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96-631: The gate lay on the southeastern corner of the Augustaion , the main ceremonial plaza of the city, with the Hagia Sophia cathedral on the northern side and the Baths of Zeuxippos and the Hippodrome of Constantinople on the southern and western sides. The first structure in that location was erected by the architect Aetherius during the reign of Emperor Anastasius I (r. 491–518) to celebrate

192-535: A co-ruler from outside his family and that co-ruler had to be someone he trusted. The historian William Seston has argued that Diocletian, like heirless emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ("Augustan son") upon his appointment to the office. Some agree, but the historian Frank Kolb has stated that arguments for the adoption are based on misreadings of the papyrological evidence. Maximian did take Diocletian's nomen ( family name ) Valerius, however. Finally, Diocletian knew that single rule

288-408: A law court. Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (r. 920–944) attached a small chapel dedicated to Christ Chalkites ( Χριστός Χαλκίτης ), which was later rebuilt on a grander scale by Emperor John I Tzimiskes (r. 969–976), who endowed it with relics and was himself buried there. This rebuilding was facilitated by the fact that his predecessor, Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969), had enclosed

384-590: A legion near Boulogne (probably XXX Ulpia Victrix ). Carausius quickly eliminated the few remaining loyalists in his army and declared himself Augustus. Maximian could do little about the revolt. He had no fleet – he had given it to Carausius – and was busy quelling the Heruli and the Franks. Meanwhile, Carausius strengthened his position by enlarging his fleet, enlisting Frankish mercenaries, and paying his troops well. By late 286, Britain, much of northwestern Gaul, and

480-477: A liberator. With Constantius' victorious return, Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania ( Northwest Africa ). As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria ) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against

576-466: A life of ease and luxury. Although far from the political centers of the Empire, Diocletian and Maximian remained close enough to stay in regular contact. After the death of Constantius on 25 July 306, Constantine assumed the title of Augustus. This displeased Galerius, who instead offered Constantine the title of Caesar, which Constantine accepted. The title of Augustus then went to Severus. Maxentius

672-519: A poor match for Roman legions – Diocletian certainly considered the Bagaudae sufficient threat to merit an emperor to counter them. Maximian has been implicated in a massacre of Coptic Christian troops from the headquarters unit of a legion raised in Thebes at Aucanus in modern Switzerland in early 285, during the preparations for the campaign against the Bagaudae. Maximian traveled to Gaul, engaging

768-553: A rectangular shape 85 m long and 60–65 m wide. Enclosed on all sides, the Augustaion was entered in its western and southern side, respectively through the Melete and Pinsos Gates, from the Mesē , the city's main thoroughfare. Directly outside the square stood the Milion , the mile marker from which all distances in the Empire were measured. To its north, the Augustaion was bounded by

864-509: A single battle. He fought in person, riding along the battle line until the Germanic forces broke. Roman forces pursued the fleeing tribal armies and routed them. With his enemies weakened from starvation, Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine. He moved deep into Germanic territory, bringing destruction to his enemies' homelands and demonstrating the superiority of Roman arms. By

960-597: A text written in ca. 600 – in great part because the images of Emperor Maurice and his family are unlikely to have survived their overthrow and murder by Phocas in 602. Above the main entrance of the Chalke, there stood an icon of Christ , the so-called Christ Chalkites ("Christ of the Chalke"). The origins of the icon are obscure: based on its mention in the Parastaseis , it may have existed by ca. 600, but it cannot be stated with any certainty. Its prominent display on

1056-654: A victory in Gaul later that year. Maximian believed the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes of the Moselle - Vosges region to be the greatest threat, so he targeted them first. He campaigned using scorched earth tactics, laying waste to their land and reducing their numbers through famine and disease. After the Burgundians and Alemanni, Maximian moved against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones. He cornered and defeated them in

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1152-536: Is no direct evidence in the ancient sources for their birthdates. Modern estimates of Maxentius' birth year have varied from c. 276 to 283, and most date Fausta's birth to c. 289 or 290. Theodora , the wife of Constantius Chlorus , is often called Maximian's stepdaughter by ancient sources, leading to claims by Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein that she was born from an earlier marriage between Eutropia and Afranius Hannibalianus . Barnes challenges this view, saying that all "stepdaughter" sources derive their information from

1248-622: The Deesis mosaic in the Chora Church , use the term for depictions of a standing Christ on a pedestal. 41°0′21″N 28°58′38″E  /  41.00583°N 28.97722°E  / 41.00583; 28.97722 Augustaion The Augustaion ( Greek : Αὐγουσταῖον ) or, in Latin , Augustaeum , was an important ceremonial square in ancient and medieval Constantinople (modern Istanbul , Turkey ), roughly corresponding to

1344-528: The Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae of ca. 425. 41°00′29″N 28°58′44″E  /  41.008°N 28.979°E  / 41.008; 28.979 Maximian Maximian ( Latin : Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus ; c.  250  – c.  July 310 ), nicknamed Herculius , was Roman emperor from 286 to 305. He was Caesar from 285 to 286, then Augustus from 286 to 305. He shared

1440-547: The Bavares and Quinquegentiani , but the raiders soon returned. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from Praetorian cohorts , Aquileian , Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German auxiliaries , and Thracian recruits, advancing through Spain later that year. He may have defended the region against raiding Moors before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco ) to protect

1536-518: The Hagia Sophia cathedral and the Patriarchal palace ( Patriarcheion ), to its east by one of the two Senate houses of the city, built by Constantine or Julian (r. 360–363) and rebuilt by Justinian with a porch of six great columns adorning its front. Next to the Senate, at the southeastern corner stood the monumental Chalkē Gate , the entrance to the imperial palace precinct , while to

1632-521: The Saxon Shore , but much remained to be done. For example, there is no archaeological evidence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne during 270–285. In response to the pirate problem, Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius , a Menapian from Germania Inferior (southern and western Netherlands ) to command the Channel and to clear it of raiders. Carausius fared well, and by the end of 285 he

1728-574: The Tetrastoon , while the Augustaion was likely carved out of its eastern part at that time, and named after a Porphyry column supporting a statue of his mother, the Augusta Helena . The Augustaion was rebuilt in 459 under Emperor Leo I (r. 457–474), and again in the 530s, after being destroyed in the Nika riot , by Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565). In its original form, the square

1824-586: The 16th century. The square itself was paved with marble, as discovered in excavations, and featured a number of statues, aside from the already-mentioned statue of the Augusta Helena. The 8th to 9th-century Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai record a statue of Constantine himself, standing on a column and flanked by statues of his three sons, Constantine II (r. 337–340), Constans (r. 337–350) and Constantius II (r. 337–361), to which were later added statues of Licinius (r. 308–324) and of Julian. In

1920-585: The Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius. Later in the year, Maximian led a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates – a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory – while Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia . Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. They added large swathes of territory to

2016-584: The Bagaudae late in mid-285. Details of the campaign are sparse and provide no tactical detail: the historical sources dwell only on Maximian's virtues and victories. The panegyric to Maximian in 289 records that the rebels were defeated with a blend of harshness and leniency. As the campaign was against the Empire's own citizens, and therefore distasteful, it went unrecorded in titles and official triumphs . Indeed, Maximian's panegyrist declares: "I pass quickly over this episode, for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it." By

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2112-409: The Chalke with the sign of the cross above them". The same text also records that statues of Emperor Maximian (r. 285–305) and the entire House of Theodosius were located "nearby", while the exact location of a statue of Empress Pulcheria in relation to the building is unclear. Cyril Mango, who studied the problem of the statuary recorded in the Parastaseis , concluded that the references came from

2208-527: The Church of Christ Chalkites with the gate is unclear; Cyril Mango suggested that it was located to its left, but it has also been proposed that it was actually built atop the gatehouse itself. It is known that the chapel was placed atop an elevated platform, and 18th-century depictions locate it some 100 m southeast of the Hagia Sophia. The vestibule's interior decoration is also described by Procopius:

2304-541: The Danube by 1 July 290. Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291. Crowds gathered to witness the event, and the emperors devoted much time to public pageantry. Potter, among others, has surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. The rulers discussed matters of politics and war in secret, and they may have considered

2400-522: The Empire and allowed Maximian's build-up to proceed without further disturbance. In the aftermath of the war, towns along the Rhine were rebuilt, bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne, and a military frontier was established, comprising forts, roads, and fortified towns. A military highway through Tornacum ( Tournai , Belgium ), Bavacum ( Bavay , France), Atuatuca Tungrorum ( Tongeren , Belgium), Mosae Trajectum ( Maastricht , Netherlands), and Cologne connected points along

2496-420: The Empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube, Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage his heavy workload. Historian Stephen Williams suggests that Diocletian considered himself a mediocre general and needed a man like Maximian to do most of his fighting. Next, Diocletian was vulnerable in that he had no sons, just a daughter, Valeria, who could never succeed him. He was forced therefore to seek

2592-468: The Empress' ire and his subsequent deposition and exile. The statue's base was discovered in 1848 and is now located in the garden of the Hagia Sophia. Following Justinian's rebuilding, the square's main feature was a tall column erected in 543 in the western end of the square to commemorate his victories. It was topped by an equestrian statue of Justinian himself, reusing parts of Theodosius' statue, and

2688-452: The Great . When Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) rebuilt the city, he erected a large square surrounded by porticoes , hence named the Tetrastoon ("four stoas "). In the center of the square stood a column with a statue of the god Helios . In the 320s, Constantine adorned his chosen new capital with many new monumental buildings. His activities included new structures around

2784-468: The Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312. Maxentius died, and Italy came under Constantine's rule. Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian's son, and Maximian's memory was rehabilitated. His apotheosis under Maxentius was declared null and void, and he was re-consecrated as a god, probably in 317. He began appearing on Constantine's coinage as divus , or divine, by 318, together with

2880-591: The Roman Empire was not divided by the dual imperium . Though divisions did take place – each emperor had his own court, army, and official residences – these were matters of practicality, not substance. Imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum . As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian: "So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you, without any discord, nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you, but plainly you hold

2976-584: The area from Frankish pirates. By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 resting in Carthage before returning to the field. Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The terrain

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3072-543: The army defected to Maxentius. Severus fled to Ravenna , which Maximian besieged. The city was strongly fortified so Maximian offered terms, which Severus accepted. Maximian then seized Severus and took him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome, where he was kept as a hostage. In late 307, Galerius led a second force against Maxentius but he again failed to take Rome, and retreated north with his army mostly intact. While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian made his way to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine. A deal

3168-462: The campaign's prospects, but the panegyrist of 291 made no mention of it. Constantius' panegyrist suggested that his fleet was lost to a storm, but this might simply have been to diminish the embarrassment of defeat. Diocletian curtailed his Eastern province tour soon after, perhaps on learning of Maximian's failure. Diocletian returned in haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on

3264-405: The condition that they acknowledged Roman dominance. Their presence provided a ready pool of manpower and prevented the settlement of other Frankish tribes, giving Maximian a buffer along the northern Rhine and reducing his need to garrison the region. By 289, Maximian was prepared to invade Carausius ' Britain, but for some reason the plan failed. Maximian's panegyrist of 289 was optimistic about

3360-586: The continent but refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy. For his part, Carausius was content with his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul. Diocletian, however, would not tolerate this affront to his rule. Faced with Carausius' secession and further challenges on the Egyptian, Syrian, and Danubian borders, he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the Empire. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian appointed Constantius to

3456-764: The court of Constantius' successor, Constantine (Maximian's step-grandson and son-in-law), in Trier. At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308, Diocletian and his successor, Galerius , forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim again. In early 310, Maximian attempted to seize Constantine's title while the emperor was on campaign on the Rhine. Few supported him, and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille . Maximian killed himself in mid-310 on Constantine's orders. During Constantine's war with Maxentius, Maximian's image

3552-472: The earlier rupture in relations, after Maximian's suicide Maxentius presented himself as his father's devoted son. He minted coins bearing his father's deified image and proclaimed his desire to avenge his death. Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of

3648-575: The eastern part of Constantinople, which in the early and middle Byzantine periods constituted the administrative, religious and ceremonial center of the city. The square was a rectangular open space, enclosed within a colonnaded porticoes ( peristyla in Latin, in English peristyles ), probably first added in the 459 rebuilding and restored by Justinian. Its exact dimensions are impossible to determine nowadays; Rodolphe Guilland suggested that it had

3744-522: The end of 287, he had the advantage and the Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen. Maximian's panegyrist declared: "All that I see beyond the Rhine is Roman." Early the next year, as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East. The emperors met that year, but neither date nor place is known with certainty. They probably agreed on a joint campaign against

3840-402: The end of the year, the revolt had significantly abated, and Maximian moved the bulk of his forces to the Rhine frontier, heralding a period of stability. Maximian did not put down the Bagaudae swiftly enough to avoid a Germanic reaction. In late 285, two barbarian armies – one of Burgundians and Alamanni, the other of Chaibones and Heruli – forded the Rhine and entered Gaul. The first army

3936-424: The entire Channel coast, was under his control. Carausius declared himself head of an independent British state, an Imperium Britanniarum and issued coin of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian, earning the support of British and Gallic merchants. Even Maximian's troops were vulnerable to Carausius' influence and wealth. Spurred by the crisis with Carausius, on 1 April 286, Maximian took

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4032-459: The existence of various statues, probably placed in niches above the central doorway. These included Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) and his wife and children, a pair of statues of philosophers taken from Athens , stretching their arms towards one another, statues of Emperor Zeno (r. 474–491) and Empress Ariadne , as well as four gorgon heads from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus that "surround

4128-463: The frontier. In early 288, Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Constantius Chlorus , husband of Maximian's daughter Theodora, to lead a campaign against Carausius' Frankish allies. These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries , thwarting sea-attacks against Carausius. Constantius moved north through their territory, wreaking havoc, and reaching the North Sea . The Franks sued for peace and in

4224-505: The frontier. The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius , rebelled in 286, causing the secession of Britain and northwestern Gaul. Maximian failed to oust Carausius, and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290. Maximian's subordinate Constantius campaigned against Carausius' successor, Allectus , while Maximian held the Rhine frontier . The rebel leader

4320-469: The gods' instruments, imposing the gods' will on earth. Once the rituals were over, Maximian assumed control of the government of the West and was dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels known as Bagaudae while Diocletian returned to the East. The Bagaudae of Gaul are obscure figures, appearing fleetingly in the ancient sources, with their 285 uprising being their first appearance. The fourth-century historian Eutropius described them as rural people under

4416-573: The idea of expanding the imperial college to include four emperors (the Tetrarchy ). Meanwhile, a deputation from the Roman Senate met with the rulers and renewed its infrequent contact with the imperial office. The emperors would not meet again until 303. Following Maximian's failure to invade in 289, an uneasy truce with Carausius began. Maximian tolerated Carausius' rule in Britain and on

4512-466: The invasion plans and, in mid-296, returned to Gaul. There, he held the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius' Frankish allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain. Allectus was killed on the North Downs in battle with Constantius' praetorian prefect, Asclepiodotus . Constantius himself had landed near Dubris (Dover) and marched on Londinium ( London ), whose citizens greeted him as

4608-541: The late 13th century, following the recovery of the city from the Latin Empire , the square and its adjacent buildings seem to have been the property of the Hagia Sophia. By the early 15th century however, the Italian traveller Cristoforo Buondelmonti reported that the square lay in ruins, and by the time of Pierre Gilles ' sojourn in the 1540s, only the fragments of seven columns remained. The Augustaion lay in

4704-534: The latter title with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian , whose political brain complemented Maximian's military brawn. Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most of his time on campaign. In late 285, he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae . From 285 to 288, he fought against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he launched a scorched earth campaign deep into Alamannic territory in 288, refortifying

4800-454: The leadership of Amandus and Aelianus , while Aurelius Victor called them bandits. The historian David S. Potter suggests that they were more than peasants, seeking either Gallic political autonomy or reinstatement of the recently deposed Carus (a native of Gallia Narbonensis , in what would become southern France ): in this case, they would be defecting imperial troops, not brigands. Although poorly equipped, led and trained – and therefore

4896-584: The modern Aya Sofya Meydanı ( Turkish , " Hagia Sophia Square"). Originating as a public market, in the 6th century it was transformed into a closed courtyard surrounded by porticoes, and provided the linking space between some of the most important edifices in the Byzantine capital. The square survived until the late Byzantine period, albeit in ruins, and traces were still visible in the early 16th century. The square dates back to ancient Byzantium , before its conversion into an imperial capital by Constantine

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4992-571: The new tetrarchy, which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held. Although Maximian led the ceremony that proclaimed Severus as Caesar , within two years he was sufficiently dissatisfied to support his son's rebellion against the new regime. Diocletian retired to the expansive palace he had built in his homeland, Dalmatia near Salona on the Adriatic . Maximian retired to villas in Campania , Lucania or Sirmium, where he lived

5088-407: The office of Caesar. On either the same day or a month later, Diocletian did the same for Galerius , thus establishing the "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four". Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed and defeat Carausius. Constantius met expectations quickly and efficiently and by 293 had expelled Carausian forces from northern Gaul. In the same year, Carausius

5184-481: The palace precinct with a new wall of reduced girth, to which the Chalke was no longer attached. The main gatehouse, denuded of its bronze gates by Emperor Isaac II Angelos during his first reign (1185–1195), is not mentioned by Byzantine chroniclers after c.  1200 . The chapel however survived long after: it is mentioned as being largely intact by Russian pilgrims in the 14th century, and in Ottoman times,

5280-548: The partially unreliable work of history Kaisergeschichte , while other, more reliable, sources refer to her as Maximian's natural daughter. Barnes concludes that Theodora was born no later than c. 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian, possibly one of Hannibalianus' daughters. Julia Hillner agrees with Barnes that the "stepdaughter sources" are a result of political propaganda from the later Constantinian dynasty but believes that Barnes explanation fails to explain why Theodora named one of her daughters Eutropia if her mother

5376-495: The people's gratitude to Maximian, hailing him – as Constantius had been on his entry to London – as redditor lucis aeternae ("restorer of the eternal light"). Maximian returned to Italy in early 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome. After his Mauretanian campaign in 299, Maximian returned to the north of Italy, living a life of leisure in palaces in Milan and Aquilea, and leaving warfare to his subordinate Constantius. Maximian

5472-463: The plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of

5568-542: The rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and moved quickly to southern Gaul, where he confronted the fleeing Maximian at Massilia ( Marseille ). The town was better able to withstand a long siege than Arles, but it made little difference as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured, reproved for his crimes, and stripped of his title for the third and last time. Constantine granted Maximian some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. Despite

5664-459: The reign of Theodosius the Great (r. 379–395), the ensemble was replaced by a silver equestrian statue of the emperor, standing on a column, and again flanked at ground level by statues of his sons, Arcadius (r. 383–408) and Honorius (r. 393–423). A bronze statue of Aelia Eudoxia on a column also stood on the square. The noise and pagan rituals that accompanied the statue's inauguration were criticized by Patriarch John Chrysostom , provoking

5760-440: The river, they were more often in dispute with each other than in combat with the Empire. Few clear dates survive for Maximian's campaigns on the Rhine beyond a general range of 285 to 288. While receiving the consular fasces on 1 January 287, Maximian was interrupted by news of a barbarian raid. Doffing his toga and donning his armor, he marched against the barbarians and, although they were not entirely dispersed, he celebrated

5856-430: The ruins of the chapel were known as Arslanhane and functioned as a menagerie. The remains of the chapel are depicted in 18th-century drawings, until finally demolished in 1804. Several literary descriptions of the gate survive. Procopius is the earliest and most prominent source, but accounts of the statues decorating the gatehouse's façade also come from the later Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai . Justinian's Chalke

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5952-519: The southwest stood the great Baths of Zeuxippus and the northern end of the Hippodrome . In the 7th century, probably under Patriarch Thomas I (r. 607–610) a big three-aisled basilica called the Thōmaitēs (Θωμαΐτης) was erected on the southeastern side of the square. It was a reception hall associated with the patriarchal residence, containing also the Patriarchate's library, and survived until

6048-715: The state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae , the Spartan Kings , had done." Legal rulings were given and imperial celebrations took place in both emperors' names, and the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire. Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian's province of Africa; Maximian could presumably have done the same for Diocletian's territory. Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress Carausius and campaigned instead against Rhenish tribes. These tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace anyway and included many supporters of Carausius. Although Maximian had many enemies along

6144-540: The subsequent settlement Maximian reinstated the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes . Gennobaudes became Maximian's vassal and, with lesser Frankish chiefs in turn swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes, Roman regional dominance was assured. Maximian allowed a settlement of Frisii , Salian Franks , Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory, either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus ( Nijmegen , Netherlands) to Traiectum , (Utrecht, Netherlands) or near Trier. These tribes were allowed to settle on

6240-410: The title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion has not won much support, and the historian William Leadbetter has recently refuted it. Despite the physical distance between the emperors, Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers, and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his will. In theory,

6336-456: The title of Augustus (emperor). This gave him the same status as Carausius – so the clash was between two Augusti , rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar – and, in Imperial propaganda, Maximian was proclaimed Diocletian's brother, his equal in authority and prestige. Diocletian could not have been present at Maximian's appointment, causing Seeck to suggest that Maximian usurped

6432-562: The two men were long-term allies, that their respective roles were pre-agreed and that Maximian had probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus (r. 283–285) but there is no direct evidence for this. With his great energy, firm aggressive character and disinclination to rebel, Maximian was an appealing candidate for imperial office. The fourth-century historian Aurelius Victor described Maximian as "a colleague trustworthy in friendship, if somewhat boorish, and of great military talents". Despite his other qualities, Maximian

6528-534: The two rulers' relationship was re-defined in religious terms, with Diocletian assuming the title Iovius and Maximian Herculius . The titles were pregnant with symbolism: Diocletian- Jove had the dominant role of planning and commanding; Maximian- Hercules the heroic role of completing assigned tasks. Yet despite the symbolism, the emperors were not "gods" in the Imperial cult (although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics). Instead, they were

6624-474: The very entrance to the imperial palace made it one of the city's major religious symbols. Consequently, its removal, in 726 or 730, by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741), was both a major political statement and a spark for violent rioting in the city, and marked the beginning of the official prohibition of icons in the Empire. The icon was restored a first time by Empress Eirene in ca. 787, until it

6720-580: The victory in the Isaurian War (492–497). Like much of the city's center, this structure burned down in the Nika riots of 532, and was subsequently rebuilt by the Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565). This building was extensively described by the historian Procopius in his De Aedificiis . In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Chalke itself or its dependencies became a prison, until Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) repaired it and converted it into

6816-539: The walls were decorated with slabs of multi-colored marble, while the ceilings were covered with mosaics, which depicted Justinian and his wife Theodora flanked by the Senate , as well as the victories of Belisarius in the Vandalic and Gothic wars and his triumphal return bearing spoils, defeated kings and kingdoms to his emperor. The external decoration is comparatively unknown, but the Parastaseis syntomoi record

6912-504: The war-torn Danube frontier. Maximian joined the army, serving with Diocletian under the emperors Aurelian (r. 270–275) and Probus (r. 276–282). He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and attended Diocletian's election as emperor on 20 November 284 at Nicomedia . Maximian's swift appointment by Diocletian as Caesar is taken by the writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes to mean that

7008-411: Was a rectangular building, with four engaged piers supporting a central dome on pendentives , which in turn rested on four barrel arches in the typical Byzantine fashion. The piers to the south and north were somewhat lower than those to the east and west. The central structure was adjoined by two smaller chambers on either side to the south and north, each again featuring a vaulted roof. The relation of

7104-579: Was again removed by Leo V the Armenian (r. 813–820) and replaced by a simple cross. After the definitive restoration of the veneration of icons in 843, a mosaic icon by the famed iconodule monk and artist Lazaros replaced it. The exact appearance of the icon is unclear: although the early image has been interpreted as a bust of the Christ Pantocrator type, late Byzantine references, such as coins by John III Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) and

7200-497: Was an unknown Afrania instead of empress Eutropia. Hillner argues that Afranius Hannibalianus was Eutropia's brother and that Theodora was the daughter of both Maximian and Eutropia. This is in line with John Vanderspoel. At Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy ) in July 285, Diocletian appointed Maximian as his heir-apparent and subordinate, with the title Caesar . The reasons for this decision are complex. With conflict in every province of

7296-510: Was appointed Augustus of the West. In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him. After Constantine and Maximinus refused to be placated with the titles of Sons of the Augusti , they were promoted in early 310, with the result that there were now four Augusti . In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine while the Emperor

7392-454: Was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer, Allectus . Constantius marched up the coast to the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries where he was victorious over Carausius' Frankish allies, taking the title Germanicus maximus . His sights now set on Britain, Constantius spent the following years building an invasion fleet. Maximian, still in Italy after the appointment of Constantius, was apprised of

7488-568: Was capturing pirate ships in great numbers. Maximian soon heard that Carausius was waiting until the pirates had finished plundering before attacking and keeping their booty himself instead of returning it to the population at large or into the imperial treasury. Maximian ordered Carausius' arrest and execution, prompting him to flee to Britain. Carausius' support among the British was strong, and at least two British legions ( II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix ) defected to him, as did some or all of

7584-480: Was complemented by a group of three barbarian kings kneeling before it and offering tribute. It survived until the 16th century, when it was demolished by the Ottomans . ^   a:  Also found in the sources as: Αὐγουστέων or Αὐγουστεών , Augousteōn ; Αὐγουστίον , Augoustion ; Αὐγουστεῖον , Augousteion , and hence in the corrupted form Γουστεῖον , Gousteion . The name first appears in Latin in

7680-561: Was dangerous and that precedent existed for dual rulership. Despite their military prowess, both sole-emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power. In contrast, just a few years earlier, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled jointly, albeit not for long. Even the first emperor, Augustus , (r. 27 BC–AD 14), had shared power with his colleagues and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) on. The dual system evidently worked well. Around 287, after Maximian's appointment as Augustus ,

7776-434: Was declared Augustus by Maximian. Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8 but soon fell out with his son and in early 308 challenged his right to rule before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, and ripped the imperial toga from Maxentius' shoulders. He expected the soldiers to recognize him, but they sided with Maxentius; afterward, Maximian

7872-482: Was forced to leave Italy in disgrace. On 11 November 308, to resolve the political instability, Galerius called Diocletian (out of retirement) and Maximian to a general council meeting at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube. There, Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar , with Maximinus the Caesar in the east. Licinius , a loyal military companion to Galerius,

7968-534: Was jealous of Constantine's power, and on 28 October 306, he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him Augustus . Uncomfortable with sole leadership, Maxentius sent a set of imperial robes to Maximian and saluted him as "Augustus for the second time", offering him theoretic equal rule but less actual power and a lower rank. Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius and sent Severus with an army to Rome to depose him. As many of Severus' soldiers had served under Maximian, and had taken Maxentius' bribes, most of

8064-544: Was left to die of disease and hunger, while Maximian intercepted and defeated the second. He then established a Rhine headquarters in preparation for future campaigns, either at Moguntiacum ( Mainz , Germany ), Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), or Colonia Agrippina ( Cologne , Germany). Although most of Gaul was pacified, regions bordering the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy . The emperors Probus and Carinus had begun to fortify

8160-423: Was less puritanical in his tastes, and took advantage of the sensual opportunities his position as emperor offered. Lactantius charged that Maximian defiled senators' daughters and traveled with young virgins to satisfy his unending lust, though Lactantius' credibility is undermined by his general hostility towards pagans. Maximian had two children with his Syrian wife, Eutropia : Maxentius and Fausta . There

8256-611: Was little resistance. Before retirement, Maximian received one final moment of glory by officiating at the Secular Games in 304. On 1 May 305, in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia, Diocletian and Maximian retired simultaneously. The succession did not go entirely to Maximian's liking: perhaps because of Galerius' influence, Galerius' former army comrade Severus and Galerius' nephew Maximinus (both of whom had long military careers) were appointed Caesar , thus excluding Constantine and Maxentius. Maximian quickly soured to

8352-445: Was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius, and Lactantius contends that he terrorized senators, to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing several, including the prefect of Rome in 301–2. In contrast, Constantius kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and spent his time in active defense of the empire. He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301 and in 302 – while Maximian

8448-430: Was on campaign against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with part of Constantine's army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. In Arles, Maximian announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple . Although Maximian offered bribes to all who would support him, most of Constantine's army remained loyal, and Maximian was compelled to leave the city. Constantine soon heard of

8544-419: Was open to the public and functioned as the city's food market ( agora ), but after Justinian's reconstruction, it became more of an enclosed courtyard where access was restricted. Byzantine writers from the 7th century on refer to it as explicitly as a court or forecourt ( αὐλή, αὐλαία, προαύλιον ) of the Hagia Sophia . Justinian's Augustaion survived mostly unchanged through the subsequent centuries. In

8640-647: Was ousted in 296, and Maximian moved south to combat piracy near Hispania and Berber incursions in Mauretania . When these campaigns concluded in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on 1 May 305, gave the Augustan office to Constantius, and retired to southern Italy. In late 306, Maximian took the title of Augustus again and aided his son, Maxentius , and his rebellion in Italy. In April 307, he attempted to depose his son, but failed and fled to

8736-450: Was purged from all public places. However, after Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius , Maximian's image was rehabilitated, and he was deified. Maximian was born around 250 near Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) in the province of Pannonia , into a family of shopkeepers. Beyond that, the ancient sources contain vague allusions to Illyricum as his homeland, to his Pannonian virtues, and to his harsh upbringing along

8832-541: Was resting in Italy – continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine. According to Aurelius Victor , he also built a palace near his home town of Sirmium . In addition to the imperial palace in Sirmium another palace has been found at Glac, which may be that of Maximian. Diocletian's vicennalia , the 20-year anniversary of his reign, was celebrated in Rome in 303. Some evidence suggests that it

8928-494: Was struck in which Constantine would marry Maximian's younger daughter Fausta and be elevated to Augustan rank in Maxentius' secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and support Maxentius' cause in Italy but would remain neutral in the war with Galerius. The deal was sealed with a double ceremony in Trier in late 307, at which Constantine married Fausta and

9024-525: Was then that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian to retire together, passing their titles as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius. Presumably Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine – children raised in Nicomedia together – would then become the new Caesars . While Maximian might not have wished to retire, Diocletian was still in control and there

9120-466: Was uneducated and preferred action to thought. The panegyric of 289, after comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus ' victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War , suggested that Maximian had never heard of them. His ambitions were purely military; he left politics to Diocletian. The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggested that Maximian shared Diocletian's basic attitudes but

9216-463: Was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare , but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the Sahara . His campaign was concluded by early 298 and, on 10 March, he made a triumphal entry into Carthage. Inscriptions there record

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