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62-496: Cerylonidae are small to tiny (0.8–3 mm (0.031–0.118 in)), smooth, shiny, hairless beetles, only lightly punctured. There are about 450 species worldwide in 50 or so genera, mostly tropical and subtropical. They are most common under the bark of dead trees, but can also occur in compost and other decaying plant material. Little is known specifically about their biology but they are thought to be either predators that feed on other small animals, or fungus-feeders. The taxonomy

124-622: A chemical formula of (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n , and greater amount of proteins in algae versus vascular plants causes this significant difference in the C/N ratio. Examples of devices that can be used to measure this ratio are the CHN analyzer and the continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS). However, for more practical applications, desired C/N ratios can be achieved by blending commonly used substrates of known C/N content, which are readily available and easy to use. Organic matter that

186-405: A compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry, the possible presence of phytotoxins in immature compost that may inhibit germination, and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin. It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting seedlings . Compost can be used to increase plant immunity to diseases and pests. Compost tea

248-521: A mouth mask and gloves must be worn to protect from diseases that can be contracted from handling compost, including: Oocytes are rendered unviable by temperatures over 50 °C (122 °F). Compost adds organic matter to the soil and increases the nutrient content and biodiversity of microbes in soil. Composting at home reduces the amount of green waste being hauled to dumps or composting facilities. The reduced volume of materials being picked up by trucks results in fewer trips, which in turn lowers

310-463: A near-optimal C:N ratio will be consumed quickly. Any excess C will cause the N originally in the soil to be consumed, competing with the plant for nutrients (immobilization) – at least temporarily until the microbes die. Any excess N, on the other hand, will usually just be left behind (mineralization), but too much excess may result in leaching losses. The recommended C:N ratio for soil materials is, therefore, 30:1. A soil test may be done to find

372-471: A pathogen dies depends on the pathogen, how long the temperature is maintained (seconds to weeks), and pH. Compost products such as compost tea and compost extracts have been found to have an inhibitory effect on Fusarium oxysporum , Rhizoctonia species , and Pythium debaryanum , plant pathogens that can cause crop diseases. Aerated compost teas are more effective than compost extracts. The microbiota and enzymes present in compost extracts also have

434-415: A process taking months. Composting can be a multistep, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water, and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture in a process using open piles or windrows . Fungi , earthworms , and other detritivores further break up

496-509: A range of specialist composts available, e.g. for vegetables, orchids, houseplants, hanging baskets, roses, ericaceous plants, seedlings, potting on, etc. Compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction , and landfill cover. The temperatures generated by compost can be used to heat greenhouses , such as by being placed around the outside edges. There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to

558-410: A suppressive effect on fungal plant pathogens. Compost is a good source of biocontrol agents like B. subtilis , B. licheniformis, and P. chrysogenum that fight plant pathogens. Sterilizing the compost, compost tea, or compost extracts reduces the effect of pathogen suppression. When turning compost that has not gone through phases where temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F) are reached,

620-536: A suppressive effect on plant pathogens and soil-borne diseases. The efficacy is influenced by a number of factors, such as the preparation process, the type of source the conditions of the brewing process, and the environment of the crops. Adding nutrients to compost tea can be beneficial for disease suppression, although it can trigger the regrowth of human pathogens like E. coli and Salmonella . Compost extracts are unfermented or non-brewed extracts of leached compost contents dissolved in any solvent. Compost

682-493: A thermophilic stage for days or weeks. This is hot composting and is the usual method for large-scale municipal facilities and agricultural operations. The Berkeley method produces finished compost in 18 days. It requires assembly of at least 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft) of material at the outset and needs turning every two days after an initial four-day phase. Such short processes involve some changes to traditional methods, including smaller, more homogenized particle sizes in

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744-468: A variety of metals and pharmaceutical compounds. Insufficient processing of biosolids can also lead to problems when the material is applied to land. Urine can be put on compost piles or directly used as fertilizer. Adding urine to compost can increase temperatures, so can increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as houseflies or blowflies ), and it does not contain

806-613: Is added after each use. This practice creates air pockets in the human waste to promote aerobic decomposition. This also improves the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and reduces potential odor . Most composting toilet systems rely on mesophilic composting. Longer retention time in the composting chamber also facilitates pathogen die-off. The end product can also be moved to a secondary system – usually another composting step – to allow more time for mesophilic composting to further reduce pathogens. On open ground for growing wheat , corn , soybeans , and similar crops, compost can be broadcast across

868-423: Is an aerobic method of decomposing organic solid wastes, so it can be used to recycle organic material. The process involves decomposing organic material into a humus-like material, known as compost, which is a good fertilizer for plants. Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively: Certain ratios of these materials allow microorganisms to work at a rate that will heat up

930-419: Is an ongoing and dynamic process; adding new sources of carbon and nitrogen consistently, as well as active management, is important. Organisms can break down organic matter in compost if provided with the correct mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. They fall into two broad categories: chemical decomposers, which perform chemical processes on the organic waste, and physical decomposers, which process

992-473: Is complex. The "Cerylonid Series" is a cluster of highly derived former Cucujoidea families considered by recent authorities to comprise a separate superfamily Coccinelloidea . Several of these families ( Alexiidae , Euxestidae , Murmidiidae ) used to be included within Cerylonidae. Cerylonidae in their current circumscription comprise the subfamilies Ceryloninae, Loeblioryloninae and Ostomopsinae in

1054-408: Is deposited in marine sediments contains a key indicator as to its source and the processes it underwent before reaching the floor as well as after deposition, its carbon to nitrogen ratio. In the global oceans, freshly produced algae in the surface ocean typically have a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 4 to 10. However, it has been observed that only 10% of this organic matter (algae) produced in

1116-418: Is found in solid human waste. Phosphorus, which helps plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of ATP, can be found in liquid human waste. Solid human waste can be collected directly in composting toilets , or indirectly in the form of sewage sludge after it has undergone treatment in a sewage treatment plant . Both processes require capable design, as potential health risks need to be managed. In

1178-585: Is generally considered a source of nitrogen and includes pre- and post-consumer food waste , grass clippings, garden trimmings, and fresh leaves. Animal carcasses, roadkill, and butcher residue can also be composted, and these are considered nitrogen sources. Brown waste is a carbon source. Typical examples are dried vegetation and woody material such as fallen leaves, straw, woodchips, limbs, logs, pine needles, sawdust, and wood ash, but not charcoal ash. Products derived from wood such as paper and plain cardboard are also considered carbon sources. On many farms,

1240-428: Is in effect creating a nurse log that is covered with soil. Benefits of Hügelkultur garden beds include water retention and warming of soil. Buried wood acts like a sponge as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by crops planted on top of the bed. A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that treats human waste by a biological process called composting. This process leads to

1302-468: Is made up of extracts of fermented water leached from composted materials. Composts can be either aerated or non-aerated depending on its fermentation process. Compost teas are generally produced from adding compost to water in a ratio of 1:4–1:10, occasionally stirring to release microbes . There is debate about the benefits of aerating the mixture. Non-aerated compost tea is cheaper and less labor-intensive, but there are conflicting studies regarding

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1364-609: Is not large enough to remove the vascular versus non-vascular plant signals due to the refractory nature of terrestrial organic matter. Abrupt shifts in the C/N ratio down-core can be interpreted as shifts in the organic source material. For example, two studies on Mangrove Lake, Bermuda, and Lake Yunoko, Japan, show irregular, abrupt fluctuations between C/N around 11 to 18. These fluctuations are attributed to shifts from mainly algal dominance to land-based vascular dominance. Results of studies that show abrupt shifts in algal dominance and vascular dominance often lead to conclusions about

1426-583: Is not necessary with cold composting, although a risk exists that parts of the pile may go anaerobic as it becomes compacted or waterlogged. Composting can destroy some pathogens and seeds , by reaching temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F). Dealing with stabilized compost – i.e. composted material in which microorganisms have finished digesting the organic matter and the temperature has reached between 50 and 70 °C (122 and 158 °F) – poses very little risk, as these temperatures kill pathogens and even make oocysts unviable. The temperature at which

1488-481: Is rarely used alone, plants can flourish from mixed soil that includes a mix of compost with other additives such as sand , grit, bark chips, vermiculite , perlite , or clay granules to produce loam . Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell. Generally, direct seeding into

1550-403: Is rich in plant nutrients and beneficial organisms , such as bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, and fungi. Compost improves soil fertility in gardens , landscaping , horticulture , urban agriculture , and organic farming , reducing dependency on commercial chemical fertilizers. The benefits of compost include providing nutrients to crops as fertilizer , acting as a soil conditioner , increasing

1612-399: Is sold as bagged potting mixes in garden centers and other outlets. This may include composted materials such as manure and peat but is also likely to contain loam, fertilizers, sand, grit, etc. Varieties include multi-purpose composts designed for most aspects of planting, John Innes formulations, grow bags, designed to have crops such as tomatoes directly planted into them. There are also

1674-430: Is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure must be blended with high-carbon, low-nitrogen materials. Human excreta , sometimes called "humanure" in the composting context, can be added as an input to the composting process since it is a nutrient-rich organic material. Nitrogen, which serves as a building block for important plant amino acids,

1736-492: The Celtic Sea (depth: 1–30 cm). The sediment depth exceeds 1m and would be a suitable study site for conducting paleolimnology experiments with C:N. Unlike in marine sediments, diagenesis does not pose a large threat to the integrity of the C/N ratio in lacustrine sediments. Though wood from living trees around lakes have consistently higher C/N ratios than wood buried in sediment, the change in elemental composition

1798-401: The decomposition of organic matter and turns human waste into compost-like material. Composting is carried out by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi ) under controlled aerobic conditions. Most composting toilets use no water for flushing and are therefore called " dry toilets ". In many composting toilet designs, a carbon additive such as sawdust , coconut coir , or peat moss

1860-483: The humus or humic acid contents of the soil, and introducing beneficial microbes that help to suppress pathogens in the soil and reduce soil-borne diseases. At the simplest level, composting requires gathering a mix of "greens" (green waste) and "browns" (brown waste). Greens are materials rich in nitrogen, such as leaves, grass, and food scraps. Browns are woody materials rich in carbon, such as stalks, paper, and wood chips. The materials break down into humus in

1922-477: The C:N ratio of the soil itself. The C:N ratio of microbes themselves is generally around 10:1. A lower ratio is correlated with higher soil productivity. The role of C:N ratio in compost feedstock is similar to that of soil feedstock. The recommendation is around 20-30:1. The microbes prefer a ratio of 30-35:1, but the carbon is usually not completely digested (especially in the case of lignin feedstock), hence

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1984-734: The United States, on-farm use is relatively rare since rates over 4 tons/acre may not be affordable. This results from an over-emphasis on "recycling organic matter" than on "sustainable nutrients." In countries such as Germany, where compost distribution and spreading are partially subsidized in the original waste fees, compost is used more frequently on open ground on the premise of nutrient "sustainability". In plasticulture , strawberries , tomatoes , peppers , melons , and other fruits and vegetables are grown under plastic to control temperature, retain moisture and control weeds. Compost may be banded (applied in strips along rows) and worked into

2046-457: The analysis of sediments, C/N ratios are a proxy for paleoclimate research, having different uses whether the sediment cores are terrestrial-based or marine-based. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratios indicate the degree of nitrogen limitation of plants and other organisms. They can identify whether molecules found in the sediment under study come from land-based or algal plants. Further, they can distinguish between different land-based plants, depending on

2108-603: The basic composting ingredients are animal manure generated on the farm as a nitrogen source, and bedding as the carbon source. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Nontraditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which

2170-452: The case of home composting, a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasitic worms, can be present in feces, and improper processing can pose significant health risks. In the case of large sewage treatment facilities that collect wastewater from a range of residential, commercial and industrial sources, there are additional considerations. The composted sewage sludge, referred to as biosolids , can be contaminated with

2232-428: The compost pile. Active management of the pile (e.g., turning over the compost heap) is needed to maintain sufficient oxygen and the right moisture level. The air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures 130–160 °F (54–71 °C) until the materials are broken down. Composting is most efficient with a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 25:1. Hot composting focuses on retaining heat to increase

2294-476: The composting of livestock. In-vessel composting generally describes a group of methods that confine the composting materials within a building, container, or vessel. In-vessel composting systems can consist of metal or plastic tanks or concrete bunkers in which air flow and temperature can be controlled, using the principles of a " bioreactor ". Generally the air circulation is metered in via buried tubes that allow fresh air to be injected under pressure, with

2356-497: The decomposition rate, thus producing compost more quickly. Rapid composting is favored by having a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 30 carbon units or less. Above 30, the substrate is nitrogen starved. Below 15, it is likely to outgas a portion of nitrogen as ammonia. Nearly all dead plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen in different amounts. Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15:1 and dry autumn leaves about 50:1 depending upon species. Composting

2418-528: The deep ocean (deeper than about 2500 meters) . This elevated C/N signature is preserved in the sediment until another form of diagenesis, post-depositional diagenesis, alters its C/N signature once again. Post-depositional diagenesis occurs in organic-carbon-poor marine sediments where bacteria can oxidize organic matter in aerobic conditions as an energy source. The oxidation reaction proceeds as follows: CH 2 O + H 2 O → CO 2 + 4H + 4e , with standard free energy of –27.4 kJ mol (half-reaction). Once all of

2480-643: The early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards. Compost is regulated in Canada and Australia as well. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio In

2542-695: The exhaust being extracted through a biofilter , with temperature and moisture conditions monitored using probes in the mass to allow maintenance of optimum aerobic decomposition conditions. Aerated static pile (ASP) composting refers to any of a number of systems used to biodegrade organic material without physical manipulation during primary composting . The blended admixture is usually placed on perforated piping, providing air circulation for controlled aeration . It may be in windrows , open or covered, or in closed containers . With regard to complexity and cost, aerated systems are most commonly used by larger, professionally managed composting facilities, although

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2604-468: The input materials, controlling carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) at 30:1 or less, and careful monitoring of the moisture level. Cold composting is a slower process that can take up to a year to complete. It results from smaller piles, including many residential compost piles that receive small amounts of kitchen and garden waste over extended periods. Piles smaller than 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft) tend not to reach and maintain high temperatures. Turning

2666-416: The lowered ratio. An imbalance of C:N ratio causes a slowdown in the composting process and a drop in temperature. When the C:N ratio is less than 15:1, outgassing of ammonium may occur, creating odor and losing nitrogen. A finished compost has a C:N ratio of around 10:1. The C and N contents of feedstocks is generally known from lookup tables listing common types of feedstock. It is important to deduct

2728-420: The moisture content if the listed value is for dry material. For foodstuffs with a nutrition analysis , the N content may be estimated from the protein content as prot% × 0.16 , reversing the crude protein calculation. The C content may be estimated from crude ash content (often reported in animal feed) or from reported macronutrient levels as carbs% × 0.44 + fat% × 0.86 + prot% × 0.53 . Given

2790-450: The more significant phenomena at play. In microbial communities like soil, the C:N ratio is a key indicator as it describes a balance between energetic foods (represented by carbon) and material to build protein with (represented by nitrogen). An optimal C:N ratio of around 24:1 provides for higher microbial activity. The C:N ratio of soil can be modified by the addition of materials such as compost, manure , and mulch . A feedstock with

2852-406: The most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs. Animal carcasses may be composted as a disposal option. Such material is rich in nitrogen. Human composting (also known as soil transformation ) is a process for the final disposition of human remains in which microbes convert a deceased body into compost. It is also called natural organic reduction (NOR) or terramation. Although

2914-430: The natural decomposition of human corpses into soil is a long-standing practice, a more rapid process that was developed in the early 21st century by Katrina Spade, entails encasing human corpses in wood chips, straw, and alfalfa until thermophile microbes decompose the body. In this manner, the transformation can be sped up to as little as 1–2 months. The accelerated process is based in part on techniques developed for

2976-520: The only planting substrate. The particular crop and the seeds' sensitivity to nutrients, salts, etc. dictates the ratio of the blend, and maturity is important to insure that oxygen deprivation will not occur or that no lingering phyto-toxins remain. Compost can be added to soil, coir , or peat , as a tilth improver, supplying humus and nutrients. It provides a rich growing medium as absorbent material. This material contains moisture and soluble minerals, which provide support and nutrients . Although it

3038-740: The organic material. Aerobic bacteria and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide , and ammonium ions. Composting is an important part of waste management, since food and other compostable materials make up about 20% of waste in landfills, and due to anaerobic conditions, these materials take longer to biodegrade in the landfill. Composting offers an environmentally superior alternative to using organic material for landfill because composting reduces methane emissions due to anaerobic conditions, and provides economic and environmental co-benefits. For example, compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and landfill cover. Composting

3100-489: The overall emissions from the waste-management fleet. Potential sources of compostable materials, or feedstocks, include residential, agricultural, and commercial waste streams. Residential food or yard waste can be composted at home, or collected for inclusion in a large-scale municipal composting facility. In some regions, it could also be included in a local or neighborhood composting project. The two broad categories of organic solid waste are green and brown. Green waste

3162-616: The oxygen is used up, bacteria can carry out an anoxic sequence of chemical reactions as an energy source, all with negative ∆G°r values, with the reaction becoming less favorable as the chain of reactions proceeds. The same principle described above explains the preferential degradation of nitrogen-rich organic matter within the sediments, as they are more labile and in higher demand. This principle has been utilized in paleoceanographic studies to identify core sites that have not experienced much microbial activity or contamination by terrestrial sources with much higher C/N ratios. Lastly, ammonia,

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3224-487: The product of the second reduction reaction, which reduces nitrate and produces nitrogen gas and ammonia, is readily adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces and protected from bacteria. This has been proposed to explain lower-than-expected C/N signatures of organic carbon in sediments undergoing post-depositional diagenesis. Ammonium produced from the remineralisation of organic material, exists in elevated concentrations (1 - >14μM) within cohesive shelf sea sediments found in

3286-436: The risks of phytotoxicity and human pathogen regrowth. Aerated compost tea brews faster and generates more microbes, but has potential for human pathogen regrowth, particularly when one adds additional nutrients to the mixture. Field studies have shown the benefits of adding compost teas to crops due to organic matter input, increased nutrient availability, and increased microbial activity. They have also been shown to have

3348-451: The sense of Ślipiński (1990), with around 344 species in 38 genera: Data sources: s = Ślipiński (1990), i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide.net Compost Compost is a mixture of ingredients used as plant fertilizer and to improve soil 's physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is commonly prepared by decomposing plant and food waste, recycling organic materials, and manure. The resulting mixture

3410-516: The sinking organic carbon as an energy source, are partial to nitrogen-rich compounds because much of these bacteria are nitrogen-limited and much prefer it over carbon. As a result, the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of sinking organic carbon in the deep ocean is elevated compared to fresh surface ocean organic matter that has not been degraded. An exponential increase in C/N ratios is observed with increasing water depth—with C/N ratios reaching ten at intermediate water depths of about 1000 meters and up to 15 in

3472-416: The soil prior to bedding and planting, be applied at the same time the beds are constructed and plastic laid down, or used as a top dressing. Many crops are not seeded directly in the field but are started in seed trays in a greenhouse. When the seedlings reach a certain stage of growth, they are transplanted in the field. Compost may be part of the mix used to grow the seedlings, but is not normally used as

3534-506: The state of the lake during these distinct periods of isotopic signatures. Times in which algal signals dominate lakes suggest a deep-water lake, while times in which vascular plant signals dominate lakes suggest the lake is shallow, dry, or marshy. Using the C/N ratio in conjunction with other sediment observations, such as physical variations, D/H isotopic analyses of fatty acids and alkanes, and δ13C analyses on similar biomarkers can lead to further regional climate interpretations that describe

3596-424: The surface ocean sinks to the deep ocean without being degraded by bacteria in transit, and only about 1% is permanently buried in the sediment. An important process called sediment diagenesis accounts for the other 9% of organic carbon that sank to the deep ocean floor, but was not permanently buried, that is 9% of the total organic carbon produced is degraded in the deep ocean. The microbial communities utilizing

3658-488: The technique may range from very small, simple systems to very large, capital intensive, industrial installations. In agriculture , windrow composting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste , such as animal manure and crop residues, in long rows – windrow . The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called Hügelkultur in German. It

3720-406: The top of the soil using spreader trucks or spreaders pulled behind a tractor. It is expected that the spread layer is very thin (approximately 6 mm (0.24 in)) and worked into the soil prior to planting. Application rates of 25 mm (0.98 in) or more are not unusual when trying to rebuild poor soils or control erosion. Due to the extremely high cost of compost per unit of nutrients in

3782-574: The type of photosynthesis they undergo. Therefore, the C/N ratio serves as a tool for understanding the sources of sedimentary organic matter, which can lead to information about the ecology, climate, and ocean circulation at different times in Earth's history. C/N ratios in the range of 4-10:1 usually come from marine sources, whereas higher ratios are likely to come from a terrestrial source. Vascular plants from terrestrial sources tend to have C/N ratios greater than 20. The lack of cellulose , which has

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3844-436: The waste into smaller pieces through methods such as grinding, tearing, chewing, and digesting. Under ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases: The time required to compost material relates to the volume of material, the particle size of the inputs (e.g. wood chips break down faster than branches), and the amount of mixing and aeration. Generally, larger piles reach higher temperatures and remain in

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