy and family history is noted as a feature of the culture of
23616-409: The sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies , which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies and societies grew out of
23780-544: The sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677). According to Jonathan Israel , these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first,
23944-700: The shaping of 19th-century Irish republicanism through the Fenian movement and the development of view that the Great Hunger was a British atrocity. In 1996, Ruth Megaw and Emeritus Professor Vincent Megaw of Flinders University in the Antiquity article "Ancient Celts and modern ethnicity" examined ethnic identity particularly in relation to Celtic identity in arguing against critics seemingly motivated by an English nationalist agenda opposed to further integration with Europe who saw modern Celtic identity as
24108-789: The social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored
24272-414: The standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as
24436-411: The state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke argues against indentured servitude on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against
24600-417: The supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will ,
24764-421: The surviving Celtic languages . The Celtic revival also led to the emergence of musical and artistic styles identified as Celtic. Music typically drew on folk traditions within the Celtic nations. Art drew on the decorative styles of Celtic art produced by the ancient Celts and early medieval Christianity, along with folk styles. Cultural events to promote "inter-Celtic" cultural exchange also emerged. In
24928-405: The term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet . Some historians have marked the 18th century as
25092-530: The trends were discussed in depth at the newly established coffee houses . In the Scottish Enlightenment , the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life. Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. The Scottish network
25256-574: The various ancient and modern Celtic languages and associated history and folklore under one roof. Some of the most vibrant aspects of modern Celtic culture are music, song and festivals. Under the Music , Festivals and Dance sections below, the richness of these aspects that have captured the world's attention are outlined. Sports such as hurling , Gaelic football and shinty are seen as being Celtic. The USA has also taken part in discussions of modern Celticity. For example, Virginia Senator James H. Webb , in his 2004 book Born Fighting: How
25420-435: The words gualeis , galois , and (Northern French) walois could mean either Welsh or the Langue d'oïl . However, Northern French Waulle is first recorded in the 13th century to translate Latin Gallia , while gaulois is first recorded in the 15th century to translate Latin Gallus / Gallicus (see Gaul: Name ). The Proto-Germanic terms may ultimately have a Celtic root: Volcae , or Uolcae . The Volcae were
25584-407: The year were marked as festivals, and time was counted forward and backwards from them without reference to the ordinary calendar. In her fine study of the festival of the beginning of harvest, in Irish Lughnasa , Máire MacNeill has demonstrated the continuity between the myth known from the early Middle Ages and the customs which survive in the 21st century. Lughnasa, called Calan Awst in Welsh,
25748-415: Was Pritani , or Πρετ(τ)αν(ν)οί in Greek (as recorded by Pytheas in the 4th century BC, among others, and surviving in Welsh as Prydain , the old name for Britain). Related to this is * Priteni , the reconstructed self-designation of the people later called Picts , which is recorded later in Old Irish as Cruithin and Welsh as Prydyn . Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment (also
25912-524: Was "predominantly liberal Calvinist , Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment." In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen , physician and chemist; James Anderson , agronomist ; Joseph Black , physicist and chemist; and James Hutton,
26076-409: Was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy , was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history , which included anatomy , biology , geology, mineralogy , and zoology . As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized
26240-423: Was led by Voltaire and Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law , and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution . While
26404-418: Was not 'nationalist' but partly due to archaeological evidence, and usually by a post-colonial and multi-cultural agenda with recognition that Britain has always been home to multiple identities. Recently, the Insular Celts have increasingly been seen as part of an Atlantic trading-networked culture speaking Celtic languages of the Atlantic Bronze Age and probably earlier. In 2003, Professor John Collis of
26568-499: Was pronounced /k/ , but it was subject to a regular process of palatization around the 1st century AD whenever it appeared before a front vowel like /e/ ; as the Late Latin of Gaul evolved into French , this palatalised sound became /t͡s/ , and then developed to /s/ around the end of the Old French era. The /k/ pronunciation of Classical Latin was later taken directly into German ; both pronunciations were taken into English at different times. The English word originates in
26732-449: Was revived in the literature of the Early Modern period . The French celtique and German celtisch first appear in the 16th century; the English word Celts is first attested in 1607. The adjective Celtic , formed after French celtique , appears a little later, in the mid-17th century. An early attestation is found in Milton 's Paradise Lost (1667), in reference to the Insular Celts of antiquity: [the Ionian gods ... who] o'er
26896-404: Was separate from Old Welsh has been criticised as stemming from the difficulty that many English historians have with accepting Old Welsh as the language once spoken all over England. It was suggested by Colin Lewis in Carn magazine that revivalists in the north of England use Modern Welsh to enable use of Welsh's existing rich cultural basis rather than having to "reinvent the wheel" in much
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