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43-655: The 741.22 km (286.19 sq mi) Sahyadri Tiger Reserve, including all of Chandoli National Park and Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary was declared by The National Tiger Conservation Authority as a Project Tiger tiger reserve on May 21, 2007. The Sahyadri Tiger Reserve was then estimated to have nine tigers and 66 leopards . Chandoli National Park is located near the Chandoli Dam between longitudes 73°40' and 73°53' E and latitudes 17°03' and 17°20'N in Sangli District of Western Maharashtra. It lies between

86-433: A Game Licence or Authority to Control Wildlife permit. This allows a landowner or other authorised persons to remove problem deer within private property at any time and are permitted to hunt under spotlight, which is prohibited on public land. They are declared a pest species in all other Australian states and territories and can be hunted at any time with no bag limits. Environmental and conservation groups want them declared

129-433: A deer species, and stags stand and mark tree branches above them with their antlers. A stag also marks himself by spraying urine on his own face with a highly mobile penis . Despite their lack of antlers, female sambar readily defend their young from most predators, which is relatively unusual among deer. When confronted by pack-hunting dholes or feral domestic dogs, a sambar lowers its head with an erect mane and lashes at

172-798: A diverse variety of mammals including the keystone species , Bengal tigers (>6). Also, Indian leopards (14), Indian gaur (220-250), sloth bears (70-80), sambar deer (160-175), barking deer (180-200) and mouse deer , gray langurs , smooth-coated otters and Indian giant squirrels are common. Many species of birds are found in the sanctuary including the distinctive heart-spotted woodpecker , rufous woodpecker , and brown-capped pygmy woodpecker , Asian fairy bluebird , Malabar pied hornbill , long-tailed nightjar and crested goshawk . Large Indian pythons and Spectacled cobras are found here. An endemic Toad Bufo koyanansis has its only habitat in this protected area. The sanctuary now has 215 windmills and 10 tourist resorts. An earthen dam

215-646: A feral species in all states, due to their exploding populations and the harm to biodiversity and native species. In 2008–2009, hunters removed 35,000 sambar from public land in Victoria, many from national parks. This is a small fraction of the 40% of individuals in a sambar population that need to be removed to stop population growth. In New Zealand , sambar roam the coast and gullies in Horowhenua District , Manawatū District , Rangitikei , and Whanganui . Until recently, they were protected, but

258-474: A height of 102 to 160 cm (40 to 63 in) at the shoulder and may weigh as much as 546 kg (1,204 lb), though more typically 100 to 350 kg (220 to 770 lb). Head and body length varies from 1.62 to 2.7 m (5.3 to 8.9 ft), with a 22 to 35 cm (8.7 to 13.8 in) tail. Individuals belonging to western subspecies tend to be larger than those from the east, and females are smaller than males. Among all living cervid species, only

301-414: A manner similar to species of goat-antelope . Females also fight on their hind legs and use their fore legs to hit each other in the head. Courtship is based more on tending bonds rather than males vocally advertising themselves. Females move widely among breeding territories seeking males to court. When mounting, males do not clasp females. The front legs of the male hang loosely, and intromission takes

344-556: A rise in gaur population in the Kolhapur Wildlife Division from 88 to 243. On 23 and 24 May 2018, a tiger was photographed in a camera trap in Chandoli. This was the first direct evidence of tigers in the reserve in eight years. Prior to that, in 2014, scat DNA and model-based predictions were used to estimate that the reserve had five to eight tigers. Work undertaken for habitat improvement and development in

387-694: A territory from which he attracts nearby females, but he does not establish a harem. The male stomps the ground, creating a bare patch, and often wallows in the mud, perhaps to accentuate the colour of his hair, which is typically darker than that of females. While they have been heard to make a loud, coarse bellow, rutting stags are generally not vocal. Large, dominant stags defend nonexclusive territories surrounded by several smaller males, with which they have bonded and formed alliances through sparring. When sparring with rival males, sambar lock antlers and push, like other deer, but uniquely, they also sometimes stand on their hind legs and clash downward into each other in

430-799: A white liquid, and is apparently glandular in nature. The sambar is distributed in much of South Asia as far north as the south-facing slopes of the Himalayas in Nepal , Bhutan and India , in mainland Southeast Asia including Burma , Thailand , Indochina , the Malay Peninsula , Indonesia (Sumatra and Borneo), Taiwan, and South China, including Hainan. In the Himalayan foothills, Myanmar, Sri Lanka , and eastern Taiwan, it ranges up to 3,500 m (11,500 ft). However, in tropical rainforests of Sumatra, sambar are generally more abundant in

473-778: A wide variety of vegetation, including grasses, foliage, browse, fruit, and water plants, depending on the local habitat. They also consume a great variety of shrubs and trees. Sambar have been seen congregating in large herds in protected areas such as national parks and reserves in India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. In Taiwan, sambar along with sika deer , have been raised on farms for their antlers, which they drop annually in April to May and are highly prized for use as knife handles and as grips for handguns . Stags wallow and dig their antlers in urine-soaked soil, and then rub against tree trunks. Sambar are capable of remarkable bipedalism for

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516-645: Is also sometimes used to refer to the Philippine deer called the "Philippine sambar", and the Javan rusa called the "Sunda sambar". Genetic analysis shows that the closest living relative of the sambar is most likely the Javan rusa of Indonesia. This is supported by reports that sambar can still interbreed to produce fertile hybrids with this species. Fossil sambar are known from the early Pleistocene , although they are very similar in form to early deer species from

559-479: Is connected by a forested wildlife corridor to Chandoli National Park and Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary in the south. Like Chandoli, Koyna is part of Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. The average altitude is 897 m (2,943 ft). The mean annual rainfall is 5,500 mm (220 in). The sanctuary has dense forests with three major sections, Vasota, Maharkhor and Indavli Met, and is endowed with natural protective boundaries, with Shivsagar Lake on one side, and

602-480: Is found almost all over the area. Climbers such as shikekai, garambi are common. Some of the threatened species of trees found in the sanctuary are dhup ( Indian frankincense ), longan , and Elaeocarpus spp. Shrubs and medicinal plants such as karvand, agati, ranmiri, tamalpati, toran, dhayati, kadipatta, narkya and murudsheng, along with a small quantity of bamboo are also found. A large number of ephemeral bulbs of seasonal plants are found. The sanctuary has

645-636: Is under construction and many trees have been felled. Land inside the sanctuary has been sold. More than 900 land deals have been finalised since 1985. Sambar deer The sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent , South China and Southeast Asia that is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2008. Populations have declined substantially due to severe hunting, local insurgency , and industrial exploitation of habitat. The name "sambar"

688-445: Is usually uniform in colour, some subspecies have chestnut marks on the rump and underparts. Sambar also have a small but dense mane, which tends to be more prominent in males. The tail is relatively long for deer, and is generally black above with a whitish underside. Adult males and pregnant or lactating females possess an unusual hairless, blood-red spot located about halfway down the underside of their throats. This sometimes oozes

731-525: The Bengal tiger . Anecdotally, the tiger is said to even mimic the call of the sambar to deceive it while hunting. They also can be taken by crocodiles , mostly the sympatric mugger crocodiles and saltwater crocodiles . Leopards and dholes largely prey on only young or sickly deer, though they can attack healthy adults as well. Though they mate and reproduce year-round, sambar calving peaks seasonally. Oestrus lasts around 18 days. The male establishes

774-1406: The Cobourg Peninsula in the Northern Territory . They are now found throughout Australia's northern and eastern coasts, in the states of Victoria, South Australia , Queensland , the Northern Territory, and the Australian Capital Territory . In Victoria , sambar are listed as a threat to biodiversity under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 because they reduce the number of native plant species. The animals feed on some rare and endangered plants. More than 60 plant species have been identified as directly or indirectly threatened by sambar within Victoria. Adult male sambar can significantly damage plants, removing most branches on some shrubs and sometimes girdling trees by thrashing their antlers on shrubs and sapling trees. They also feed on seedlings, fruit, or seeds of many plants. They leave scrape marks to advertise their territory. The spread of sambar has been steady in both New South Wales and Victoria , with animals being seen on many southern Victorian beaches since 1980, and as far east as Western Port and

817-474: The Department of Conservation has now removed hunting regulations surrounding them, allowing them now to be hunted year round. Sambar were introduced onto St. Vincent Island , Florida , in 1908 and increased to about 50 individuals by the 1950s. White-tailed deer also live on St. Vincent Island; however, they inhabit the highlands while the sambar mostly live in the lowlands and marshes. To ensure that

860-462: The Pliocene , with less of a resemblance to more modern cervines. The species probably arose in the tropical reaches of southern Asia, and later spread across its current range. Epirusa and Eucladoceros have both been proposed as possible ancestors of the living species and its closest relatives. The nominate subspecies of the sambar in India and Sri Lanka are the largest of the genus, with

903-742: The Radhanagiri and Koyna Wildlife Sanctuaries and forms the southern part of the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. it is near about 101 km from sangli The park includes historical places of note including 17th century forts of the Maratha Empire , Prachitgad and Bhairavgad . Most of the protected area was used an open jail for the "prisoners of war" of the early battles during Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's rule. Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj used Prachitgad as an observation point and recreational place. The park spreads along

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946-421: The moose and the elk can attain larger sizes. The large, rugged antlers are typically rusine , the brow tines being simple and the beams forked at the tip, so they have only three tines . The antlers are typically up to 110 cm (43 in) long in fully adult individuals. As with most deer, only the males have antlers. The shaggy coat can be from yellowish brown to dark grey in colour, and while it

989-538: The 1860s, in what is now Kinglake National Park , and at Harewood Estate near Tooradin . They quickly adapted to the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp and thereafter spread into the high country, where in 2017, numbers were estimated at between 750,000 and one million animals. Later releases were at Ercildoune Estate near Ballarat , Wilsons Promontory, and French Island in Western Port . Another release occurred on

1032-500: The Chandoli National Park include removal of invasive species , soil conservation and water conservation , vaccination of cattle, research, fire prevention , providing salt licks , demarcation of boundary, erection of watch towers , maintenance of nature trails , desalting water holes, development of grasslands , and procurement of wireless two-way radios . The Maharashtra government has plans to set up

1075-582: The Karadi-Bhogiv hydro-electric project in the catchment area of the Warna Dam that is expected to use up 6.78 km (2.62 sq mi) of forest land. On a positive note, nearly 7,894 people and a significant cattle population resident on 84.29 km (32.54 sq mi) of land in 32 villages within the park. These villages have been successfully relocated to areas outside the park. This measure has helped to preserve and regenerate some of

1118-693: The crest of the Sahyadri Range of the northern Western Ghats . It forms and protects many perennial water channels, water holes and the Vasant Sagar Reservoir. Elevation of the park ranges from 589–1,044 m (1,932–3,425 ft). The park receives its water supply from the Warna river and reservoir as well as several other small streams and rivers. Flat topped mountains, rocky, lateritic plateaus called 'Saddas', almost devoid of vegetation, large boulders and caves are distinctive to

1161-405: The dogs. Sambar prefer to attack predators in shallow water. Several sambar may form a defensive formation, touching rumps and vocalising loudly at the dogs. When sensing danger, a sambar stamps its feet and makes a ringing call known as "pooking" or "belling". They are the favourite prey of tigers and Asiatic lions . In India, the sambar can comprise up to nearly 45% of the biomass consumed by

1204-537: The forests of Chandoli. The tiger , leopard , Indian bison , leopard cat , sloth bear and giant squirrel are quite conspicuous here. Many prey species of ungulates such as the barking deer , sambar deer , mouse deer and blackbuck are present. A census carried out in 2002 by the Forest Department showed a rise in the number of tigers, leopards, gaur, barking deer, mouse deer, sloth bears and blackbuck. A similar census carried out in 2004 showed

1247-599: The form of a " copulatory jump ". Gestation probably lasts around 8 months, although some studies suggest it may be slightly longer. Normally, only one calf is born at a time, although twins have been reported in up to 2% of births. Initially weighing 5 to 8 kg (11 to 18 lb), the calves are usually not spotted, although some subspecies have light spots which disappear not long after birth. The young begin to take solid food at 5 to 14 days, and begin to ruminate after one month. Sambar have lived up to 28 years in captivity, although they rarely survive more than 12 years in

1290-434: The island country. The sambar prefers the dense cover of deciduous shrubs and grasses, although the exact nature of this varies enormously with the environment because of its wide Asian range. Home range sizes are probably equally variable, but have been recorded as 1,500 ha (3,700 acres) for males and 300 ha (740 acres) for females in India. Sambar are nocturnal or crepuscular . The males live alone for much of

1333-715: The landscape include asan wood or ain or Indian laurel , amla or Indian gooseberry , umbar or devil fig (hispida) and harra or chebulic myrobalan . Grasses commonly seen here include bangala or bluestem grass sp., dongari or golden beard grass (fulvus), black spear grass, kalikusli or tangle grass , anjan grass or buffel grass , grader grass or karad or kangaroo grass (quadrivalvis) and grasses belonging to family Poaceae , like saphet-kusli or Aristida funiculata]. Insectivorous plant species like sundews and bladderworts sp. are also found in this protected area. Nearly 23 species of mammals, 122 species of birds, 20 species of amphibians and reptiles are known to be resident in

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1376-572: The largest antlers both in size and in body proportions. The South China sambar of Southern China and mainland Southeast Asia is probably second in terms of size, with slightly smaller antlers than the Indian sambar. The Sumatran sambar that inhabits the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra and the Bornean sambar seem to have the smallest antlers in proportion to their body size. The Formosan sambar is

1419-439: The lowlands. It inhabits tropical dry forests , tropical seasonal forests , subtropical mixed forests with stands of conifers and montane grasslands , broadleaved deciduous and broadleaved evergreen trees , to tropical rainforests , and seldom moves far from water sources. In 2023, a study showed that sambar deer had returned to Singapore due to several escapes from zoos, after it has been believed to be extirpated from

1462-507: The outer suburbs of Melbourne . Considerable debate exists about how they should be managed. Conservation groups believe their environmental effect outweighs their social value. Hunting organisations disagree and want to preserve sambar populations for future generations. Sambar are protected wildlife game species in Victoria and New South Wales, and a game licence is required to hunt them. In Victoria, recent provisions have been made for landowners to control problem deer without having to obtain

1505-614: The protected areas in the Sahyadri region of the Western Ghats. The forest types seen here are a mix of Malabar Coast moist forests and North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests . In the dwarf evergreen forests , some tree species commonly seen here are the anjani ironwood tree , jamun , pisa (angustifolia), fig , Olea (diocia), katak spinous kino tree , nana or Crape myrtle (lanceolata), kinjal , kokum tree and phanasi false kelat (brachiata). Other trees dominating

1548-505: The sambar population does not disrupt the native white-tails, hunting permits have been issued since 1987 to regulate the population. Each year, about 130 permits are offered for the three-day hunt. This maintains a sambar population of 70–100 individuals. They do not herd, but occur in groups of four or five animals, possible family groups. Little is known about the sambar's ecology in Florida. Between 1930 and 1941, Sambar were brought to

1591-637: The sanctuary. It also forms the catchment area for the Koyna River, and Shivsagar reservoir formed by the Koyna Dam . To the south of the park lies the Chandoli National Park. The sanctuary includes eastern and western catchments of the Koyna dam. The sanctuary is well protected by the large extent of Shivsagar reservoir and steep slopes of the Western Ghats on both the sides. This protected area

1634-561: The slopes of the Western Ghats on both sides. These geographic barriers have enabled the emergence of a wide variety of flora and fauna and high biodiversity in the sanctuary. Due to the wide range of elevations in the sanctuary, the ecoregions in the sanctuary include North Western Ghats montane rain forests above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests below. Dominant species are anjani, jambul, hirda, awala, pisa, ain, kinjal, amba, kumbha, bhoma, chandala, katak, nana, umbra, jambha, gela and bibba. Karvi

1677-487: The smallest subspecies, with antler-body proportions more similar to the South China sambar. Currently, seven subspecies of sambar are recognised, although many others have been proposed. The appearance and the size of the sambar vary widely across its range, which has led to considerable taxonomic confusion in the past; over 40 different scientific synonyms have been used for the species. In general, they attain

1720-607: The vegetation in this protected area. Sangli Sangli railway station Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary and natural World Heritage Site, which is located in Satara district of the Indian state of Maharashtra . Further, this wildlife sanctuary is designated as an Important Bird area. The sanctuary is nested in the Western Ghats , covering an area of around 423.55 km (163.53 sq mi), and elevations ranging from 600 to 1,100 m (2,000 to 3,600 ft). It

1763-464: The wild. Sambar have been introduced to various parts of the world, including Australia , New Zealand and the United States . In Australia, hunting sambar is a popular sport. Australian hunting fraternities prize large sambar trophies. Excessive numbers of sambar affect native plants, threatening some species with extinction. Sambar were introduced into Victoria at Mount Sugarloaf in

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1806-620: The year, and the females live in small herds of up to 16 individuals. Indeed, in some areas, the average herd consists of only three or four individuals, typically consisting of an adult female, her most recent young, and perhaps a subordinate, immature female. This is an unusual pattern for deer, which more commonly live in larger groups. They often congregate near water, and are good swimmers. Like most deer, sambar are generally quiet, although all adults can scream or make short, high-pitched sounds when alarmed. However, they more commonly communicate by scent marking and foot stamping. Sambar feed on

1849-614: Was notified in 1985 as a wildlife sanctuary situated in Maharashtra. It forms the northern portion of the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve , with Chandoli National Park forming the southern part of the reserve. The Vasota Fort lies deep in the forests and is located at an elevation of 1,120 m (3,670 ft) above sea level. The legend states that the fort was constructed by Malwa king Raja Bhoja in 1170. The rivers Koyna , Kandati , and Solashi meander through

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