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106-411: The temple is about 7 miles (12 km) east of Kathmandu , capital of Nepal, and a few miles north of Bhaktapur . The Manohara River flows beside the hill. The temple was surrounded by champak tree forest and a small village known as Changu. A Kashmiri king is said to have given his daughter, Champak, in marriage to the prince of Bhaktapur. The temple is considered to be named after her. Following

212-642: A World Heritage Site (WHS). The seven monuments zones cover an area of 189 hectares (470 acres), with the buffer zone extending to 2,394 hectares (5,920 acres). The Seven Monument Zones inscribed originally in 1979 and with a minor modification in 2006 are the Durbar squares of Hanuman Dhoka , Patan and Bhaktapur , the Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changunarayan , the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhunath and Boudhanath . The literal meaning of Durbar Square

318-411: A ring road , to the southwest by Kirtipur and to the east by Madyapur Thimi . To the north the urban area extends into several municipalities; Nagarjun , Tarakeshwor , Tokha , Budhanilkantha , Gokarneshwor and Kageshwori Manohara . However, the urban agglomeration extends well beyond the neighbouring municipalities, e.g. to Bhaktapur , and nearly covers the entire Kathmandu Valley . Kathmandu

424-568: A Sanskrit-Nepal Bhasa dictionary from 1381, was also found. Architecturally notable buildings from this era include Kathmandu Durbar Square , Patan Durbar Square , Bhaktapur Durbar Square , the former durbar of Kirtipur , Nyatapola , Kumbheshwar , the Krishna temple, and others. The Gorkha Kingdom ended the Malla confederation after the Battle of Kathmandu in 1768. This marked the beginning of

530-548: A UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. The base of the stupa has 108 small depictions of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha . It is surrounded with a brick wall with 147 niches, each with four or five prayer wheels engraved with the mantra, Om mani padme hum . At the northern entrance where visitors must pass is a shrine dedicated to Ajima , the goddess of smallpox . Every year the stupa attracts many Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims who perform full body prostrations in

636-500: A battle with a demon named Chandra, his dear friend, a Brahmin named Sumati, was killed by a weapon I had launched. Due to his strong devotion, his guru, Shukracharya, cursed me that in the future, my head would be severed by a descendant of Sumati. This was destined to happen by your hand." Lord Narayana continued, "Thus, this was inevitable. Now I shall reside here as a severed head. Worship me here and offer me your prayers." With these words, Lord Narayana disappeared. The temple houses

742-544: A brick with an inscription in Brahmi script . Archaeologists believe that it is two thousand years old. Stone inscriptions are ubiquitous elements at the heritage sites and are key sources for the history of Nepal . The earliest Western reference to Kathmandu appears in an account of Portuguese Jesuit Father Joao Cabral who passed through the Kathmandu Valley in the spring of 1628 and was received graciously by

848-610: A building that stood in Kathmandu Durbar Square and was completely destroyed by the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (it has since been reconstructed). In Sanskrit , Kāṣṭha ( Sanskrit : काष्ठ ) means "wood" and Maṇḍapa ( Sanskrit : मण्डप ) means "pavilion". This public pavilion, also known as Maru Satta in Newari, was rebuilt in 1596 by Biseth in the period of King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The three-storey structure

954-462: A certain degree of flexibility to adapt to shifting ground or other changing conditions. Cement mortar is harder and allows little flexibility. The contrast can cause brickwork to crack where the two mortars are present in a single wall. Lime mortar is considered breathable in that it will allow moisture to freely move through and evaporate from the surface. In old buildings with walls that shift over time, cracks can be found which allow rain water into

1060-536: A collection of items such as a rhino-skin shield, a raincoat made from leaves, a 500-year-old dish rack, and rice that is over 225 years old. It also displays natural curiosities, including a cow's gallstone and the navel of a musk deer. Kathmandu Kathmandu , officially the Kathmandu Metropolitan City , is the seat of federal government and the most populous city in Nepal . As of

1166-495: A fusion of artistic and architectural traditions from other cultures to be amalgamated with local art and architecture. The monuments of Kathmandu City have been influenced over the centuries by Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has been categorized under the well-known seven groups of heritage monuments and buildings. In 2006 UNESCO declared these seven groups of monuments as

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1272-578: A genealogy of Nepali monarchy, the rulers of Kathmandu Valley before the Licchavis were Gopalas , Mahispalas, Aabhirs, Kirat , and Somavanshi. The Kirata dynasty was established by Yalamber . During the Kirata era, a settlement called Yambu existed in the northern half of old Kathmandu. In some of the Sino-Tibetan languages , Kathmandu is still called Yambu. Another smaller settlement called Yengal

1378-439: A hillock at the northwestern part of the city. This is among the oldest religious sites in Nepal . Although the site is considered Buddhist, it is revered by both Buddhists and Hindus. The stupa consists of a dome at the base; above the dome, there is a cubic structure with the eyes of Buddha looking in all four directions. There are pentagonal toran above each of the four sides, with statues engraved on them. Behind and above

1484-502: A key role, and can consist of yellow clay, mud, or lime-surkhi mortar, depending on available materials. The temple was recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 along with 6 other monument zones in the Kathmandu Valley , including Pashupatinath another temple complex, the urban centers of Kathmandu , Patan and Bhaktapur and the Buddhist sites Swayambunath and Bauddhanath . The Changu Museum showcases

1590-439: A lime must be stored as a dry powder. Alternatively, a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or brick dust may be added to the mortar mix. Addition of a pozzolanic material will make the mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with the water. It would be problematic to use Portland cement mortars to repair older buildings originally constructed using lime mortar. Lime mortar is softer than cement mortar, allowing brickwork

1696-548: A lower firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make than lime mortar and sets up much faster, which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, brick arch and vault construction. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions. In the Indian subcontinent , multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley civilization , with gypsum appearing at sites such as

1802-635: A major part of the lives of people residing in Kathmandu. Tourism is an important part of the economy in the city. In 2013, Kathmandu was ranked third among the top ten upcoming travel destinations in the world by TripAdvisor , and ranked first in Asia. The city is considered the gateway to the Nepal Himalayas and is home to several World Heritage Sites : the Durbar Square , Swayambhu Mahachaitya , Bouddha and Pashupatinath . Kathmandu valley

1908-808: A metropolitan city in 1995. Metropolitan Kathmandu is divided into five sectors: the Central Sector, the East Sector, the North Sector, the City Core and the West Sector. For civic administration, the city is further divided into 32 administrative wards. The Council administers the Metropolitan area of Kathmandu city through its 177 elected representatives and 20 nominated members. It holds biannual meetings to review, process and approve

2014-445: A mythological king Bharata , by encouraging cultural exchange. This procedure is followed in other temples around India, which were sanctified by Adi Shankara. The temple is built in the pagoda style of architecture, with cubic constructions and carved wooden rafters (tundal) on which they rest, and two-level roofs made of copper and gold. Boudhanath ( Nepali : बौद्ध स्तुप ; also written as Bouddhanath , Bodhnath , Baudhanath or

2120-406: A rigid aggregate structure; however, the mortar functions as a weaker component than the building blocks and serves as the sacrificial element in the masonry, because mortar is easier and less expensive to repair than the building blocks. Bricklayers typically make mortars using a mixture of sand , a binder , and water. The most common binder since the early 20th century is Portland cement , but

2226-760: A strong mortar that will also set under water. As the mortar hardens, the current atmosphere is encased in the mortar and thus provides a sample for analysis. Various factors affect the sample and raise the margin of error for the analysis. Radiocarbon dating of mortar began as early as the 1960s, soon after the method was established (Delibrias and Labeyrie 1964; Stuiver and Smith 1965; Folk and Valastro 1976). The very first data were provided by van Strydonck et al. (1983), Heinemeier et al.(1997) and Ringbom and Remmer (1995). Methodological aspects were further developed by different groups (an international team headed by Åbo Akademi University , and teams from CIRCE, CIRCe, ETHZ, Poznań, RICH and Milano-Bicocca laboratory. To evaluate

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2332-542: A structure with Portland cement. As a general rule, however, Portland cement should not be used for the repair or repointing of older buildings built in lime mortar, which require the flexibility, softness and breathability of lime if they are to function correctly. In the United States and other countries, five standard types of mortar (available as dry pre-mixed products) are generally used for both new construction and repair. Strengths of mortar change based on

2438-428: A traditional brick, block or stone wall. It is mainly designed for repairing concrete structures. The use of recovered plastics in mortars is being researched and is gaining ground. Depolymerizing PET to use as a polymeric binder to enhance mortars is actively being studied. The setting speed can be increased by using impure limestone in the kiln , to form a hydraulic lime that will set on contact with water. Such

2544-594: Is a "place of palaces". There are three preserved Durbar Squares in Kathmandu valley and one unpreserved in Kirtipur . The Durbar Square of Kathmandu is in the old city and has heritage buildings representing four kingdoms (Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur); the earliest being the Licchavi dynasty. The complex has 50 temples and is distributed in two quadrangles of the Durbar Square. The outer quadrangle has

2650-647: Is a division of the Nepal Police , and the administrative control lies with the Ministry of Home Affairs . The fire service, known as the Barun Yantra Karyalaya ( Nepali : वारुण यन्त्र कार्यालय ), opened its first station in Kathmandu in 1937 with a single-vehicle. An iron tower was erected to monitor the city and watch for a fire. As a precautionary measure, firemen were sent to the areas which were designated as accident-prone areas. In 1944,

2756-435: Is about four feet high and provides a massive base for the structure, enhancing its stability. This design, coupled with stepped footings for the main wall, ensures that the temple is well-supported and resilient against seismic activity, which is crucial for its long-term durability in an earthquake-prone region. The temple's masonry walls are constructed in a box configuration, featuring two cores. The outer core extends up to

2862-573: Is also known as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap . During medieval times, the city was sometimes called Kāntipur ( Sanskrit : कान्तिपुर ). This name is derived from two Sanskrit words – Kānti and Pur . Kānti is a word that stands for "beauty" and is mostly associated with light and Pur means place, thus giving it the meaning, "City of light". Among the indigenous Newar people, Kathmandu is known as Yeṃ Dey ( Newar : येँ देय् ), and Patan and Bhaktapur are known as Yala Dey ( Newar : यल देय् ) and Khwopa Dey ( Newar : ख्वप देय् ) respectively. "Yen"

2968-518: Is believed to be a bodily incarnation of the goddess Taleju (the Nepali name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury also causes her to revert to common status. The current Kumari, Trishna Shakya, age three at the time of appointment, was installed in September 2017 succeeding Matina Shakya who

3074-481: Is detailed tranlated text from the book Bhasa Vamshavali. In the region of Dolagiri (original name of the Changu Narayan hill), there was a large Champaka tree. In that place, there was a Brahmin named Sudarshan who was pure, and disciplined, but prone to anger. He owned a Kapila cow, similar to the divine Kamadhenu . With the cow's milk, he offered sacrifices to various deities. This cow would often sit under

3180-601: Is dissected by eight rivers, the main river of the valley, the Bagmati and its tributaries, of which the Bishnumati , Dhobi Khola, Manohara Khola, Hanumante Khola, and Tukucha Khola are predominant. The mountains from where these rivers originate are in the elevation range of 1,500–3,000 metres (4,900–9,800 ft), and have passes which provide access to and from Kathmandu and its valley. An ancient canal once flowed from Nagarjuna hill through Balaju to Kathmandu; this canal

3286-684: Is growing at 4 per cent per year according to the World Bank in 2010, making it one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in South Asia, and the first region in Nepal to face the unprecedented challenges of rapid urbanization and modernization at a metropolitan scale. It is the largest metropolitan area located in the Himalayas . The indigenous Nepal Bhasa term for Kathmandu is Yen . The Nepali name Kathmandu comes from Kasthamandap ,

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3392-528: Is in the northwestern part of the Kathmandu Valley to the north of the Bagmati River and covers an area of 50.7 km (19.6 sq mi). The average elevation is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level . The city is bounded by several other municipalities of the Kathmandu valley: south of the Bagmati by Lalitpur Metropolitan City (Patan), with which it forms one urban area surrounded by

3498-594: Is now extinct. The city of Kathmandu and the surrounding valley are in the Deciduous Monsoon Forest Zone (altitude range of 1,200–2,100 metres (3,900–6,900 ft)), one of five vegetation zones defined for Nepal. The dominant tree species in this zone are oak , elm , beech , maple and others, with coniferous trees at higher altitude. Kathmandu and adjacent cities are composed of neighbourhoods , which are utilized quite extensively and more familiar among locals. However, administratively

3604-424: Is surrounded by sculptures and arts related to Lord Vishnu. Also, we can find the temples of Lord Shiva, Ashta Matrika, Chhinnamasta, Kileshwor and Krishna inside the courtyard of the main temple. There are four entrances to the temple and these gates are guarded by life-size pairs of animals such as lions, mythic sarabhas , griffins and elephants on each side of the entrances. The ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu and

3710-508: Is the shorter form of Yambu ( Newar : यम्बु ), which originally referred to the northern half of Kathmandu. The older northern settlements were referred to as Yambi while the southern settlement was known as Yangala. Archaeological excavations in parts of Kathmandu have found evidence of ancient civilizations. The oldest of these findings is a statue, found in Maligaon, that was dated at 185 AD. The excavation of Dhando Chaitya uncovered

3816-400: The 2021 Nepal census , there were 845,767 inhabitants living in 105,649 households and approximately 4 million people in its surrounding agglomeration. It is located in the Kathmandu Valley , a large valley surrounded by hills in central Nepal, at an altitude of 4,344 feet (1,324 metres) above sea level. The city is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world , founded in

3922-561: The Bhandarkhal Massacre , was also conducted by Kunwar and his supporters in Kathmandu. During the Rana regime, Kathmandu's alliance shifted from anti-British to pro-British; this led to the construction of the first buildings in the style of Western European architecture. The most well-known of these buildings include Singha Durbar, Garden of Dreams , Shital Niwas, and the old Narayanhiti palace. The first modern commercial road in

4028-585: The Kasthamandap , Kumari Ghar , and Shiva-Parvati Temple; the inner quadrangle has the Hanuman Dhoka palace. The squares were severely damaged in the April 2015 earthquake . Hanuman Dhoka is a complex of structures with the royal palace of the Malla kings and of the Shah dynasty. It is spread over five acres. The eastern wing (with ten courtyards) is the oldest part, dating to the mid-16th century. It

4134-541: The Khāsa Chaitya ), is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Nepal, along with the Swayambhunath . It is a very popular tourist site. Boudhanath is known as Khāsti by Newars and as Bauddha or Bodhnāth by speakers of Nepali . About 11 km (7 mi) from the centre and northeastern outskirts of Kathmandu, the stupa's massive mandala makes it one of the largest spherical stupas in Nepal. Boudhanath became

4240-582: The Mohenjo-daro city-settlement, which dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. Gypsum cement that was " light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate, and a high percentage of lime " was used in the construction of wells, drains, and on the exteriors of " important looking buildings ." Bitumen mortar was also used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. In early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during

4346-561: The Old Kingdom (~2600–2500 BCE), the limestone blocks were bound by a mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar was made of gypsum , or lime. Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft. 2nd millennia BCE Babylonian constructions used lime or pitch for mortar. Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece . The excavation of

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4452-717: The Rana prime minister. This was done despite opposition from the temple priests, who refused to allow Lévi access to the temple compound. Although Lévi was unable to directly examine the pillar, he was provided with rubbings, which he subsequently published along with the text and a corresponding translation in Le NMpal. Since Lévi's initial reading, there have been several subsequent transcriptions, including those by scholars such as Gnoli, Naraharinath, Vajracharya, Joshi, and Khanal. The temple has traditional Nepali architecture. Many similar features are found at Gokarna Mahadev . The temple

4558-483: The 10th millennia BCE buildings of Jericho , and the 8th millennia BCE of Ganj Dareh . According to Roman Ghirshman , the first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in what is today Pakistan, built of sun-dried bricks in 6500 BCE. Gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of many ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires

4664-615: The 2016 World Health Organization's Ambient Air Pollution Database, the annual average PM2.5 (particulate matter) concentration in 2013 was 49 μg/m , which is 4.9 times higher than recommended by the World Health Organization . Starting in early 2017, the Government of Nepal and the Embassy of the United States in Kathmandu have monitored and publicly share real-time air quality data. In Nepal and Kathmandu,

4770-638: The 2nd century AD. The valley was historically called the Nepal Mandala (the name for the cosmic elements of water Dha mandala in Newari, and cosmos), and has been the home of the Newar people , a cosmopolitan urban civilization in the Himalayan foothills. The city was the royal capital of the Kingdom of Nepal and hosts palaces, mansions and gardens built by the Nepali aristocracy. It has been home to

4876-475: The Kathmandu Valley, the New Road , was also built during this era. Trichandra College (the first college of Nepal), Durbar High School (the first modern school of Nepal), and Bir Hospital (the first hospital of Nepal) were built in Kathmandu during this era. Education was only accessible to the privileged class. Rana rule was marked by despotism, economic exploitation and religious persecution. Kathmandu

4982-512: The Kathmandu Valley, which is representative of its valley's climate, the average summer temperature varies from 28 to 30 °C (82 to 86 °F). The average winter temperature is 10.1 °C (50.2 °F). Five major climatic regions are found in Nepal. Of these, High hills of Kathmandu Valley including Chandragiri hill is in the Warm Temperate Zone (elevation ranging from 1,200 to 2,300 metres (3,900 to 7,500 ft)), where

5088-609: The Newar people—the indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley—became highly sought after during this era, both within the Valley and throughout the greater Himalayas. Newar artists travelled extensively throughout Asia, creating religious art for their neighbours. For example, Araniko led a group of his compatriot artists through Tibet and China. Bhrikuti , the princess of Nepal who married Tibetan monarch Songtsän Gampo ,

5194-570: The alternate letters of the words " M a S o N w O r K ". Polymer cement mortars (PCM) are the materials which are made by partially replacing the cement hydrate binders of conventional cement mortar with polymers. The polymeric admixtures include latexes or emulsions , redispersible polymer powders, water-soluble polymers, liquid thermoset resins and monomers. Although they increase cost of mortars when used as an additive, they enhance properties. Polymer mortar has low permeability that may be detrimental to moisture accumulation when used to repair

5300-670: The ancient dhunge dharas ( Nepali : ढुङ्गे धारा ) for all the purposes related to water. The city water shortage should be solved by the completion of the much plagued Melamchi Water Supply Project by the end of 2019. Despite continued efforts by governmental bodies, Kathmandu is one of the most polluted cities in Nepal, largely due to overpopulation. Waste management may be through composting in municipal waste management units, and at houses with home composting units. Both systems are common and established in India and neighbouring countries. Kathmandu's urban cosmopolitan character has made it

5406-480: The ancient binder lime (producing lime mortar ) is still used in some specialty new construction. Lime, lime mortar, and gypsum in the form of plaster of Paris are used particularly in the repair and repointing of historic buildings and structures, so that the repair materials will be similar in performance and appearance to the original materials. Several types of cement mortars and additives exist. The first mortars were made of mud and clay , as demonstrated in

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5512-583: The annual budget and make major policy decisions. The ward's profile documents for the 32 wards prepared by the Kathmandu Metropolitan Council is detailed and provides information for each ward on population, the structure and condition of houses, the type of roads, educational, health and financial institutions, entertainment facilities, parking space, security provisions, etc. It also includes lists of development projects completed, on-going and planned, along with informative data about

5618-408: The annual premature deaths due to air pollution reached 37,399 and 9,943 respectively, according to a Republica news report published on 23 November 2019. This indicates, around a quarter of the total deaths due to air pollution in Nepal are in Kathmandu. Kathmandu Municipal Corporation (KMC) is the chief nodal agency for the administration of Kathmandu. The Municipality of Kathmandu was upgraded to

5724-565: The city is around 1400 mm (55 in). On average humidity is 75%. The chart below is based on data from the Nepal Bureau of Standards & Meteorology, Weather Meteorology for 2005. The chart provides minimum and maximum temperatures during each month. The annual amount of precipitation was 1,124 millimetres (44.3 in) for 2005, as per monthly data included in the table above. The decade of 2000–2010 saw highly variable and unprecedented precipitation anomalies in Kathmandu. This

5830-439: The city is divided into 32 wards, numbered from 1 to 32. Earlier, there were 35 wards which made it the metropolitan city with the largest number of the wards. Under Köppen's climate classification , portions of the city with lower elevations (1300-1400m) which is 88 per cent of total have a humid subtropical climate (Cwa), while portions of the city with higher elevations generally have a subtropical highland climate (Cwb). In

5936-514: The climate is fairly temperate, atypical for the region. This zone is followed by the Cool Temperate Zone with elevation varying between 2,100 and 3,300 metres (6,900 and 10,800 ft). The city generally has a climate with warm days followed by cool nights and mornings. Unpredictable weather is expected, given that temperatures can drop to 0 °C (32 °F) or less during the winter. The lowest ever temperature of −3.5 °C

6042-626: The construction of public buildings, squares, and temples, as well as the development of waterspouts, the institutionalisation of trusts (called guthis ), the codification of laws, the writing of dramas, and the performance of plays in city squares. Evidence of an influx of ideas from India, Tibet, China, Persia, and Europe among other places can be found in a stone inscription farom the time of king Pratap Malla . Books have been found from this era that describe their tantric tradition (e.g. Tantrakhyan), medicine (e.g. Haramekhala), religion (e.g. Mooldevshashidev), law, morals, and history. Amarkosh,

6148-480: The core of the building. Inclined timber struts further help distribute the load from the purlins to the walls. Notably, the connections between the struts, purlins, and the main masonry walls are not rigid, allowing for some flexibility in the roof structure. The foundation is designed with a wide plinth platform, functioning like a mat foundation, which helps to distribute the load and mitigate risks associated with soft soils, particularly during earthquakes. The plinth

6254-513: The cow and watched from a hidden spot. When the cow reached the base of the Champaka tree, the man emerged and began drinking her milk. In a fury, the Brahmin drew his sword and struck the man's neck. At that moment, the man transformed, revealing himself to be Vishnu, who was now devoid of his head bearing conch, discus, mace, and lotus, seated on Garuda. The Brahmin, realizing what he had done,

6360-400: The cultural heritage, festivals, historical sites and the local inhabitants. Ward 16 is the largest, with an area of 437.4 ha; ward 26 is the smallest, with an area of 4 ha. Kathmandu is the headquarters of the surrounding Kathmandu District . The Metropolitan Police is the main law enforcement agency in the city. It is headed by a commissioner of police . The Metropolitan Police

6466-447: The development of modern military structures, such as modern barracks in Kathmandu. The nine-storey tower Dharahara was originally built during this era. Rana rule over Nepal started with the Kot massacre of 1846, which occurred near Hanuman Dhoka Durbar. During this massacre, most of Nepal's high-ranking officials were massacred by Jung Bahadur Rana and his supporters. Another massacre,

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6572-568: The divine female energy (or devi ) in South Asian countries. In Nepal, the selection process is very rigorous. Previously, during the time of the monarchy, the queen and the priests used to appoint the proposed Kumari with delicate process of astrological examination and physical examination of 32 'gunas'. The china ( Nepali : चिना ), an ancient Hindu astrological report of the Kumari and the reigning king, has been said to be similar. The Kumari

6678-468: The edge of Chobhar hill with this Sudarshana Chakra . He brought some cowherds along with him and made Bhuktaman the king of Nepal. Kotirudra Samhita of Shiva Purana , Chapter 11, Shloka 18 refers to the place as Nayapala city, which was famous for its Pashupati Shivalinga. The name Nepal probably originates from this city Nayapala. Very few historical records exists of the period before medieval Licchavi rulers . According to Gopalraj Vansawali ,

6784-561: The fire service was extended to the neighbouring cities of Lalitpur and Bhaktapur. In 1966, a fire service was established in Kathmandu central airport . In 1975, a West German government donation added seven fire engines to Kathmandu's fire service. The fire service in the city is also overlooked by an international non-governmental organization, the Firefighters Volunteer Association of Nepal (FAN), which

6890-614: The headquarters of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC ) since 1985. Today, it is the seat of government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, established in 2008, and is part of Bagmati Province . Kathmandu is and has been for many years the centre of Nepal's history , art , culture , and economy . It has a multi-ethnic population within a Hindu and Buddhist majority. Religious and cultural festivities form

6996-407: The inner lower enclosure, walk around the stupa with prayer wheels, chant, and pray. Thousands of prayer flags are hoisted up from the top of the stupa downwards and dot the perimeter of the complex. The influx of many Tibetan refugees from China has seen the construction of over 50 Tibetan gompas ( monasteries ) around Boudhanath. Swayambhunath ( Nepali : स्वयम्भू स्तूप ) is a Buddhist stupa atop

7102-465: The king of that time, probably King Lakshminarasimha Malla of Kathmandu on their way from Tibet to India. Father Cabral reported that they reached "Cadmendu", the capital of Nepal kingdom. The ancient history of Kathmandu is described in its traditional myths and legends . According to the Swayambhu Purana , present-day Kathmandu was once a huge and deep lake named " Nagdaha ", as it

7208-495: The lime to set relatively quickly and even under water. Vitruvius , the Roman architect, spoke of four types of pozzolana. It is found in all the volcanic areas of Italy in various colours: black, white, grey and red. Pozzolana has since become a generic term for any siliceous and/or aluminous additive to slaked lime to create hydraulic cement. Finely ground and mixed with lime it is a hydraulic cement, like Portland cement, and makes

7314-401: The lives of a third of Kathmandu's population, including the king Abhaya Malla . These disasters led to the destruction of most of the architecture of the Licchavi era (such as Mangriha and Kailashkut Bhawan ), and the loss of literature collected in various monasteries within the city. Despite the initial hardships, Kathmandu rose to prominence again and, during most of the Malla era, dominated

7420-496: The mix ratio for each type of mortar, which are specified under the ASTM standards. These premixed mortar products are designated by one of the five letters, M, S, N, O, and K. Type M mortar is the strongest, and Type K the weakest. The mix ratio is always expressed by volume of Portland cement : lime : sand {\displaystyle {\text{Portland cement : lime : sand}}} . These type letters are apparently taken from

7526-618: The modern era in Kathmandu. The Battle of Kirtipur was the start of the Gorkha conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu was adopted as the capital of the Gorkha empire, and the empire itself was dubbed Nepal. During the early part of this era, Kathmandu maintained its distinctive culture. Buildings with characteristic Nepali architecture, such as the nine-story tower of Basantapur, were built during this era. However, trade declined because of continual war with neighbouring nations. Bhimsen Thapa supported France against Great Britain; this led to

7632-498: The most populous city in Nepal. According to the National Population Census of 2011, the total population of Kathmandu city was 975,543 in 254,292 households with an annual growth rate of 6.12% with respect to the population figure of 2001. 70% of the total population residing in Kathmandu are aged between 15 and 59. In one decade, the population increased from 427,045 in 1991 to 671,805 in 2001. The population

7738-409: The oldest inscription of Nepal and the stone inscription pillar was erected by Licchavi (kingdom) King Manadeva in 464 AD. The following monument is located while visiting the temple from the right side after entering from the main entrance (Eastern gate) to the courtyard The main image in the sanctum is worshiped by Hindus as a Garuda Narayan, and by Buddhists as a Hariharihari Vahan Lokeshwara. Only

7844-509: The oldest inscription of Nepal. It was made by a Lichhavi king Manadeva at around 464 AD. The inscription is written in Sanskrit and Gupta script, respectively. The complete inscription on the pillar was first transcribed in 1899. Sylvain Lévi, who had been granted permission to conduct historical research in Nepal, oversaw the excavation of the pillar with the assistance of Bhim Shamshere,

7950-573: The other idols are carved in the struts, which support the roof. The entrance door is gilded with carvings of Naga (legendary half-serpent, half-human creature in Hinduism). On the main entrance gate (i.e. western entrance gate), we can find the Chakra, Sankha, Kamal, and Khadga all at the top of a stone pillar. These stone pillars have an inscription in Sanskrit. This inscription is considered to be

8056-470: The population speaking it as their mother tongue. Newari is spoken by 19%, and the other languages spoken in the city include Tamang (6%), Maithili (3%), Bhojpuri (2%), Gurung (2%), Magar (2%) and Sherpa (1%) as their first language. English is also spoken by many. Ethnic groups in Kathmandu The largest group is the native Newars , whose various sub-groups combine to make up 24.7% of

8162-417: The population. More recently, other Madeshi groups from Terai have come to represent a substantial proportion of the city's population, and there are around 12,000 Marwadis, mainly merchants. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The ancient trade route between India and Tibet that passed through Kathmandu enabled

8268-652: The population. Almost equal in number is the Bahuns , also known as Hill-Brahmin or Khas Brahmin, representing 24.5% of the population. They are part of the broader Khas community, as are the Chhetri , the third largest group, who account for 18% of the population. Other groups in Kathmandu include the Janajatis, comprising the Tamang (7.8%), Magar (3.8%), Gurung (2.6%), and Rai (2.1%). Nepalese Muslims represent 1.8% of

8374-410: The priest is allowed to see the idol. The Changu Narayan temple follows a traditional pagoda-style roof design with two levels, each with symmetrical pitched roofs. The roof structure is supported by small rafters arranged in a radial pattern from the center of the inner masonry cell. The dead load of the roof is transferred through rafters to the purlins and then to the wall plates, which originate from

8480-442: The same Champaka tree. One day, a beautiful man emerged from the Champaka tree, drank the cow’s milk, and then disappeared back into the tree. The cow would go to this tree, and the man would drink her milk. After seven days of not receiving milk from his cow, the Brahmin grew angry, thinking, "I will not rest until I behead the one who dares drink the milk intended for sacred offerings." The Brahmin, full of anger, stealthily followed

8586-412: The second floor, providing structural integrity. These walls are built using a layered system: the inner face is made of sun-dried bricks, while the outer face is composed of fired clay bricks, which are smooth-finished for aesthetic and protective purposes. The mortar used in bonding the bricks is an essential element for the temple’s strength and stability. While the mortar is often not visible, it plays

8692-548: The structure. The lime mortar allows this moisture to escape through evaporation and keeps the wall dry. Re−pointing or rendering an old wall with cement mortar stops the evaporation and can cause problems associated with moisture behind the cement. Pozzolana is a fine, sandy volcanic ash . It was originally discovered and dug at Pozzuoli , nearby Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and was subsequently mined at other sites, too. The Romans learned that pozzolana added to lime mortar allowed

8798-415: The survivors migrated north and entered the forest monastery, masquerading as Koliyas. From Sankhu, they migrated to Yambu and Yengal (Lanjagwal and Manjupattan) and established the first permanent Buddhist monasteries of Kathmandu. This created the basis of Newar Buddhism , which is the only surviving Sanskrit-based Buddhist tradition in the world. With their migration, Yambu was called Koligram and Yengal

8904-508: The temple premises, but non-Hindu visitors are allowed to view the temple only from the across the Bagmati River. The priests who perform the services at this temple have been Brahmins from Karnataka in southern India since the time of Malla king Yaksha Malla . This tradition is believed to have been started at the request of Adi Shankara who sought to unify the states of Bhāratam , a region in south Asia believed to be ruled by

9010-624: The temple was destroyed by Mughal invaders in the 14th century and little or nothing remains of the original 5th-century temple exterior. The temple as it stands today was built in the 19th century, although the image of the bull and the black four-headed image of Pashupati are at least 300 years old. The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Shivaratri , or the night of Shiva, is the most important festival that takes place here, attracting thousands of devotees and sadhus . Believers in Pashupatinath (mainly Hindus ) are allowed to enter

9116-520: The then Greek colony of Dicaearchia ( Pozzuoli ) near Naples, Italy. The Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement. Even later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta , introducing aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide into the mix. This mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted penetration by water. Hydraulic mortar

9222-718: The torana there are thirteen tiers. Above all the tiers, there is a small space above which lies a gajur . Mortar (masonry) Mortar is a workable paste which hardens to bind building blocks such as stones , bricks , and concrete masonry units , to fill and seal the irregular gaps between them, spread the weight of them evenly, and sometimes to add decorative colours or patterns to masonry walls. In its broadest sense, mortar includes pitch , asphalt , and soft clay, as those used between bricks, as well as cement mortar. The word "mortar" comes from Old French mortier , "builder's mortar, plaster; bowl for mixing." (13c.). Cement mortar becomes hard when it cures, resulting in

9328-470: The trade between India and Tibet, leading to tremendous growth in architecture. Descriptions of buildings such as Managriha, Kailaskut Bhawan, and Bhadradiwas Bhawan have been found in the surviving journals of travellers and monks who lived during this era. For example, the famous 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang described Kailaskut Bhawan, the palace of the Licchavi king Amshuverma . The trade route also led to cultural exchange as well. The artistry of

9434-503: The trade between India and Tibet. Nepali currency became the standard currency in trans-Himalayan trade. During the later part of the Malla era, Kathmandu Valley comprised four fortified cities: Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and Kirtipur. These served as the capitals of the Malla confederation of Nepal. These states competed with each other in the arts, architecture, esthetics, and trade, resulting in tremendous development. The kings of this period directly influenced or involved themselves in

9540-467: The underground aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates back to c. 500 BCE. Pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows it to be hardened underwater; thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the Greek islands Thira and Nisiros , or from

9646-512: Was called Dakshin Koligram during most of the Licchavi era. Eventually, the Licchavi ruler Gunakamadeva merged Koligram and Dakshin Koligram, founding the city of Kathmandu. The city was designed in the shape of Chandrahrasa , the sword of Manjushri. The city was surrounded by eight barracks guarded by Ajimas . One of these barracks is still in use at Bhadrakali (in front of Singha Durbar ). The city served as an important transit point in

9752-679: Was established in 2000 with the purpose of raising public awareness about fire and improving safety. Electricity in Kathmandu is regulated and distributed by the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). Water supply and sanitation facilities are provided by the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL). There is a severe shortage of water for household purposes such as drinking, bathing, cooking and washing and irrigation. People have been using bottled mineral water, water from tank trucks and from

9858-523: Was expanded by King Pratap Malla in the 17th century with many temples. The royal family lived in this palace until 1886 when they moved to Narayanhiti Palace. The stone inscription outside is in fifteen languages. Kumari Ghar is a palace in the centre of the Kathmandu city, next to the Durbar square where a royal Kumari selected from several Kumaris resides. Kumari (or Kumari Devi), is the tradition of worshipping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of

9964-517: Was filled with immense remorse, lamenting, "What sin have I committed in a past life to have brought this upon myself?". As the Brahmin was about to take his own life in repentance, Lord Narayana appeared and assured him, "Do not fear, O sage. You have no reason to grieve. Instead, abandon your fears and ask for a boon." The Brahmin replied, "O Narayana, grant that the punishment for my sin of beheading you be delivered upon me by your discus." To this, Lord Narayana explained, "Listen, O sage. Long ago, in

10070-416: Was full of snakes. The lake was cut drained by Bodhisattva Manjushri with his sword, and the water was evacuated out from there. He then established a city called Manjupattan, and made Dharmakar the ruler of the valley land. After some time, a demon named Banasura closed the outlet, and the valley again turned into a lake. Krishna came to Nepal, killed Banasura, and again drained out the water by cutting

10176-549: Was instrumental in introducing Buddhism to Tibet. The Licchavi era was followed by the Malla era . Rulers from Tirhut , upon being attacked by the Delhi Sultanate , fled north to the Kathmandu valley. They intermarried with Nepali royalty, and this led to the Malla era. The early years of the Malla era were turbulent, with raids and attacks from Khas and Turk Muslims . There was also a devastating earthquake which claimed

10282-434: Was invented in 1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December 1824, largely as a result of efforts to develop stronger mortars. It was made popular during the late nineteenth century, and had by 1930 became more popular than lime mortar as construction material. The advantages of Portland cement is that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction. Furthermore, fewer skilled workers are required in building

10388-509: Was made entirely of wood and used no iron nails nor supports. According to legends, all the timber used to build the pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The colophons of ancient manuscripts, dated as late as the 20th century, refer to Kathmandu as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap Mahānagar in Nepal Mandala . Mahānagar means "great city". The city is called Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap in a vow that Buddhist priests still recite to this day. Thus, Kathmandu

10494-424: Was mostly due to the annual variation of the southwest monsoon. For example, 2001 recorded only 356 mm (14 in) of precipitation due to an extraordinarily weak monsoon season. In contrast, 2003 was the wettest year ever in Kathmandu, totaling over 2,900 mm (114 in) of precipitation due to an exceptionally strong monsoon season. Air pollution is a major issue in the Kathmandu Valley. According to

10600-466: Was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash. Around 500 CE, sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganic−organic composite sticky rice mortar that had more strength and water resistance than lime mortar. It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, which was perfected and in such widespread use by both the Greeks and Romans,

10706-473: Was originally built as a rest house for travellers. The Pashupatinath Temple ( Nepali : पशुपतिनाथ मन्दिर ) is a famous 5th century Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva . Located on the banks of the Bagmati River , the Pashupatinath Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Kathmandu. It served as the seat of national deity, Pashupatinath , until Nepal was secularized. However, a significant part of

10812-546: Was present in the southern half of old Kathmandu, near Manjupattan. During the reign of the seventh Kirata ruler, Jitedasti, Buddhist monks entered Kathmandu valley and established a forest monastery at Sankhu . The Licchavis from Vaisali in modern-day Bihar , migrated north and defeated the Kirats , establishing the Licchavi dynasty, circa 400 AD. During this era, following the genocide of Shakyas in Lumbini by Virudhaka ,

10918-502: Was projected to reach 915,071 in 2011 and 1,319,597 by 2021. To keep up this population growth, the KMC-controlled area of 5,076.6 hectares (12,545 acres) expanded to 8,214 hectares (20,300 acres) in 2001. With this new area, the population density which was 85 in 1991 remained 85 in 2001; it is likely to jump to 111 in 2011 and 161 in 2021. As of the 2011 census, Nepali is the most common mother tongue in Kathmandu, with 62% of

11024-440: Was recorded in 1978. While snowfall is generally confined to the hills surrounding the city, there have been a few instances of snowfall in city, most notably in 1945 and 2007. Rainfall is mostly monsoon-based (about 65% of the total concentrated during the monsoon months of June to September), and decreases substantially (100 to 200 cm (39 to 79 in)) from eastern Nepal to western Nepal. The average annual rainfall for

11130-441: Was the first Kumari of Kathmandu after the end of the monarchy. Kasthamandap is a three-storeyed temple enshrining an image of Gorakhnath . It was built in the 16th century in the pagoda style. The name of Kathmandu is a derivative of the word Kasthamandap . It was built under the reign of King Laxmi Narsingha Malla. Kasthamandap stands at the intersection of two ancient trade routes linking India and Tibet at Maru square. It

11236-583: Was then lost for almost two millennia. During the Middle Ages when the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime. Since cured lime mortar can be degraded by contact with water, many structures suffered over the centuries from wind-blown rain. Ordinary Portland cement mortar , commonly known as OPC mortar or just cement mortar, is created by mixing powdered ordinary Portland cement , fine aggregate and water. It

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