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181-531: The Changsha Kingdom was a kingdom within the Han Empire of China, located in present-day Hunan and some surrounding areas. The kingdom was founded when Emperor Gaozu granted the territory to his follower Wu Rui in 203 or 202 BC, around the same time as the establishment of the Han dynasty. Wu Rui and his descendants held the kingdom for five generations until Wu Zhu died without an heir in 157 BC. In 155 BC,

362-403: A guqin , a form of stringed instrument . Archaeologists also found the first surviving examples of two previously lost ancient Chinese musical instruments, a woodwind known as a yú ( 竽 ) and a five-string instrument known as a zhù ( 筑 ). Musical and dancing troupes consisting of dozens of performers were recorded in unearthed manuscripts. As seen in excavated manuscripts and artifacts,

543-555: A literacy test of 9,000 characters for nominees aspiring to become subordinate officials for either the Minister Steward or Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk. These nominees were often recommended subordinates of commandery-level Administrators. Other subordinates of the Minister of Ceremonies reported illegal acts at ancestral temples, prepared sacrificial offerings of food and wine at shrines and temples, and arranged for

724-543: A magistrate and were subdivided into townships and villages ( 里 , lǐ ) in the same manner as in centrally administered territories of the Han dynasty. The reestablishment of the Changsha Kingdom under Liu Fa coincided with the abortive Rebellion of the Seven States and the subsequent drastic measures to limit the autonomy of kingdoms by Emperor Jing. In 145 BC, the vassal kingdoms were stripped of

905-661: A regent 's title for Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). The regent was thus considered one of the Three Excellencies, although he was not technically part of the cabinet. The Grand Commandant's office witnessed significant changes during the Eastern Han. Wang Mang separated the regent's role from the Grand Commandant's post during the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD), since he did not want an active regent for his regime. This

1086-441: A Grand Tutor was supposedly appointed at the beginning of each emperor's reign, and was not replaced until that emperor's death. However, only four Grand Tutors were appointed between 202 BC – 6 AD. In contrast, during Eastern Han, every emperor, except Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD), had a new Grand Tutor appointed at the beginning of their reigns. The Grand Tutor's salary-rank was unspecified in literary sources, although it

1267-524: A buffer between Han territory and hostile tribes, such as the Xiongnu , and as a means to quell tribes in the Ordos Desert . The Han court appointed a Commandant ( Duwei 都尉), also known as Chief Commandant, ranked Equivalent to 2,000- dan , to govern the non-Han-Chinese populations of each Dependent State. The Director of Dependent States' title was abolished in 28 BC; his duties and his subordinates,

1448-464: A distance, Gaozu saw that Ying Bu's forces were deployed like Xiang Yu's and he hated that. Gaozu asked Ying Bu, "Why do you want to rebel?", to which Ying Bu replied, "I want to be the emperor." Gaozu was furious and scolded Ying Bu, and launched an attack. Ying Bu was defeated and retreated back across the Huai River . At times he halted and turned back to resist the Han forces but failed. Ying Bu

1629-574: A figurehead used by Xiang Liang and his clan to rally more supporters in the name of restoring Chu. King Huai II granted Ying Bu the title of "Lord Dangyang" ( 當陽君 ). Xiang Liang was killed in action against Qin forces at the Battle of Dingtao (定陶, in modern Heze, Shandong province ) in the winter of 208 BC, and King Huai II moved his capital to Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu ). Ying Bu and other Chu generals were stationed in Pengcheng. At

1810-683: A firm defence. In this way, Chu forces can neither advance by attacking nor retreat. Therefore, I say that Chu is unreliable. If Chu wins Han, other vassal states will help each other for fear of Chu. As such, we can see that if Chu becomes more powerful, it will invite hostility from many sides. It's obvious that Chu is worse than Han. I'm puzzled as to why you choose to depend on Chu, which is at stake, instead of Han, which has nothing to lose. I don't think that Huainan's forces are sufficient to resist Chu, but if you betray Chu, Xiang Yu will be held up in Qi for several months, and Han has higher chances of taking over

1991-587: A form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), so he was also called Qing Bu ( 黥布 ). He was then sent to Mount Li to perform hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum . He later escaped with some men and became the leader of a bandit gang. Ying Bu participated in the insurrection against the Qin dynasty after the Dazexiang Uprising broke out in 209 BC. After

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2172-533: A government office; the other two corps were composed of imperial bodyguards who were never appointed to civilian offices. The former were often recommended by commandery-level Administrators as Filial and Incorrupt , while others could be relatives of high officials in central government. The Minister of the Household oversaw subordinate court advisors ( Yi Lang 議郎 /议郎) who advised the emperor and engaged in scholarly debates. They were allowed to openly criticize

2353-607: A king later. When he became older, Ying Bu committed a crime and under the laws of the Qin dynasty , he was sentenced to qing (黥; a form of punishment which involved branding a criminal by tattooing his face), but he laughed and said, "A fortune teller once told me that I would be convicted before becoming a king. Isn't it so?" He was scorned at by others when they heard him. Ying Bu was later sent to Mount Li to do hard labour by constructing Qin Shi Huang 's mausoleum. He befriended many fellow convicts and later escaped with them, and became

2534-479: A large army but you don't send troops to help and would rather stand by and watch. Is this what a subordinate should do? You are subordinate to Chu in name, but actually you rely on yourself. I feel that this won't be good for you. You refuse to betray Chu because you think that Han is weak. However, although Chu is powerful, Xiang Yu has lost the people's trust and support when he implacably broke his promises and murdered Emperor Yi, and now he still thinks that his state

2715-611: A large rebel force in Kuaiji (then still centered on present-day Suzhou , not Shaoxing ), he led his own followers to join Xiang Liang too. Ying Bu fought bravely in battle and assisted Xiang Liang in defeating other insurgent leaders such as Jing Ju and Qin Jia ( 秦嘉 ). In the summer of 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed King Huai II on the throne of the Chu state , but the king was actually

2896-456: A larger Qin army led by Zhang Han at the Battle of Julu . After the battle, at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima , Henan ), Xiang Yu had Ying Bu oversee the execution of Zhang Han's 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers by burying them alive. After his victory at Julu, Xiang Yu led his forces towards Guanzhong (the heartland of the Qin dynasty) and prepared for an invasion. In the winter of 207 BC,

3077-490: A mapping of astronomical features to those on the land. The latter, likely a work by a Chu author of the Warring States period, included a collection of illustrations of astronomical and atmospheric features such as clouds, mirages, rainbows, stars and comets. Government of the Han dynasty#Kingdoms, marquisates, and fiefs of princesses Near the beginning of the dynasty, semi-autonomous regional kings rivaled

3258-440: A more honorific title of " Emperor Yi of Chu ", and moved him to Changsha , effectively sending the puppet ruler into exile. Xiang Yu then secretly ordered Ying Bu to kill Emperor Yi, and Ying Bu intercepted the emperor at Chen County (郴縣; present-day Chenzhou , Hunan ) and killed him. In 205 BC, Tian Rong ( 田榮 ) started a rebellion in Qi so Xiang Yu led an army to attack him. Xiang Yu requested reinforcements from Ying Bu, but

3439-515: A prefect. The Director of Dependent States ( Dian shuguo 典屬國), whose salary-rank was 2,000- dan , was responsible for embassies to foreign countries and nomadic peoples along Han's borders and the annual exchange of hostages—usually foreign princes—submitted to the Han court. Dependent States ( Shuguo 屬國) were first established in 121 BC and composed mostly non-Han-Chinese nomadic tribes and confederations who surrendered after negotiation or armed conflict and accepted Han suzerainty . They served as

3620-693: A prison and could arrest officials of high rank. The Colonel of the City Gates ( Chengmen xiaowei 城門校衛) commanded the garrisons at the twelve city gates, each guarded by a captain, in both Western Han Chang'an and Eastern Han Luoyang. The Bearer of the Mace ( Zhi jinwu 執金吾), also known as the Bearer of the Gilded Mace and Commandant of the Capital ( Zhongwei 中尉) before 104 BC, maintained law and order in

3801-414: A reason of its loyalty.) However, the population increased rapidly, partly due to the favorable agricultural policies and partly because of immigration both from within the Han empire and from Nanyue. In AD 2, when the Han dynasty conducted an empire-wide population census, the population of Changsha was recorded as 235,825 living in 43,470 households. The commanderies that constituted the larger Changsha of

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3982-626: A rebellion and fled to the capital Chang'an . Ying Bu sent his men to pursue Ben He but could not catch up with the latter. Upon reaching Chang'an, Ben He claimed that Ying Bu was showing signs of plotting a rebellion and urged the Han imperial court to send an army to launch a preemptive attack on Ying Bu. Emperor Gaozu discussed with his chancellor Xiao He , and the latter commented, "Ying Bu wouldn't do this. I believe that his enemies are trying to frame him. Please put Ben He under custody first and then send people to investigate Ying Bu." When Ying Bu saw that Ben He had escaped and accused him of plotting

4163-539: A rebellion, he suspected that Ben He had already revealed what he had been secretly planning to do. Besides, the Han imperial court had sent people to investigate, so Ying Bu decided to proceed with his plan. He killed Ben He's family and started a rebellion in August or September 196 BCE. When news of Ying Bu's revolt reached Chang'an, Emperor Gaozu pardoned Ben He and appointed him as a general. Gaozu summoned his subjects to discuss on how to deal with Ying Bu and they urged

4344-535: A register being updated at the beginning of each year. When a serious infraction was committed by a member of the imperial family, the Minister of the Imperial Clan was the first high official to be notified before the emperor, who made the ultimate decision about any possible legal action. This minister's subordinates heard grievances of imperial family members and informed them about new ordinances. Unlike kings and marquesses, who were not responsible to any of

4525-419: A result; 2. Attack and capture Wu, Chu, Han , Wei , rely on supplies from Aoyu to block Chenggao, the outcome of this move was uncertain; 3. Attack Wu, Xiacai, return to Yue and Changsha , there was nothing to worry if Ying Bu made this move. Xue Gong predicted that Ying Bu would take the third option because Ying Bu was a convict and he attained his kingly status through his own efforts, and everything he did

4706-643: A salary-rank of 2,000- dan . The post of Supervisor of the Household was abolished. Other Western Han staff offices of the heir apparent were abolished during Eastern Han, such as the Chief of the Kitchen and the Household Prison of the Heir Apparent. If he reached adulthood, the heir apparent could be married to a principal wife who led a harem of his concubines. The empress , the legal wife of

4887-502: A third of the empire—the other two-thirds of territory was controlled by semi-autonomous kingdoms—strayed from Qin's imperial model which gave the emperor direct control over all of China. However, a series of reforms eventually stripped away any vestiges of the kingdoms' independence. Han emperors thereafter enjoyed full and direct control over China, as had the first Qin emperor. The Han court's gradual move towards reestablishing central control can also be seen in its monetary policy. While

5068-464: A two-meter-long fēiyī ( 非衣 , possibly meaning "flying garment") in the tomb of Lady Dai is one of the finest examples of art in early China. In the painting, Lady Dai was depicted in the center, accompanied by servants and surrounded by deities, mythological beasts, and symbols. Several types of musical instruments were discovered in the Changsha tombs. They include the earliest known example of

5249-491: Is defeated the other two would follow suit. How is it possible for them to help each other?" The warning was ignored. Ying Bu later really did defeat one army and the other two dispersed. Ying Bu then advanced west and encountered the Han army led by Emperor Gaozu in Qixi (蕲西; south of present-day Su County , Anhui ) and they battled at Zhui ( 甀 ). Ying Bu's army was well-trained so Gaozu had to retreat to Yongcheng ( 庸城 ). From

5430-551: Is false, then me and my 20 men are willing to die in Huainan to prove that your king is against Han and loyal to Chu." The advisor relayed Sui He's message to Ying Bu, and Ying agreed to meet Sui He. Sui He said, "The King of Han sends me to deliver a message to you. I'm curious why you're so close to Chu." Ying Bu responded that he had all along been serving Xiang Yu. Sui He said, "Both you and Xiang Yu are vassal kings. You're willing to be subservient to him because you feel that Chu

5611-459: Is powerful and can be relied on. When Xiang Yu was attacking Qi, he fought ahead of his men. You should personally lead Huainan's forces and fight as Chu's vanguard. Yet now you only send 4,000 men to assist Chu, is this what a subordinate should do? When the King of Han was attacking Chu's capital Pengcheng, you should lead your men to help Xiang Yu and fight with the King of Han day and night. You have

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5792-607: Is strong enough and he can win any battle. The King of Han is mustering other vassal lords, and garrisoning in Chenggao and Xingyang. His supply routes from Shu (modern Sichuan and Chongqing ) avoid deep trenches and are well-defended. When Chu recall its forces, it is separated by Liang in between and is 800-900 li within enemy territory. Now Chu is unable to fight well and is exhausted. Its old and weak soldiers are transporting supplies over great distances. When Chu forces reach Xingyang and Chenggao, Han forces only need to put up

5973-786: Is unknown whether he oversaw all of the twenty-six prisons in Western Han Chang'an, which were built to house convicted ex-officials. However, during Eastern Han, the Imperial Prison in Luoyang was the only prison managed by the Minister of Justice. The Minister Herald ( Dahonglu 大鴻臚) was also known as the Grand Herald; he was also called the Director of Guests ( Dianke 典客) between 202 BC and 144 BC and Prefect Grand Usher ( Daxingling 大行令) between 144 BC and 104 BC. He

6154-535: Is unlikely that Changsha actually reached so far. Similarly, it reports that, when Emperor Gaozu created the Kingdom of Changsha, he granted Wu Rui authority over the five commanderies of Changsha, Yuzhang ( 豫章 , Yùzhāng ), Xiang ( 象 , Xiàng ), Guilin ( 桂林 , Guìlín ) and Nanhai ( 南海 , Nánhǎi ). However, Yuzhang Commandery had already been conferred to Ying Bu, the King of Huainan, while Xiang, Guilin, and Nanhai Commanderies were all held by Zhao Tuo,

6335-522: The Azure and Yellow Dragons , with explanatory texts on military fortunes associated with these deities. A wide range of natural phenomena were connected with spirit powers, and instructions and devices on dealing with them have been found. These were among the religious elements that would later give rise to the Taoist religion . Some of the earliest texts on traditional Chinese medicine were discovered in

6516-496: The Battle of Gaixia in 202 BC. Xiang Yu committed suicide and the rest of Chu surrendered to Han. Following his victory in the Chu–Han Contention , Liu Bang was proclaimed "Emperor" and became historically known as "Emperor Gaozu of Han" after establishing the Han dynasty. Ying Bu became a vassal king of the Han dynasty, under the title King of Huainan ( 淮南王 ), with his capital at Lu (六; present-day Lu'an , Anhui ), and

6697-533: The Chu King Xiang Yu , then the most prominent leader in the rebellion, in an attempt to redivide the empire , recognized Rui as the "King of Hengshan" ( 衡山 王 , Héngshān Wáng ). The Han eventually emerged victorious from post-Qin conflicts and established itself as the preeminent power in China. In 203/ 202 BC , Emperor Gaozu moved Wu Rui's fief and established the Kingdom of Changsha. The capital

6878-657: The Eastern Han , and finally abolished in AD 33 and converted to a commandery under the imperial government. Changsha was one of the largest and longest-lasting kingdoms in Han China. Despite being established on the empire's frontier, technology and art flourished in Changsha. Numerous archaeological sites of the kingdom have been discovered and excavated, most notably Mawangdui , the tomb of Changsha's chancellor Li Cang and his family, providing valuable insights into life in

7059-461: The Huai River to attack Chu . Chu sent its forces to intercept Ying Bu between Xu ( 徐 ) and Tong ( 僮 ), with three armies ready to come to each other's aid if any came under attack. Someone warned the Chu commanders, "Ying Bu is versed in warfare and the people have long feared him. Chu forces are fighting on their own territory and are easily scattered. Now the army is divided into three forces, if one

7240-683: The Imperial University (est. 124 BC) and the academic chairs ( boshi 博士) who specialized in the Five Classics , the canon of Confucianism . One of the Minister of Ceremonies' many subordinates was the Court Astronomer ( Taishi ling 太史令; also known as the Prefect Grand Astrologer), who made astronomical observations and drafted the annual lunisolar calendar . The Court Astronomer also upheld

7421-726: The Prognostications on the Five Planets ( 五星 占 , Wǔ Xīng Zhàn ) and the Diverse Prognostications on Heavenly Patterns and Formations of Materia Vitalis ( 天文 氣象 雜 占 , Tiānwén Qìxiàng Zá Zhàn ), were found in the Mawangdui tombs. The former provided accurate observation data on the positions of planets over a 70-year period from 246 BC to 177 BC, and also elaborated on some astrological beliefs such as an astral-terrestrial correspondence,

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7602-666: The Seven Warring States through conquest, bringing to an end the Warring States period . For a time, the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 256 BC), yet the Zhou kings' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors. The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC. However, following Han's victory over Chu ,

7783-504: The commanderies of Jiujiang ( 九江 ), Lushan ( 廬山 ), Hengshan ( 衡山 ) and Yuzhang ( 豫章 ) under his control. In early 196 BC, Han Xin , the Marquis of Huaiyin ( 淮陰侯 ), was executed on Empress Lü Zhi's order. Ying Bu became uneasy when he learnt of this. In c. April of that year, Peng Yue , the King of Liang ( 梁王 ), suffered a similar fate, and his corpse was minced into pieces and

7964-499: The imperial mint for issuing standard coins during Western Han, in Eastern Han the imperial mint was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance. The Minister Steward ( Shaofu 少府), also known as the Privy Treasurer and Small Treasurer, served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care , valuables and equipment. For this purpose he

8145-416: The province , commandery , county , and district . Local fiefs of the nobility included the kingdom, which was modeled largely upon the regular commandery, as well as the marquessate , modelled largely upon the regular county. Although the central government's monopolies on salt, iron, and liquor eventually failed and were relinquished back to private production, the government successfully nationalized

8326-553: The Chancellor drafted the state budget, the Minister of Finance was responsible for funding it. He was in charge of storing the poll taxes , which were gathered in coin cash, and land tax , which was gathered as a proportion of farmers' annual crop yields. He was also responsible for setting the standards for units of measurement . In addition to reviewing tax collections, he could implement policies for price control exacted on certain commercial commodities. During Western Han,

8507-618: The Chancellor's powers by the end of the Western Han. The position of Chancellor was abolished for much of Eastern Han and replaced by the Excellency over the Masses. However, in 208 AD the Excellency of Works Cao Cao (155–220 AD) assumed the revived post of Chancellor while acting as the de facto ruler over the court of Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD). Cao Cao also abolished the Grand Commandant and Excellency of Works while reinstating

8688-549: The Chancellor, while the concubine ranked just below her, the Favorite Beauty, shared the same salary-rank as any one of the Nine Ministers. The metropolitan areas of both Western Han Chang'an and Eastern Han Luoyang were governed and secured by several officials and officers. The county and municipal divisions of the capital cities were governed by a Prefect ( Ling 令). The Prefect was also responsible for

8869-531: The Changsha elite practiced complicated incantations and ritual acts for their interaction with the spirit world. The calendrical system was incorporated into the religion, and Taiyi , the polar deity, was the central celestial deity. An animistic pantheon was worshipped. In an iconographic image of Taiyi from Mawangdui, it was depicted with the Thunder Lord , the Rain Master ( 雨師 , Yǔshī ), and

9050-687: The Colonel Director of Retainers was reappointed without the Staff of Authority, with powers to inspect the capital region, but his salary-rank was reduced from 2000– dan to Equivalent to 2000– dan . The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks ( Shuiheng duwei 水衡都尉) was also known as the Chief Commandant of Waterways and Parks, and was once a subordinate of the Minister Steward until 115 BC, when he, and other former subordinates of that ministry, became independent officers. His salary-rank

9231-750: The Commandants, became the responsibilities of the Minister Herald. The Protectorate of the Western Regions , established in 60 BC, which conducted foreign affairs with the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia , was not the responsibility of the Director of Dependent States. The Han Empire was divided by hierarchical political divisions in the following descending order: provinces ( zhou ), commanderies ( jun ), and counties ( xian ). This model of local government

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9412-479: The Commander-in-Chief) was the head commander of the military in Western Han, yet his office was irregularly filled (from 205–202 BC, from 196–195 BC, from 189–177 BC, from 154–150 BC, and in 140 BC). After 119 BC, the generals Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) simultaneously held the title until their deaths, but when the post was revived in 87 BC it became politicized when conferred as

9593-638: The Court Physician ( Taiyi ling 太醫令), also known as the Prefect Grand Physician, who checked the emperor's health every morning and accompanied him on imperial hunting trips. The Court Provisioner ( Taiguan ling 太官令), also known as the Prefect Grand Provisioner, was responsible for managing the kitchen, its cooks, and supplying food for the emperor. Other subordinates managed the weaving houses which supplied

9774-464: The Director of Retainers' title in 89 BC, promoting him to the salary-rank 2,000- dan , and granted him the Staff of Authority, allowing him to arrest and punish those allegedly practicing witchcraft. Following the crisis, the Colonel Director of Retainers retained his privileged possession of the Staff of Authority and was granted the same investigative and censorial powers as the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor over officialdom. He routinely inspected

9955-488: The Eleven Yin and Yang Channels ( 陰 陽 十一 脈 灸 經 , Yīnyáng Shíyī Mài Jiǔjīng ), provide important evidence about the concept of meridian channels in its infancy. In addition, there are also texts on the philosophy and techniques of "nurturing life" ( 養生 , yǎngshēng ), covering practices from therapeutic gymnastics and dietetics to sexual cultivation . Two new texts on astronomy and astrology ,

10136-467: The Emperor rescinded the decision and demoted Xing to the rank of a marquis, citing the distance of kinship between Xing and himself. Changsha was administered as an imperial commandery thereafter. The exact extent of the first Changsha Kingdom is still unclear. The official Book of Han reports Changsha's border “reaching the north bank of Han River and stretching to Jiuyi Mountains ”, although it

10317-488: The Han Empire. The forms of ancient Chinese clothing usually found in the tombs of Changsha aristocrats were silk gauze undergarments ( 襌衣 , dānyī ) and long robes with elaborately woven patterns. Men typically wore hats, while a number of hairstyles can be seen in contemporary paintings and sculptures of women. The earliest known paintings on fabric in China were unearthed from the Mawangdui tombs. Among them,

10498-549: The Han dynasty was interrupted by usurper Wang Mang . Along with other kings of the Liu family in the empire, Liu Shun ( 劉 舜 , Liú Shùn ), the last King of Changsha, was first demoted to the rank of duke and then stripped of his titles altogether. After the restoration of Han dynasty, the Guangwu Emperor , himself a descendant of Liu Fa, gave Changsha to Liu Shun's son Liu Xing ( 劉 興 , Liú Xīng ) in AD 26. In 33

10679-595: The Han dynasty, the power a government official exercised was determined by his annual salary-rank, measured in grain units known as dan , shi or shih ( 石 , a unit of volume, approximately 35 litres (0.99 US bsh)). However, approximately half an official's salary in grain was made in payments of cash coins , the standard of which, after 119 BC, was the wushu (五銖) coin measuring 3.2 g (0.11 oz). The other half of an official's salary consisted of unhusked grain and husked grain measured in hu (觳, approximately 20 L / 676 oz ); since one hu of unhusked grain

10860-490: The Han, and their loyalty and competence was praised by successive emperors. In the first years after the founding of the Han Empire, the Emperor Gaozu embarked on a campaign to eliminate kings that were not members of the imperial family. The kings first grew to prominence as heads of independent factions in the chaos following Qin's fall, and the emperor viewed them as great threats to his authority. Changsha, located on

11041-558: The Imperial Counselor. During Western Han the Imperial Counselor, also known as the Grandee Secretary and Imperial Secretary, was considered the second-ranking official below the Chancellor. Like the Chancellor, he exercised censorial powers over provincial officials who also sent him annual reports. His primary duty was to uphold disciplinary procedures for officials; he could investigate even those attached to

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11222-435: The King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). The Han system of imperial government borrowed many of its core features from the regime established by the Qin dynasty. For example, Gaozu's Chancellor Xiao He (d. 193 BC) integrated much of the statutes of the Qin law code into the newly compiled Han law code. Yet Gaozu's establishment of central control over only

11403-424: The Left Chancellor's post was merely titular and its incumbent had no real authority. The Western Han Chancellor oversaw state finances, logistics for military campaigns, registers for land and population, maps of the empire's territories , annual provincial reports, high-profile lawsuits, and drafted the government budget . The Chancellor could directly appoint officials who were ranked 600- dan or below, while he

11584-423: The Mawangdui and Zhangjiashan tombs, most of which were previously unknown. The largest of these finds is the Recipes for Fifty-two Illnesses ( 五十 二 病 方 , Wǔshí'èr Bìngfāng ), which includes detailed treatments for specific illnesses. Two "cauterisation canons", the Cauterisation Canon of the Eleven Foot and Arm Channels ( 足 臂 十一 脈 灸 經 , Zúbì Shíyī Mài Jiǔjīng ) and the Cauterisation Canon of

11765-432: The Minister Coachman's subordinates managed stables outside the capital city. These stables housed Ferghana horses that were imported or gathered as tribute from Central Asian countries. In Eastern Han—possibly due to the Coachman's influence over the transport of arms—a prefect in charge of manufacturing bows, crossbows , swords, and armor for the military was transferred from the Minister Steward's ministry to that of

11946-405: The Minister Coachman. The Minister of Justice ( Tingwei 廷尉), also known as the Commandant of Justice, and was known as the Grand Judge ( Dali 大理) between 144 BC and 137 BC and again between 1 BC and c. 25 AD. He was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law . Only the emperor, in his role as judge, was superior to this minister. The Minister of Justice

12127-407: The Minister Herald had always conducted the formal reception of foreign envoys and enlisted the aid of interpreters, his powers in matters of foreign affairs were expanded further when the post of Director of Dependent States was abolished in 28 BC. However, by Eastern Han his duties involving the affairs of Dependent States were transferred to local administrations along the borders. While eight of

12308-502: The Minister Steward, who managed the emperor's finances. One of the Superintendent's subordinates supervised convicted criminals in their care of the park's hunting dogs . In 115 BC the central government's mint was transferred from the Minister Steward's ministry to the park managed by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks. In 113 BC the central government closed all commandery-level mints; private minting had previously been outlawed in 144 BC. The Superintendent's imperial mint in

12489-411: The Minister of Finance managed the government's monopolized salt and iron agencies , which were abolished during Eastern Han and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship. He also managed the government's brief monopoly over liquor from 98–81 BC, before it was returned to private production. Although the Minister Steward and then the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed

12670-434: The Minister of Finance's powers were limited to the public treasury, the Minister Steward being responsible for the emperor's private wealth. However, in Eastern Han, the responsibilities for the public treasury and the emperor's private wealth were amalgamated and entrusted solely to the Minister of Finance, which later proved disastrous when handled by irresponsible emperors such as Ling (r. 168–189 AD). During Western Han,

12851-414: The Nine Ministers could be of commoner origin, the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan ( Zongzheng 宗正), also known as the Director of the Imperial Clan, was always occupied by a member of the imperial family. He oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles. His ministry was responsible for record-keeping of all nobles,

13032-481: The Nine Ministers, imperial princesses and their fiefs were kept under surveillance by the Minister of the Imperial Clan. The Minister of Finance ( Da sinong 大司農) was also called the Grand Minister of Agriculture, and before 144 BC, was known as Clerk of the Capital for Grain ( Zhisu neishi 治粟內史). This minister was the central government's treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces. While

13213-545: The Nine Ministers: the Minister Coachman, Minister of Justice, and Minister Herald. The Excellency of Works, also known as the Minister of Works, was less powerful than his previous counterpart, the Imperial Counselor. This official's advisory and censorial responsibilities coincided with those of two other Excellencies, forming a tripartite cabinet arrangement. Unlike the abolished Imperial Counselor, he

13394-442: The Qin military garrison and their offspring, assimilated Nanman , and the native Baiyue tribes. Zhao Tuo, King of Nanyue, claimed that "half of Changsha are Man and Yi ". Jia Yi , grand tutor of the king from 176 to 172 BC, wrote that there were only 25,000 households in the kingdom, although it is likely that the figure was an underestimate. (Jia, an advocate for further limits on the kingdoms' autonomy, saw Changsha's weakness as

13575-413: The Qin regime installed a nationwide standard currency , the early Western Han regime oscillated between abolishing and legalizing private mints, commandery-level mints, and kingdom-level mints issuing various coins. In 113 BC the Han court finally established the central government's monopoly control over the issuance of a standard, nationwide currency. The emperor, who enjoyed paramount social status,

13756-483: The annual budget, although contemporary sources fail to mention this point. Aside from the court conference, the Great Conference of leading officials across the empire was conducted by his ministry. The Chancellor's bureaus were also retained by the Excellency over the Masses, and were nearly identical to that of the new Eastern-Han Grand Commandant's bureaus. He was given formal powers to supervise three of

13937-488: The cadet branch of the Liu family, the Changsha Kingdom eliminated the needless commandery level as its territory had been much reduced. In AD 2, the kingdom only administered thirteen counties. In regions inhabited by the Baiyue, larger but less populated circuits were used in place of counties. Two circuits—He ( 齕 , Hé ) and Ling ( 泠 , Líng )—are noted on the map unearthed at Mawangdui. Counties were each headed by

14118-420: The capital city —excluding the imperial palaces. During the Western Han, his salary-rank was fully 2,000- dan ; thus his prestige was similar to that of the Nine Ministers. However, during the Eastern Han his salary-rank was reduced from fully 2,000- dan to equivalent to 2,000- dan . While his subordinates were on constant patrol, the Bearer of the Mace personally inspected the city three times each month. He

14299-405: The capital region. The responsibilities of the royal secretary ( 御史 大夫 , yùshǐ dàfū ) were similar to the imperial equivalent, i.e. supervision over the bureaucrats, although his status was likely lower than the court clerk. The imperial Nine Ministers also had their equivalents in the kingdom. In addition, early Changsha had a unique office, the "pillar of state" ( 柱 國 , zhùguó ). It

14480-672: The chancellery and the imperial palace. Since one of his main functions was to prevent abuse of authority, his jurisdiction over officialdom tended to overlap with that of the Chancellor's. His subordinates included the Imperial Clerks ( Shiyushi 侍御史; also known as Attending Secretaries), led by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk ( Yushi zhongcheng 御史中丞; also known as the Palace Assistant Secretary). They were often sent out into

14661-400: The clothes for the emperor, the workshops which produced wares, utensils, and funerary items for the emperor, and the imperial parks and gardens where the emperor could hunt and attend outings. The Bureau of Music ( Yuefu 樂府) was overseen by the Minister Steward and was in charge of musical performances at imperial ceremonies and entertaining the emperor with folk songs gathered from throughout

14842-477: The commanderies and kingdoms when they arrived in the capital at the beginning of the year , before passing them on to the Excellencies. His subordinates acted as seating guides and ushers for officials, nobles, and foreign delegates at imperial ceremonies and sacrifices. One of his subordinates maintained living quarters for officials in the commanderies and kingdoms who were traveling to the capital. While

15023-419: The conduct of officials in the capital region and seven nearby commanderies. His investigative powers matched those of a provincial Inspector, although his Staff of Authority made him more powerful than the latter. The Colonel Director of Retainers was a personal servant of the emperor, answering only to him, allowing the emperor to greatly enhance his control over the bureaucracy. However, the Staff of Authority

15204-469: The death of Empress Lü. In 178 BC, the kingdom passed to Wu You's son Wu Zhu ( 吳 著 , Wú Zhù ), for whom the names Wu Chai ( 吳 差 , Wú Chāi ) and Wu Chan ( 吳 產 , Wú Chǎn ) are alternatively used in some records. Wu Zhu reigned for twenty-one years, dying in 157 BC without male issue. After the extinction of this house, Emperor Jing granted Changsha to his son Liu Fa ( 劉 發 , Liú Fā ) in 155 BC. Fa's mother, Tang ( 唐 , Táng ),

15385-451: The development of local alcohol industry . Artifacts from Changsha noble tombs reveal advanced levels of artisanship. A plain-colored gauze gown discovered in the Mawangdui tomb, for example, measures 128 centimetres (50 in) long by 190 centimetres (75 in) wide but weights only 49 grams (1.7 oz) in total. The intact embroidered silk from Mawangdui shows intricate patterns of swirling clouds, with more than 20 dyes used in

15566-467: The dynasty's founding and are almost equal to each other. Ying Bu feared that he would experience the same fate (as Han Xin and Peng Yue) so he rebelled." Xiahou Ying then recommended Xue Gong to Emperor Gaozu. Xue Gong analysed to the emperor that Ying Bu would make three possible moves: 1. Attack and capture Wu , Chu , Qi , Lu , Yan and Zhao , and the Han dynasty would lose the Shandong region as

15747-498: The early Han dynasty together had a population of 717,433 living in 126,858 households, a five-fold increase from Jia Yi's estimation during the early Han period. In the early Han dynasty, the government structure of the kingdoms closely followed that of the Han central government , but differences remained. Except for the chancellor and grand tutor ( 太傅 , tàifù ), who were selected by the imperial court, all officials were appointed by

15928-617: The effectively independent King of Nanyue. This state of the Changsha–Nanyue border was confirmed in a map unearthed from the Mawangdui tombs. On the other hand, other preserved and unearthed texts have shown that there were two other commanderies actually controlled by the Changsha Kingdom: Wuling ( 武陵 , Wǔlíng ) and Guiyang ( 桂陽 , Guìyáng ). The first may have been granted by the imperial Han government;

16109-403: The emperor and his palace attendants, and for the supply of horses for the armed forces . His latter duty entailed the supervising of large breeding grounds of frontier pastures, tended by tens of thousands of government slaves . By the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) these contained 300,000 warhorses intended for use in campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation . Some of

16290-453: The emperor left the palace and hoisting colored standards to signal his return. The Court Architect ( Jiangzuo dajiang 將作大匠) was in charge of the construction, maintenance, and repair of imperial palace halls, government halls, temples, grave tumuli, buildings in funerary parks, roads leading out of the capital, and flood control works. His salary-rank was 2,000- dan . He directed the efforts of conscripted corvée laborers until this duty

16471-427: The emperor to send an army to attack Ying Bu and destroy him. Xiahou Ying consulted Xue Gong ( 薛公 ), a former lingyin of Chu , and asked him, "The emperor granted him a fief and the title of a vassal king, allowing him to enjoy luxuries and rule over thousands, why does he still want to rebel?" Xue Gong replied, " Peng Yue and Han Xin were executed in the past two years. The three of them contributed heavily to

16652-516: The emperor's authority. This autonomy was greatly diminished when the imperial court enacted reforms following the threats to central control like the Rebellion of the Seven States . The end of the Han dynasty came about during a time of civil, military and religious upheaval, which resulted in the period of Three Kingdoms . The highest officials in the central bureaucracy, who provided advisory, censorial, executive, and judicial roles in governing

16833-467: The emperor's entire safety was not entrusted to a single officer, the subordinates of the Minister of the Guards were given sole right to patrol the palaces' entrances and walls while the eunuchs guarded the emperor's private apartments and harem . Three of the five cadet corps commanded by the Minister of the Household were actually armed civilian nominees serving a period of probation before appointment to

17014-453: The emperor, also had an area of the palace separate from that of the emperor's private apartments, where the empress was expected to spend every fifth night with the emperor. Both the empress and the heir apparent received an income from the taxes of forty counties. She also had a Supervisor of the Household (ranked 2,000- dan ), and many other subordinates, either male eunuchs or female maids, who took care of domestic needs. The concubines of

17195-528: The emperor, official correspondence with Excellencies, senior ministers, provincial authorities, common people who submitted memorials to the throne , and non-Han-Chinese peoples within and outside the empire. Since the Masters of Writing were not eunuchs, and thus not allowed into the imperial harem, Emperor Wu established an all-eunuch office of secretaries for the inner palace, which was abolished in 29 BC. The Minister Steward had many subordinates, including

17376-515: The emperor, participate in provincial inspections, and conduct mourning ceremonies for recently deceased kings and marquesses while installing their successors. Internuncios ( Yezhe 謁者), led by a Supervisor of the Internuncios ( Yezhe puye 謁者僕射), were subordinates of the Minister of the Household who participated in state ceremonies, condoled on behalf of the emperor for recently deceased officials, inspected public works and military camps along

17557-406: The emperor. The emperor's role as supreme judge could be temporarily duplicated by any official he designated in times of emergency or in distant borderlands where central government had little influence. This entailed a symbolic conferral of power, which was embodied in the Staff of Authority ( Jiezhang 節杖). Roughly 2 m (6 ft) in height and decorated with ribbons, the Staff of Authority

17738-428: The emperor. During this period of time, Ying Bu held the title "King of Jiujiang". In c. August 203, Liu Bang appointed Ying Bu as a vassal king and granted him the title " King of Huainan ". In 196 BC, Ying Bu rebelled against the Han dynasty but was defeated and killed. Ying Bu was born in a family of commoners. In his childhood, a fortune teller once told him that he would become a convict first before becoming

17919-553: The empire's southern fringe, was one of the weakest among the kingdoms; however, it was the only one to survive beyond 190s BC. In 195 BC, Ying Bu , King of Huainan and son-in-law of Wu Rui, rebelled against the Han and was defeated. As Ying retreated south of the Yangtze River , the King of Changsha pretended to assist him in his escape to Nanyue but instead killed him in Cixiang ( 茲鄉 , Cíxiāng ) near Poyang. Wu Chen

18100-498: The empire, consisted of cabinet members known as the Excellencies , heads of large specialized ministries known as the Nine Ministers , and various metropolitan officials of the capital region. Distinguished salary-ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy, nobles of the imperial family, concubines of the harem, and military officers of the armed forces. Local government divisions, in descending order by size, were

18281-523: The empire. I sincerely hope you can join the alliance of King of Han. He'll grant you a fief larger than the current Huainan you have. As such, he sends me to present this plan to you and hope that you'll consider it." Ying Bu agreed but he kept silent about his defection. At the same time, Xiang Yu had sent a messenger to Huainan to request reinforcements from Ying Bu. Sui He called for the messenger and declared, "The King of Jiujiang has already joined Han. Why does he need to send troops to help Chu?" Ying Bu

18462-412: The empire; it was disbanded in 7 BC and its musicians transferred to the Minister of Ceremonies. When a Liu -family relative of an emperor—usually a princely son—was designated as his heir apparent , he was provided living quarters within the palace and a personal staff which was not disbanded until he became the next emperor. During Western Han, the staff had two divisions: one was led by educators of

18643-451: The establishment of new ancestral temples, reforms to the state religion, the monetary or tax systems, management of government monopolies on salt and iron (when they existed during Western Han), the introduction of new laws or the repeal of old ones, complex lawsuits, or whether or not to declare war on a foreign country or accept peaceful negotiation. Although the emperor could reject the decisions reached by his court conference, he did so at

18824-497: The exclusive right to modify the law code and issue new laws in the form of imperial edicts ( zhao 詔) and decrees ( ling 令). However, he often accepted the decisions and reforms suggested by his chief judicial minister, the Commandant of Justice. The emperor also acted as the supreme judge. Any lawsuits which a county administration, then commandery administration, and then Minister of Justice could not resolve were deferred to

19005-414: The export of iron ware to Nanyue, which angered Zhao Tuo, who then proclaimed himself Emperor of Nanyue and then twice invaded Changsha, occupying a few counties . Later, during Empress Lü's reign, the imperial court decided to launch a military campaign against Nanyue. However, in the hot and humid summer, a plague broke out in the Han army, hindering its advance. The campaign was eventually abandoned with

19186-515: The first Qin emperor's legitimacy to rule was ultimately decided by his ability to conquer others. However, by the time of Wang Mang 's (r. 9–23 AD) reign, the Mandate of Heaven was considered the only legitimate source of imperial authority. This concept was given greater prominence after the state officially sponsored the worship of Heaven over that of the Five Powers in 31 BC. Moreover,

19367-428: The foremost officials in central government who formed the cabinet during both Western and Eastern Han. For most of Western Han, the Excellencies were the Chancellor ( Chengxiang 丞相), the Imperial Counselor ( Yushi dafu 御史大夫), and the Grand Commandant ( Taiwei 太尉). The Great Commandant's post was irregularly filled, and it was retitled to Grand Marshal ( Da sima 大司馬) in 119 BC. In 8 BC, the post of Imperial Counselor

19548-603: The frontiers, and acted as diplomats to the semi-autonomous fiefs and non-Han-Chinese peoples along the borders. The Minister of the Guards ( Weiwei 衛尉) was also known as Commandant of the Guards), and briefly as the Prefect of the Palace Grandees ( Zhong da fuling 中大夫令) during Emperor Jing of Han 's reign (r. 157–141 BC) before reverting to the original title. This Minister was responsible for securing and patrolling

19729-463: The gory parts distributed to various nobles and vassal kings. Ying Bu was terrified and was worried that he would end up like Han Xin and Peng Yue, so he started gathering his forces and paying closer attention to happenings in the nearby areas. One of Ying Bu's favourite concubines fell sick and was sent for medical treatment. The physician who attended to her was a neighbour of a palace official called Ben He ( 賁赫 ). As Ying Bu's concubine often visited

19910-402: The grand tutor played a much more extensive role in a kingdom, as he supervised the king on behalf of the imperial government. Meanwhile, the duties of the court clerk are reminiscent of the Warring States , where the post was second only to the chancellor in status, rather than the Han central government—the same post in the imperial government was merely in charge of finance and affairs in

20091-479: The harem were subordinates of the empress and were ranked below her in fourteen grades by the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han (r. 49–33). However, the founder of Eastern Han abolished the fourteen salary-ranks in favor of three ranks with no definite salary; instead, the concubines were irregularly granted gifts. The chief concubine of Western Han, the Brilliant Companion, shared the same salary-rank as

20272-548: The heir apparent, known as the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent (ranked 2000– dan ) and Junior Tutor of the Heir Apparent (ranked 2000– dan ), the other led by a Supervisor of the Household (ranked 2,000- dan ). During Eastern Han, the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent lost his administrative role but remained the chief educator and was promoted in rank to Fully 2,000- dan ; the Junior Tutor remained an administrator with

20453-529: The highest priest in the land. By performing certain religious rites and rituals, the emperor acted as a sacred link between Heaven and Earth. Although the emperor held supreme power, he more often sought the advice of his cabinet and other ministers before making decisions and when revoking them. He often assembled leading officials for debates or discussions on policy, known as court conferences ( tingyi 廷議). Various issues were debated at these gatherings, such as installment of new emperors, enfeoffment of nobles,

20634-508: The historical geographer Zhou Zhenhe argues that the "Yuzhang" recorded in the Book of Han was simply a mistake for "Wuling", which would have been part of the original grant of the kingdom. Guiyang was likely created by the kings of Changsha at some point for defense against invasions from Nanyue. The reconstruction offered by Zhou and Tan Qixiang is that Changsha's northern border ran along modern Tongcheng , Songzi , and Gong'an counties;

20815-519: The issuing of coin currency through its imperial mint , which lasted from 113 BC until the end of the dynasty . The conscription system for commoners as non-professional soldiers was reduced in size in favor of a volunteer army and a substitution tax by Eastern Han. A small professional standing army existed throughout Western and Eastern Han. During times of crisis, the volunteer army increased in size, but large militias were raised and certain officer titles were revived for temporary use. During

20996-440: The king. As in the imperial government, the chancellor ( 相國 , xiàngguó , before 194 BC and 丞相 , chéngxiàng , thereafter) was the highest civil office and the leader of the government. However, the chancellor was not directly involved in the kingdom's everyday affairs, which were overseen by the court clerk ( 內史 , nèishǐ ). Compared to the central government, where the crown princes' tutors had little real authority,

21177-474: The kingdom and Han dynasty in general. The first king of Changsha, Wu Rui , was a Baiyue leader who had been the magistrate of Poyang County under the Qin dynasty (221 – 207 BC). He enjoyed high prestige among the local people and was known as "Lord of the Po" ( 番 君 , Pójūn ). In 209 BC , a peasant uprising triggered a wave of rebellions that resulted in the collapse of the Qin. After hearing news of

21358-401: The kingdom was reestablished for a member of the imperial family . However, the creation of this second kingdom coincided with the Rebellion of the Seven States and the subsequent reforms under Emperor Jing , and Changsha under the imperial family saw its autonomy greatly diminished. The kingdom was dissolved during Wang Mang 's usurpation (AD 9 – 23), briefly restored after the founding of

21539-482: The kingdom's government structure had become almost indistinguishable from that of a commandery in all but name. Agriculture in Changsha included a wide range of crops and animal species. Rice , the staple food in Changsha, was cultivated with a diverse range of varieties, while wheat , barley , common and foxtail millet , beans and hemp were also grown, as evidenced by seeds unearthed from tombs. Fish farming and animal husbandry provided non-staple food for

21720-458: The kingdom's southwestern border was in the vicinity of modern Chaling, Wugang and Quanzhou counties. From Emperor Wu's reign onward, 20 marquisates were created from Changsha. These marquisates were administered as parts of neighboring commanderies, further reducing the kingdom's territory. Changsha was sparsely populated compared to other parts of the Han Empire. The population primarily consisted of descendants of Chu colonizers, members of

21901-643: The last Qin emperor Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (the Qin capital), bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Xiang Yu later occupied Xianyang and divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms , each ruled by a vassal king. Ying Bu was named "King of Jiujiang" ( 九江王 ). In the fourth lunar month of 206 BC, the rulers of the Eighteen Kingdoms returned to their respective domains. Xiang Yu ostensibly promoted King Huai II of Chu to

22082-447: The latter claimed that he was ill and instead sent his subordinates and a few thousand troops to assist Xiang Yu. At the same time, Liu Bang (King of Han ) formed an alliance with five other kings and took advantage of Xiang Yu's absence to attack and seize the latter's capital Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu ). When Xiang Yu asked help from Ying Bu, the latter claimed that he was ill again and refused to aid Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu

22263-525: The leader of a bandit gang. In 209 BC, when Chen Sheng and Wu Guang started the Dazexiang Uprising to overthrow the Qin dynasty, Ying Bu joined rebel leader Wu Rui , his father-in-law, and rallied several thousand men. After the uprising was crushed by the Qin general Zhang Han , Ying Bu led his followers north to attack the Qin left and right flanks and defeated the enemy at Qingbo (清波; southwest of present-day Xincai County , Henan ), and then moved east. When Ying Bu learnt that Xiang Liang had amassed

22444-445: The making of the diverse colors. Glossily decorated lacquerware was manufactured a wide range of purposes, including dishes, furniture, and storage boxes. Iron was widely applied for agricultural and military use, and ironwares found in Changsha tombs include spades, pickaxes, daggers, spears , swords , axes, and coins . There were also records of tin mining in Changsha. Changsha nobility dressed similarly to contemporary nobles in

22625-399: The mission and brought 20 escorts to Huainan. Three days after reaching his destination, Sui He had yet to see Ying Bu, so he said to Ying Bu's advisor and henchmen, "The king refuses to see me because Chu is powerful and Han is weak. This is exactly the reason why I'm here. Why don't you allow me to meet him first? If what I've said is true, then that's what he wishes to hear. If what I've said

22806-567: The music and dancing that accompanied ceremonies. The Minister of the Household ( Guangluxun 光祿勳), also known as Superintendent of the Household and Supervisor of Attendants, was originally titled the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( Lang zhongling 郎中令) before 104 BC. He was responsible for the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks, and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. However, to ensure that

22987-677: The original salary-rank, yet many of his subordinates remained abolished. Since most buildings were constructed from wood, with ceramic roof tiles, a large workforce was needed to maintain buildings that fell into disrepair. The restoration of the Imperial University during Emperor Shun's (r. 125–144 AD) reign required 100,000 laborers to work for a year under the supervision of the Court Architect. The Colonel Director of Retainers ( Sili xiaowei 司隸校尉), also known as Colonel of Censure and Colonel Director of Convict-Laborers,

23168-501: The other two Excellencies (i.e. he was able to investigate the same officials in central and local government), who shared an advisory role to the emperor (policy suggestions could be submitted independently or jointly by all three cabinet members). His various bureaus handled appointment, promotion, and demotion of officials, population registers and agriculture, the upkeep of transportation facilities, post offices , and couriers , civil law cases, granary storage, and military affairs. He

23349-457: The palace and to reject improperly written memorials before submission to the Imperial Counselor. The Masters of Writing under the Minister Steward then processed these memorials before they were sent to the throne. The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's proximity to the emperor during Eastern Han allowed him to surpass the authority of his nominal superior, the Excellency of Works, yet his Western-Han-era power to inspect local provincial authorities

23530-473: The park outside Chang'an had the sole right to issue coinage throughout the empire. However, Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57 AD) abolished the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks and revived his post annually during autumn to conduct a ritual sacrifice. The imperial mint became the responsibility of the Minister of Finance and the imperial park located outside Eastern-Han Luoyang was administered by

23711-411: The philosophy of the scholar Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BC), which held that a dynasty's rule on earth was bound to greater cosmological cycles in the universe, was officially sponsored by the Han court from Emperor Wu's (r. 141–87 BC) reign onward. The emperor was expected to behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, lest he incur the wrath of Heaven and bring an end to his reign. He became

23892-615: The physician, Ben He used the opportunity to get close to her and offered her expensive gifts, and they had drinks at the physician's house. When the concubine returned home she praised Ben He in front of Ying Bu, saying that Ben He was a warm hearted man. Ying Bu asked her how she knew Ben He, and she told him everything. Ying Bu began to suspect that Ben He was having an affair with his concubine. Ben He became afraid when he heard that Ying Bu suspected him so he feigned illness and remained at home. Ying Bu became more angry and wanted to arrest Ben He. In desperation, Ben He accused Ying Bu of plotting

24073-583: The population; livestock such as horses, cattle and sheep were also exported to Nanyue. Mawangdui tombs, the early 2nd century BC burial complex of chancellor Li Cang and his family, are a particularly rich source of knowledge on the kingdom. They have remnants of domesticated animals including pigs, cattle, sheep, dogs and chickens, as well as game animals and fowl. Bamboo tablets recorded an assortment of dishes, with descriptions of multiple preparation techniques. Various types of alcoholic beverages , made from wheat, millet, and rice, were also discovered, indicating

24254-488: The position. Most often the successor chosen in this fashion was a minor, thus the empress dowager served as regent over the government. A high-status male relative, usually a father or brother, would assume control of the Imperial Secretariat. Even when an emperor reached his majority and became an active ruler, he often sought the advice and acceptance of the empress dowager on policy decisions; she also had

24435-405: The provinces to investigate possible wrongdoing on the part of local officials. The Imperial Counselor transmitted and received imperial edicts to and from the chancellery and also presented officials' memorials to the throne . During Western Han, the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's office was located within the walls of the palace. He had the authority to investigate attendants and eunuchs of

24616-508: The rest of Eastern Han. The exact salary figures for the Excellencies before 8 BC are unknown, although from that year forward they were given a 10,000- dan salary-rank, in addition to periodic gifts which further boosted their incomes. During Western Han, the Chancellor was the chief civil official. The duties of the chancellery were divided between a Right Chancellor (右丞相) and Left Chancellor (左丞相) between 196 and 180 BC. After 180 BC,

24797-460: The resulting majority opinion. If the attending ministers were split into opposing factions of roughly equal size, the chancellor would listen to the positions of both sides and count the exact number of ministers who supported either opposing opinion. The Palace Writers ( Zhongshu 中書) were originally palace eunuch secretaries ( Zhongshu guan 中書官) from Emperor Wu's reign until 29 BC, when they were staffed by regular officials. They usurped much of

24978-481: The right to appoint officials with salaries higher than 400 dan , which covered everyone from ministers in the royal court to county magistrates. Furthermore, changes were made to the government hierarchy of kingdoms. A number of offices were abolished, including the royal secretary, minister of justice ( 廷尉 , tíngwèi ), minister of the royal clan ( 宗正 , zōngzhèng ), steward ( 少府 , shǎofǔ ), and court scholar ( 博士 , bóshì ). Of particular importance

25159-440: The right to override his decisions. The empress dowager was protected by the Minister of the Guards, yet if her faction—the consort clan — was removed from power, he was then responsible for keeping her under house arrest . The post of Grand Tutor ( Taifu 太傅), although given the highest civil status below the emperor, was not regularly occupied. The role was considered an honorary rather than substantive office. In Western Han,

25340-414: The risk of alienating his leading ministers. More often than not, he was forced to accept the majority consensus of his ministers, whose individual opinions were equally tallied regardless of their standing or salary-rank. When the emperor died without officially appointing a successor, his widow, the empress dowager , had the sole right to appoint one of the late emperor's surviving sons or relatives to

25521-504: The tallies were collected and no-one was allowed to enter unless they breached the gates by force. The guards were conscripted peasants who served for a year's term as soldiers and were invited to attend a celebratory feast hosted by the emperor before demobilization. The Minister Coachman ( Taipu 太僕), also known as the Grand Coachman, was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coachhouses for

25702-514: The time, Qin forces were attacking another insurgent state, Zhao . The Zhao king Zhao Xie ( 趙歇 ) requested aid from Chu. King Huai II ordered Song Yi , Xiang Yu (Xiang Liang's nephew) and Fan Zeng to lead an army to rescue Zhao Xie. Xiang Yu accused Song Yi of treason, killed the latter and took control of the army. Ying Bu was originally under Song Yi, so he became Xiang Yu's subordinate after King Huai II approved Xiang Yu's command. In 207 BC, Chu forces led by Xiang Yu, Ying Bu and others defeated

25883-447: The uprising failed, he became part of a rebel force led by Xiang Liang . He assisted Xiang Liang's nephew and successor Xiang Yu in overthrowing the Qin dynasty. After the fall of Qin, he initially fought on Xiang Yu's side in the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), a power struggle for supremacy over China between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) . However, later, he defected to Liu Bang's side and helped Liu defeat Xiang Yu and become

26064-479: The uprising, Wu Rui organized a mostly Baiyue army in support of the rebels. His forces soon grew to become a major faction in the civil war that ensued. In 207 BC , Rui's army joined forces with the Han leader Liu Bang (the future Emperor Gaozu, at the time one of the rebel generals) and marched to the Guanzhong Plain , where they received the surrender of Ziying , the last ruler of Qin. One year later,

26245-407: The value of the officials' standard annual salary. Aged officials were often retired from service and given a pension. Below is a table outlining salaries measured in coin cash, unhusked grain, and husked grain for the highest to lowest-paid officials in Han officialdom: Qin Shi Huang , the first ruler of the Qin dynasty , established China's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying

26426-401: The walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. The duties of his ministry were carried out by prefects , one of whom controlled the gates where nominees for office were received and officials sent memorials to the throne. To control and monitor the flow of traffic through the palace gates, the prefects used a complex passport system involving wooden and metal tallies. During an emergency,

26607-404: The western border along modern Longshan , Zhenyuan , and Jingzhou counties; and the eastern border along modern Gao'an , Yichuan , Lianhua , and Chaling counties. Changsha's southern frontier with Nanyue was approximately the modern southern border of Hunan. When Emperor Jing granted Changsha to his son Liu Fa, the kingdom's territory was reduced to Changsha Commandery alone. Consequently,

26788-441: Was 600- dan or higher. The emperor also appointed the leading officials at the provincial, commandery, and county levels of government. Appointees to office were usually recommended men from the commanderies, family relatives of high officials, or student graduates of the Imperial University . This institution was established in 124 BC, and provided a Confucian -based education for those entering civil service . The emperor had

26969-491: Was Linxiang and located within the present-day city of Changsha . The new kingdom helped the Han dynasty consolidate control over the Chu heartland and served as a buffer state against the independent realm of Nanyue founded by the Qin general Zhao Tuo in present-day Guangdong . Rui died shortly after moving to his new territory, and the title passed to his son, Wu Chen ( 吳 臣 , Wú Chén ). Wu Chen reigned for eight years. The kings of Changsha were staunch supporters of

27150-466: Was a servant of the Emperor's concubine Cheng ( 程 , Chéng ) and had given birth to Fa after the intoxicated emperor had mistaken her for his favorite concubine. Consequently, Fa had the lowest status among the Emperor's 14 sons and was enfeoffed in Changsha, far away from the capital Chang'an and the Central Plain . Changsha Kingdom was held by the Liu family until early 1st century AD, when

27331-562: Was abolished in favor of a Grand Excellency of Works ( da sikong 大司空), and by 1 BC the Chancellor's post was abolished and replaced by the Grand Excellency Over the Masses ( da situ 大司徒). On 8 June, 51 AD the prefix "Grand" (大) was removed from the titles of the Excellency over the Masses and Excellency of Works, while the Grand Marshal was reinstated with the original title of Grand Commandant, and would remain so for

27512-401: Was adopted from the previous government structure of the Qin dynasty. Ying Bu Ying Bu (died November or December 196 BC ) was a Chinese military general, monarch, politician, and warlord who lived during the early Han dynasty . He was a native of Lu County (六縣; present-day Lu'an , Anhui ). In his early life under the Qin dynasty , Ying Bu was convicted and sentenced to qing (黥;

27693-433: Was afraid that he would be killed so he fled to Han territory. Ying Bu wanted to meet Liu Bang after he arrived in Han. Liu Bang was sitting on his bed and washing his feet when Ying Bu came to see him. Ying Bu was furious because he felt that Liu Bang was treating him with contempt, and he regretted joining Han and wanted to commit suicide. When Ying Bu was shown to his living quarters, he was surprised to see that everything

27874-423: Was also able to recommend nominees to the emperor for recruitment to the senior roles in central government. The Chancellor was held responsible for the actions of officials he recommended and appointed, yet he could also punish inadequate officials without the emperor's consent. Whenever the emperor was absent from a court conference but sought its advice, he relied on the chancellor to direct it and inform him of

28055-500: Was also given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers: the Minister of Ceremonies, Minister of the Household, and Minister of the Guards. The Excellency over the Masses (also known as the Minister over the Masses) shared the same censorial and advisory roles as the other two Excellencies, the Excellency of Works and Grand Commandant. Like his previous counterpart, the Chancellor, he must have been responsible for drawing up

28236-609: Was designation for an eminent official originating from the Chu state, but was not seen elsewhere in the Han dynasty; the post may have merged into or been replaced by that of the chancellor. Under the Wu family, the Changsha Kingdom was administered at two levels, the commandery and the county . As described above , the state is believed to have consisted of the three commanderies of Changsha, Wuling, and Guiyang and to have claimed further commanderies under Nanyue's control. The three actual commanderies were divided into over 40 counties. Under

28417-399: Was displeased with Ying Bu and sent a messenger to summon the latter but Ying Bu became afraid and refused to go. Xiang Yu did not attack Ying Bu because he faced the threats of Qi and Zhao , and Liu Bang in the west, and also because he felt that Ying Bu was a talent and wanted the latter to remain on his side. In late 205 BC, Xiang Yu defeated Liu Bang at the Battle of Pengcheng and Liu

28598-628: Was equal to 100 coins and one hu of husked grain was equal to 160 coins, the conversion ratio for unhusked grain to husked grain was 10 to 6 (see table below). The most senior officials in central government earned a 10,000- dan salary. The officials who oversaw nine specialized ministries each earned the Fully 2,000- dan rank, while the magistrate of a county earned a 600- dan rank. Occasionally, emperors bestowed luxurious gifts of wine, foodstuffs, and silk clothes upon high officials. These gifts, in some generous cases, could equal as much as half

28779-407: Was equivalent to 2000– dan . The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed a large imperial hunting park located outside Chang'an, including its palaces, rest stops, granaries, and cultivated patches of fruit and vegetable gardens, which, along with game meat , provided food for the emperor's household. He also collected taxes from commoners using the park's grounds and transmitted these funds to

28960-504: Was eventually left with around 100 men and they retreated to south of the Yangtze River . Ying Bu was Wu Rui's son-in-law, so Wu Chen (吳臣; Wu Rui's son), who would posthumously be known as King Cheng of Changsha ( 長沙成王 ), sent a messenger to Ying Bu, lying that he would help Ying Bu escape to Nanyue . Ying Bu believed Wu Chen and followed the messenger to Poyang ( 番陽 ), where he was killed by peasants in Zi Village ( 茲鄉 ). Ying Bu

29141-750: Was for personal gain and he did not care about the people and his descendants. Gaozu put Xue Gong in charge of 1,000 households and installed his son Liu Chang ( 劉長 ) as "Prince of Huainan" to replace Ying Bu. Gaozu then personally led an army to suppress Ying Bu's rebellion. Before Ying Bu rebelled, he told his men, "The emperor is old and hates going to war. He'll definitely not come. Even if he sends any of his generals, among them only Han Xin and Peng Yue are dangerous, but since both of them are already dead there's nothing to fear." Ying Bu moved east to attack Jing ( 荊 ) and in Fuling ( 富陵 ) he defeated and killed Liu Gu ( 劉賈 ), Prince of Jing ( 荊王 ). He then crossed

29322-404: Was forced to retreat to Yu ( 虞 ). Liu Bang told his followers, "People like you are not worthy to discuss great plans with me." One of Liu Bang's advisors, Sui He ( 隨何 ), asked why, and Liu Bang replied, "Who can help me go to Huainan and persuade (Ying Bu) to betray Chu, and keep Xiang Yu occupied in Qi for several months, then I can easily take control of the empire." Sui He volunteered for

29503-531: Was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers: the Minister of the Imperial Clan, Minister of Finance, and Minister Steward. The Nine Ministers, who were supervised by the Three Excellencies but not direct subordinates of the cabinet, each headed a specialized government ministry and held a salary-rank of Fully 2,000- dan . Along with the tripartite cabinet members, these ministers usually attended court conferences. The Minister of Ceremonies ( Taichang 太常) also known as Grand Master of Ceremonies,

29684-470: Was given responsibility for the emperor's personal finances during Western Han, yet this responsibility was transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han. Although he was not a castrated eunuch , many of his subordinates were, since his ministry managed the imperial harem housing concubines . His secretaries were headed by a Prefect of the Masters of Writing ( Shangshu ling 尚書令). The secretaries were responsible for relaying all written messages to

29865-470: Was given the specialized role of overseeing public works projects throughout the empire. The Excellency of Works was responsible for the construction of city walls , towns, canals, irrigation ditches, dykes and dams, and other structural engineering projects. The Court Architect supervised only imperial building projects. The Excellency of Works made annual reports to the throne about the progress of local administrations' conduct of construction projects. He

30046-554: Was likely higher than the 10,000- dan rank. The Grand Tutor was nominally in charge of providing a young emperor with moral guidance, but it is doubtful that this role was ever taken seriously or formally conducted. The post often served to deliberately block someone from obtaining a more important post, such as one of the Excellencies, while Grand Tutors were usually elder statesmen chosen for their age rather than merits (so they would die off quickly after being appointed). The Excellencies ( gong , literally translated as " dukes ") were

30227-411: Was often granted to an official with a specific errand, such as acting on behalf of the emperor as ambassador to a foreign country, appointing civilians to office, or immediately promoting a deserving military officer on the field of battle. Moreover, it granted its bearer the authority to sentence criminals and political rebels with execution without notifying the court first. During the Qin dynasty ,

30408-457: Was originally called the Director of Retainers ( Sili 司隸). His task was to supervise 1,200 convicts in their construction of roads and canals. In 91 BC, an unsuccessful five-day rebellion in Chang'an was instigated by Crown Prince Liu Ju (d. 91 BC) and his mother Empress Wei Zifu (d. 91 BC), who had been accused of witchcraft and black magic . For this event, Emperor Wu prefixed "colonel" to

30589-538: Was removed from the Colonel in 45 BC, limiting his powers to inspection, investigation, and impeachment and he was distinguished from a provincial Inspector only by a higher salary-rank. The office of Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished in 9 BC, and reinstated once more as the Director of Retainers in 7 BC. He was now a subordinate of the new Excellency of Works and supervised convicts in public works projects, like his early Western Han counterpart. In Eastern Han,

30770-487: Was removed. The Minister Steward—who was supervised by the Imperial Counselor (and later Excellency of Works)—became the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's new superior by early Eastern Han. The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk also managed the Imperial Library in both Western and Eastern Han, this duty being transferred to a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies in 159 AD. The Grand Commandant (also known as

30951-531: Was responsible for the military arsenal as well as disaster relief efforts during floods and fires. The Bearer of the Mace had a large staff of subordinates during the Western Han, whose posts were abolished or transferred elsewhere during the Eastern Han. This included the abolition of the Captains of the Standard Bearers, and the emperor's entourage became responsible for clearing the roadways when

31132-515: Was retained by Eastern Han, while the third Grand Commandant of Eastern Han appointed in 51 AD transformed his ministry into a primarily civilian one. Although the Eastern-Han Grand Commandant shared the same salary-rank as the other two Excellencies who were nominally considered his equals, he was nonetheless given de facto privilege as the most senior civil official. However, his censorial jurisdiction now overlapped with

31313-743: Was similar to Liu Bang's and he was delighted. He then sent his men to Jiujiang and learnt that Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo had taken control of his former troops and killed his family. His men also found several of his former followers and brought them back to Han. Liu Bang put Ying Bu in command of some troops. In 203 BC, Liu Bang instated Ying Bu as " King of Huainan " ( 淮南王 ). Later that year, Ying Bu led an army to attack Jiujiang and conquered many cities. He entered Jiujiang together with Liu Gu ( 劉賈 ) and persuaded Zhou Yin ( 周殷 ) to defect from Chu to Han. Ying Bu and Zhou Yin led their armies to join Liu Bang in attacking Xiang Yu and eventually defeated Xiang at

31494-528: Was startled. The Chu messenger was surprised and left. Sui He then said to Ying Bu, "It's now a fact (that you've joined Han), so you should kill the Chu messenger and stop him from returning to Chu. You should also ally with Han as soon as possible.", and Ying Bu heeded his advice. When Xiang Yu learnt that Ying Bu had turned against him, he sent Xiang Sheng ( 項聲 ) and Long Ju to attack Huainan while he remained behind to attack Xiayi ( 下邑 ). Months later Long Ju defeated Ying Bu and conquered Jiujiang. Ying Bu

31675-508: Was succeeded by his son Wu Hui ( 吳 回 , Wú Huí ). Hui reigned for seven years, and was succeeded by his son Wu You ( 吳 右 , Wú Yòu ), whose name is also recorded as Wu Ruo ( 吳 若 , Wú Ruò ). At the time, the Han dynasty was under Emperor Hui and Empress Lü , who favored lenient laws and political views of the Huang–Lao school of philosophy. Changsha was able to develop under relative peace. In 183 BC, however, Empress Lü banned

31856-444: Was the abolition of the steward, as this move deprived the kings of their fiscal control over the fief. Many remaining offices were demoted in rank, and lesser officials were reduced in number. The titles of the chancellor and tutor were shortened to simply xiàng ( 相 ) and fù ( 傅 ) to distinguish them from their imperial equivalents. Later, in 8 BC, the court clerk was abolished and the chancellor took over his duties. By then,

32037-414: Was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors , at the imperial court. Alongside the Minister of the Imperial Clan, his ministry oversaw the inheritance of titles and fiefs by condoling on behalf of the emperor at kings' funerals and memorializing the posthumous names of kings and marquises. The Minister Herald's office received the annual reports from

32218-413: Was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars . The role's title was changed to Upholder of Ceremonies ( Fengchang 奉常) from 195 to 144 BC before reverting to the original title. Although his main concern was to link the emperor with the supernatural world and Heaven , he was also given the task of setting educational standards for

32399-427: Was the head of the government administration. His rule was virtually absolute , although civil officials, representing the competing interests of different state organs, scrutinized his decisions. Although the Grand Commandant had a nominal role as commander-in-chief, the emperor served as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The emperor had the sole right to appoint central government officials whose salary-rank

32580-413: Was the supreme civil-appointed judge for cases deferred to the capital from provincial lawsuits. His judicial powers, however, were similar to those of the Chancellor. He could recommend changes to the law code and the granting of general amnesties to those charged with crimes. His ministry was responsible for maintaining the Imperial Prison, where trials were conducted, and carrying out executions . It

32761-472: Was transferred to the ministry of the newly created Excellency of Works in 8 BC. The Court Architect's subordinates were responsible for gathering timber for carpenters and stone for masons. Although his office existed at the establishment of Eastern Han, it was abolished in 57 AD and his duties were transferred to an Internuncio in the Ministry of the Household. However, the post was reinstated in 76 AD with

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