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44-406: Certificate Transparency makes public all issued certificates in the form of a distributed ledger , giving website owners and auditors the ability to detect and expose inappropriately issued certificates. Work on Certificate Transparency first began in 2011 after the certificate authority DigiNotar became compromised and started issuing malicious certificates. Google Engineers submitted a draft to

88-815: A base layer on which to build further cryptographic applications, such as protocols that require or benefit from a public broadcast mechanism, including transparent decryption . In the context of cryptocurrencies, distributed ledger technologies can be categorized in terms of their data structures , consensus algorithms , permissions, and whether they are mined. DLT data structure types include linear data structures ( blockchains ) to more complex directed acyclic graph (DAG) and hybrid data structures. DLT consensus algorithm types include proof-of-work (PoW) and proof-of-stake (PoS) algorithms and DAG consensus-building and voting algorithms. DLTs are generally either permissioned (private) or permissionless (public). PoW cryptocurrencies are generally either 'mined' or 'non-mined', where

132-525: A certificate to a CT log, this task is commonly carried out by a CA as follows: Finally, a CA may decide to log the final certificate as well. Let's Encrypt E1 CA, for example, logs both precertificates and final certificates (see CA crt.sh profile page under 'issued certificates' section), whereas Google GTS CA 2A1 does not (see crt.sh profile page ). Some browsers require Transport Layer Security (TLS) certificates to have proof of being logged with certificate transparency, either through SCTs embedded into

176-718: A distributed ledger platform that manages equity swap transactions. The platform, which matches and reconciles post-trade data on stock swaps, is used by BlackRock Inc ., Goldman Sachs Group Inc ., and Citigroup, Inc . A pilot scheme by the Monetary Authority of Singapore completed its first live trades using DLT in 2022. The pilot by Singapore's central bank involved JP Morgan, SBI Digital Asset Holdings and DBS. The banks traded using smart contracts against liquidity pools of tokenized Singapore government bonds, Japanese government bonds, yen, and Singapore dollars. Singapore has set up two more pilots. Standard Chartered Bank

220-488: A log must: A log may accept certificates that are not yet fully valid and certificates that have expired. Monitors act as clients to the log servers. Monitors check logs to make sure they are behaving correctly. An inconsistency is used to prove that a log has not behaved correctly, and the signatures on the log's data structure (the Merkle tree) prevent the log from denying that misbehavior. Auditors also act as clients to

264-414: A particular time period (usually a calendar year). Cloudflare 's Nimbus series of logs was the first to use temporal sharding. One of the problems with digital certificate management is that fraudulent certificates take a long time to be spotted, reported and revoked . An issued certificate not logged using Certificate Transparency may never be spotted at all. Certificate Transparency makes it possible for

308-514: A report that 8 days earlier, on 15 March 2011, a user account with an affiliate registration authority had been compromised and was used to create a new user account that issued nine certificate signing requests . Nine certificates for seven domains were issued. The attack was traced to IP address 212.95.136.18, which originates in Tehran , Iran. Moxie Marlinspike analyzed the IP address on his website

352-406: A statement and a fix: "As an industry, software in general is always being updated, patched, fixed, addressed, improved – it goes hand in hand with any development cycle...What is critical in software development is how companies address an issue if a certain vulnerability is found – ensuring it never puts the customer at risk." Those using Chromodo immediately received an update. The Chromodo browser

396-464: A third party library used by the PrivDog standalone application which potentially affects a very small number of users. This potential issue is only present in PrivDog versions, 3.0.96.0 and 3.0.97.0. The potential issue is not present in the PrivDog plug-in that is distributed with Comodo Browsers, and Comodo has not distributed this version to its users. there are potentially a maximum of 6,294 users in

440-452: Is a promise from a log operator to include the certificate in their log within a maximum merge delay (MMD). At some point within the maximum merge delay, the log operator adds the certificate to their log. Each entry in a log references the hash of a previous one, forming a Merkle tree . The signed tree head (STH) references the current root of the Merkle tree . Although anyone can submit

484-409: Is exploring tokens for trade finance; and HSBC and United Overseas Bank are working with Marketnode, a digital markets infrastructure provider, on products for wealth management. DLT can be used for smart contracting , which is the formation of contracts which automatically complete when triggered by prevailing conditions. DLT is itself secured by cryptographic methods, but can also be used as

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528-530: Is geographically spread (distributed) across many sites, countries, or institutions. In contrast to a centralized database , a distributed ledger does not require a central administrator, and consequently does not have a single (central) point-of-failure . In general, a distributed ledger requires a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network and consensus algorithms so that the ledger is reliably replicated across distributed computer nodes (servers, clients, etc.). The most common form of distributed ledger technology

572-496: Is the blockchain (commonly associated with the bitcoin cryptocurrency ), which can either be on a public or private network. Infrastructure for data management is a common barrier to implementing DLT. Distributed ledger data is typically spread across multiple nodes (computational devices) on a P2P network, where each replicates and saves an identical copy of the ledger data and updates itself independently of other nodes. The primary advantage of this distributed processing pattern

616-476: Is the lack of a central authority, which would constitute a single point of failure . When a ledger update transaction is broadcast to the P2P network, each distributed node processes a new update transaction independently, and then collectively all working nodes use a consensus algorithm to determine the correct copy of the updated ledger. Once a consensus has been determined, all the other nodes update themselves with

660-765: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 2012. This effort resulted in IETF RFC   9162 , a standard defining a system of public logs to record all certificates issued by publicly trusted certificate authorities , allowing efficient identification of mistakenly or maliciously issued certificates. The certificate transparency system consists of a system of append-only certificate logs. Logs are operated by many parties, including browser vendors and certificate authorities . Certificates that support certificate transparency must include one or more signed certificate timestamps (SCTs), which

704-863: The United Kingdom by Melih Abdulhayoğlu . The company relocated to the United States in 2004. Its products are focused on computer and internet security. The firm operates a certificate authority that issues SSL certificates . The company also helped on setting standards by contributing to the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) DNS Certification Authority Authorization (CAA) Resource Record. In October 2017, Francisco Partners acquired Comodo Certification Authority (Comodo CA) from Comodo Security Solutions, Inc. Francisco Partners rebranded Comodo CA in November 2018 to Sectigo. On June 28, 2018,

748-545: The USA and 57,568 users globally that this could potentially impact. The third party library used by PrivDog is not the same third party library used by Superfish....The potential issue has already been corrected. There will be an update tomorrow which will automatically update all 57,568 users of these specific PrivDog versions." In 2009 Microsoft MVP Michael Burgess accused Comodo of issuing digital certificates to known malware distributors. Comodo responded when notified and revoked

792-613: The attacker by posting the private keys online and posted a series of messages detailing how poor Comodo's security is and bragging about his abilities: I hacked Comodo from InstantSSL.it, their CEO's e-mail address mfpenco@mfpenco.com Their Comodo username/password was: user: gtadmin password: globaltrust Their DB name was: globaltrust and instantsslcms Enough said, huh? Yes, enough said, someone who should know already knows... Anyway, at first I should mention we have no relation to Iranian Cyber Army, we don't change DNSes, we just hack and own. I see Comodo CEO and other wrote that it

836-573: The certificate, an extension during the TLS handshake, or through OCSP : Due to the large quantities of certificates issued with the Web PKI , certificate transparency logs can grow to contain many certificates. This large quantity of certificates can cause strain on logs. Temporal sharding is a method to reduce the strain on logs by sharding a log into multiple logs, and having each shard only accept precertificates and certificates with an expiration date in

880-414: The certificates in question, which were used to sign the known malware. In January 2016, Tavis Ormandy reported that Comodo's Chromodo browser exhibited a number of vulnerabilities, including disabling of the same-origin policy . The vulnerability wasn't in the browser itself. Rather, the issue was with an add-on. As soon as Comodo became aware of the issue in early February 2016, the company released

924-458: The certificates remain revoked. Microsoft issued a security advisory and update to address the issue at the time of the event. For Comodo's lacking response on the issue computer security researcher Moxie Marlinspike called the whole event extremely embarrassing for Comodo and rethinking SSL security. It was also implied that the attacker followed an online video tutorial and searched for basic opsec Such attacks are not unique to Comodo –

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968-505: The company CyberSecOp. The firm has partnered with Comodo in the past, and seeks to provide a range of cybersecurity products and consulting services. Comodo is a member of the following industry organizations: In response to Symantec 's comment asserting paid antivirus is superior to free antivirus, the CEO of Comodo Group, Melih Abdulhayoğlu had challenged Symantec on 18 September 2010 to see whether paid or free products can better defend

1012-490: The consumer against malware . GCN'S John Breeden understood Comodo's stance on free Antivirus software and challenging Symantec: "This is actually a pretty smart move based on previous reviews of AV performance we've done in the GCN Lab. Our most recent AV review this year showed no functional difference between free and paid programs in terms of stopping viruses, and it's been that way for many years. In fact you have to go all

1056-462: The domain owner (and anyone interested) to get in knowledge of any certificate issued for a domain. Domain names that are used on internal networks and have certificates issued by certificate authorities become publicly searchable as their certificates are added to CT logs. Certificate Transparency depends on verifiable Certificate Transparency logs. A log appends new certificates to an ever-growing Merkle hash tree . To be seen as behaving correctly,

1100-470: The domain owners' knowledge. Since April 2018, this requirement has been extended to all certificates. On March 23, 2018, Cloudflare announced its own CT log named Nimbus . In May 2019, certificate authority Let's Encrypt launched its own CT log called Oak. Since February 2020, it is included in approved log lists and is usable by all publicly trusted certificate authorities. In December 2021, RFC   9162 "Certificate Transparency Version 2.0"

1144-542: The fact Comodo's "intent to use" trademark filings acknowledge that it has never used "Let's Encrypt" as a brand. On 24 June 2016, Comodo publicly posted in its forum that it had filed for "express abandonment" of their trademark applications. Comodo's Chief Technical Officer Robin Alden said, "Comodo has filed for express abandonment of the trademark applications at this time instead of waiting and allowing them to lapse. Following collaboration between Let's Encrypt and Comodo,

1188-474: The first cryptocurrency. Examples of DAG DLT cryptocurrencies include MIOTA ( IOTA Tangle DLT) and HBAR ( Hedera Hashgraph ). Comodo Group Comodo Security Solutions, Inc. , is a cybersecurity company headquartered in Bloomfield, New Jersey . Under the brand Sectigo , the company acts as a web Certificate authority (CA) and issues SSL/TLS certificates. The company was founded in 1998 in

1232-408: The incident on 15 March 2011. In regards to this second incident, Comodo stated, "Our CA infrastructure was not compromised. Our keys in our HSMs were not compromised. No certificates have been fraudulently issued. The attempt to fraudulently access the certificate ordering platform to issue a certificate failed." On 26 March 2011, a person under the username "ComodoHacker" verified that they were

1276-600: The latest, correct copy of the updated ledger. Security is enforced through cryptographic keys and signatures. Certificate Transparency is an Internet security standard for monitoring and auditing the issuance of digital certificates based on a distributed ledger. It was initiated in 2011, standardised in 2013 and started to be used by the Google Chrome browser for all certificates in 2018. In 2016, some banks tested distributed ledger systems for payments to determine their usefulness. In 2020, Axoni launched Veris,

1320-492: The latter typically indicates 'pre-mined' cryptocurrencies, such as XRP or IOTA . PoS cryptocurrencies do not use miners, instead usually relying on validation among owners of the cryptocurrency, such as Cardano or Solana . Blockchains are the most common DLT type, with a 256-bit secure hash algorithm (SHA). DLTs based on DAG data structures or hybrid blockchain-DAG decrease transaction data size and transaction costs, while increasing transaction speeds compared with bitcoin,

1364-453: The log servers. Certificate Transparency auditors use partial information about a log to verify the log against other partial information they have. Apple and Google have separate log programs with distinct policies and lists of trusted logs. Certificate Transparency logs maintain their own root stores and only accept certificates that chain back to the trusted roots. A number of misbehaving logs have been publishing inconsistent root stores in

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1408-475: The new organization announced that it was expanding from TLS/SSL certificates into IoT security with the announcement of its IoT device security platform. The company announced its new headquarters in Roseland, New Jersey on July 3, 2018 and its acquisition of CodeGuard, a website maintenance and disaster recovery company, on August 16, 2018. On June 29, 2020, Comodo announced their strategic partnership with

1452-420: The next day and found it to have English localization and Windows operating system. Though the firm initially reported that the breach was the result of a "state-driven attack", it subsequently stated that the origin of the attack may be the "result of an attacker attempting to lay a false trail.". Comodo revoked all of the bogus certificates shortly after the breach was discovered. Comodo also stated that it

1496-500: The opinion that Verizon's certification methodology is at fault here. In October 2015, Comodo applied for "Let's Encrypt", "Comodo Let's Encrypt", and "Let's Encrypt with Comodo" trademarks. These trademark applications were filed almost a year after the Internet Security Research Group, parent organization of Let's Encrypt , started using the name Let's Encrypt publicly in November 2014, and despite

1540-454: The past. In 2011, a reseller of the certificate authority Comodo was attacked and the certificate authority DigiNotar was compromised , demonstrating existing flaws in the certificate authority ecosystem and prompting work on various mechanisms to prevent or monitor unauthorized certificate issuance. Google employees Ben Laurie , Adam Langley and Emilia Kasper began work on an open source framework for detecting mis-issued certificates

1584-450: The requirements for certificates to those previously published by Apple. In Certificate Transparency Version 2.0, a log must use one of the algorithms in the IANA registry "Signature Algorithms". Distributed ledger A distributed ledger (also called a shared ledger or distributed ledger technology or DLT ) is a system whereby replicated, shared, and synchronized digital data

1628-697: The same year. In 2012, they submitted the first draft of the standard to IETF under the code-name "Sunlight". In March 2013, Google launched its first certificate transparency log. In June 2013, RFC   6962 "Certificate Transparency" was published, based on the 2012 draft. In September 2013, DigiCert became the first certificate authority to implement Certificate Transparency. In 2015, Google Chrome began requiring Certificate Transparency for newly issued Extended Validation Certificates . It began requiring Certificate Transparency for all certificates newly issued by Symantec from June 1, 2016, after they were found to have issued 187 certificates without

1672-439: The specifics will vary from CA to CA, RA to RA, but there are so many of these entities, all of them trusted by default, that further holes are deemed to be inevitable. In February 2015, Comodo was associated with a man-in-the-middle enabling tool known as PrivDog, which claims to protect users against malicious advertising. PrivDog issued a statement on 23 February 2015, saying, "A minor intermittent defect has been detected in

1716-680: The trademark issue is now resolved and behind us, and we'd like to thank the Let's Encrypt team for helping to bring it to a resolution." On 25 July 2016, Matthew Bryant showed that Comodo's website is vulnerable to dangling markup injection attacks and can send emails to system administrators from Comodo's servers to approve a wildcard certificate issue request which can be used to issue arbitrary wildcard certificates via Comodo's 30-Day PositiveSSL product. Bryant reached out in June 2016, and on 25 July 2016, Comodo's Chief Technical Officer Robin Alden confirmed

1760-510: The way back to 2006 to find an AV roundup where viruses were missed by some companies." Symantec responded saying that if Comodo is interested they should have their product included in tests by independent reviewers. Comodo volunteered to a Symantec vs. Comodo independent review. Though this showdown did not take place, Comodo has since been included in multiple independent reviews with AV-Test, PC World, Best Antivirus Reviews, AV-Comparatives, and PC Mag. On 23 March 2011, Comodo posted

1804-552: Was a managed attack, it was a planned attack, a group of cyber criminals did it, etc. Let me explain: a) I'm not a group, I'm single hacker with experience of 1000 hacker, I'm single programmer with experience of 1000 programmer, I'm single planner/project manager with experience of 1000 project managers, so you are right, it's managed by 1000 hackers, but it was only I with experience of 1000 hackers. Such issues have been widely reported, and have led to criticism of how certificates are issued and revoked. As of 2016, all of

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1848-409: Was actively looking into ways to improve the security of its affiliates. In an update on 31 March 2011, Comodo stated that it detected and thwarted an intrusion into a reseller user account on 26 March 2011. The new controls implemented by Comodo following the incident on 15 March 2011, removed any risk of the fraudulent issue of certificates. Comodo believed the attack was from the same perpetrator as

1892-458: Was published. Version 2.0 includes major changes to the required structure of the log certificate, as well as support for Ed25519 as a signature algorithm of SCTs and support for including certificate inclusion proofs with the SCT. In February 2022, Google published an update to their CT policy, which removes the requirement for certificates to include a SCT from their own CT log service, matching all

1936-486: Was subsequently discontinued by Comodo. Ormandy noted that Comodo received a "Excellence in Information Security Testing" award from Verizon despite the vulnerability in its browser, despite having its VNC delivered with a default of weak authentication, despite not enabling address space layout randomization (ASLR), and despite using access control lists (ACLs) throughout its product. Ormandy has

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