Jean-Antoine Chaptal, comte de Chanteloup (5 June 1756 – 29 July 1832) was a French chemist , physician , agronomist , industrialist , statesman, educator and philanthropist .
113-727: Chaptal was involved in the early industrialization in France under Napoleon and during the Bourbon Restoration . He was a founder and first president in 1801 of the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry and an organizer of industrial expositions held in Paris in 1801 and subsequent years. He compiled a study surveying the condition and needs of French industry in the early 1800s. Chaptal published practical essays
226-470: A Bulletin to encourage discoveries useful to industry and new products. Closely related to this initiative, Chaptal resumed François de Neufchâteau's plan for periodic expositions in Paris of the products of industry. The first Exposition des produits de l'industrie française had been held on the Champs-de-Mars in 1798 (110 exhibits); under Chaptal's guidance, the number of exhibitors increased for
339-691: A central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself with a new emphasis on personal piety that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education: Public education was centralised, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the national educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have
452-507: A chemical factory at Montpellier. The enterprise involved manufacturing sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric and other acids, alum, white lead and soda, among other substances. By 1787 Montpellier became a center of innovation for the production of industrial chemicals in France. Chaptal reported regularly on his studies in chemistry applied to industry and agriculture for the Société Royale des Sciences de Montpellier . He communicated with
565-460: A chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches , being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris , France, by passing chlorine gas through
678-579: A chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellent to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup , and prominent liberals for a tax strike. At the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned
791-794: A coalition of European powers defeated him in the War of the Sixth Coalition , ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The First Bourbon Restoration lasted from about 6 April 1814. In July 1815 the First French Empire was succeeded by the Kingdom of France. This Kingdom existed until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. At the peace Congress of Vienna ,
904-730: A considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires . Much more controversial was the introduction of the Jesuits , who set up a network of colleges for elite youth outside the official university system. The Jesuits were noted for their loyalty to the Pope and gave much less support to Gallican traditions. Inside and outside the Church they had enemies, and the king ended their institutional role in 1828. New legislation paid an indemnity to royalists whose lands had been confiscated during
1017-400: A critical role in training the elite. The aristocracy: Conservatism was bitterly split into the returning old aristocracy and the new elites arising under Napoleon after 1796. The old aristocracy was eager to regain its land, but felt no loyalty to the new regime. The newer elite, the " noblesse d'empire ", ridiculed the older group as an outdated remnant of a discredited regime that had led
1130-525: A first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore flag with the white flag , the titling of Louis as the "XVIII" (as successor to Louis XVII , who never ruled) and as "King of France" rather than "King of the French", and
1243-714: A lengthy memoir on the high price of coal in France that provoked a serious government inquiry into the coal tariff of 1816 and its benefits for the Anzin Coal Company in the Department of Nord. In 1818, with the Duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, and Paris bankers Benjamin Delessert, Casimir Perier and others, Chaptal helped to found the first French savings bank, the Caisse d'Épargne et de Prévoyance de Paris. In 1819 he
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#17327807997581356-719: A liberal majority within the Chamber of Deputies. He was ready for stark action and made his move after a final no-confidence vote by the liberal house majority, in March 1830. He set about to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. These decrees, known as the "Four Ordinances", dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, suspended the liberty of the press, excluded the more liberal commercial middle-class from future elections, and called for new elections. Claude-Louis Berthollet Claude Louis Berthollet ( French pronunciation: [klod lwi bɛʁtɔlɛ] , 9 December 1748 – 6 November 1822)
1469-545: A minimum. The ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII , and against the Liberal Spanish Government , fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to
1582-552: A new industrial order in France that would bring scientists, business leaders and government officials together had to give way. Chaptal was called back during the Hundred Days (March–June, 1815) to serve as Napoleon's Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry. Shortly after, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena. Chaptal temporarily returned to his Chanteloup estate when Louis XVIII assumed
1695-404: A poor administrator. He was replaced after six weeks by Napoleon's younger brother, Lucien Bonaparte. Chaptal was then moved into position, first with appointment to Napoleon's Council of State, then acting Minister of Interior (6 November 1800), and finally confirmed in the position (21 January 1801). Chaptal remained in this office until his resignation on 6 August 1804. When Chaptal took over at
1808-493: A prefect appointed by Paris. The thicket of overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardised legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The church: The Revolutionary governments had confiscated all the lands and buildings of the Catholic Church , selling them to innumerable middle-class buyers, and it
1921-438: A relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded
2034-489: A second large chemicals industry near Paris at Ternes, an enterprise managed after 1808 by his son, Jean-Baptiste Chaptal (1782–1833). By 1795, at the newly established École Polytechnique in Paris, Chaptal shared the teaching of courses in pure and applied chemistry with Claude-Louis Berthollet . In 1798, Chaptal was elected a member of the prestigious Chemistry Section of the Institut de France . He became president of
2147-530: A series of bad harvests 1827–1830. Workers living on the margin were very hard-pressed, and angry that the government paid little attention to their urgent needs. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord , and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henry V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies,
2260-409: A similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie , the French equivalent of the carbonari . In the 1824 election , another large majority was secured. Louis XVIII died on 16 September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X . The accession to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with
2373-699: A solution of sodium hypochlorite as a modern bleaching agent. Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires , near Annecy , then part of the Duchy of Savoy , in 1749. He started his studies at Chambéry and then in Turin where he graduated in medicine. Berthollet's great new developments in works regarding chemistry made him, in a short period of time, an active participant of the Academy of Science in 1780. Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised
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#17327807997582486-402: A solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as " Eau de Javel " ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO 3 ), is known as Berthollet's Salt . Berthollet first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia , in 1785. Berthollet
2599-513: A way for Chaptal to keep up-to-date with discoveries in pure science. Napoleon named Chaptal Count of the Empire (1808) and Count of Chanteloup (1810). Chaptal was called to Paris when the French economy experienced a downturn in 1810–1811. Napoleon brought in Chaptal as his key consultant for a special Conseil d'Administration du commerce et des manufactures (6 June 1810). The other members were
2712-474: A year in direct taxes. The king was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed all public officials, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was relatively liberal, choosing many centrist cabinets. Louis XVIII died in September 1824 and
2825-528: The Aide-toi, which backed liberals, constitutionnels , and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists). The new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac , who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting
2938-524: The Chamber of Deputies affirmed Louis Phillipe d'Orleans as King of the French, ushering in the July Monarchy . Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand , who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for
3051-653: The Committee of Public Safety of the National Convention in Paris. As a consequence, he was arrested, imprisoned, and in danger of being guillotined. Fortunately for Chaptal, his value to the nation as an industrial chemist was deemed sufficient to excuse his politics, in part because the revolutionary armies required gunpowder. In the Spring of 1794, by order of Lazare Carnot , the Minister of War, Chaptal
3164-482: The Egyptian Expedition together in 1798–1799. Berthollet could vouch for Chaptal's remarkable abilities and dedication to using science for the advancement of agriculture, commerce and industry. Napoleon was "prejudiced in favour of men of science" for positions in his government. Napoleon's first Minister of Interior (1799) was Berthollet's friend, Pierre-Simon Laplace , a scientist and mathematician and
3277-542: The French conquest of Algeria ; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early July. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution . However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems. Charles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in
3390-425: The July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie. A major reason was a sharp rise in food prices , caused by
3503-654: The Société des amis de la liberté de la presse ; Choiseul-Stainville , Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera , which worked within the confines of legislation banning the unauthorized meetings of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (associated with Le Globe ) and included members such as Guizot , Rémusat , and Barrot . Pamphlets were sent out which evaded
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3616-477: The duc de Reichstadt , remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand , but also Hugo , Lamartine , Vigny , and Nodier , rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to
3729-415: The École de Médicine given by Jean-Baptiste-Michel Bucquet . He returned to Montpellier in 1780 to a salaried chair in chemistry at the university. Chaptal then wrote Mémoires de chimie (1781) reporting his early studies in chemistry. In 1781, he married Anne-Marie Lajard, the daughter of a rich cotton merchant at Montpellier. With his wife's dowry, and capital supplied by his uncle, he then established
3842-622: The Army and foreign affairs. In April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne, the brother and heir of the executed Louis XVI. A constitution was drafted: the Charter of 1814 . It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogatives for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs
3955-475: The Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. Administration: First, France was now highly centralised, with all important decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganised and made uniform, dividing the nation into more than 80 départements which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by
4068-542: The Bourbons were treated politely by the victorious monarchies, but had to give up nearly all the territorial gains made by revolutionary and Napoleonic France since 1789. Unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime , the Restoration Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy , with some limits on its power. The new king, Louis XVIII, accepted the vast majority of reforms instituted from 1792 to 1814. Continuity
4181-619: The British under Napoleon. The French expeditionary army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis , was led by the duc d'Angoulême , the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cádiz , ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in
4294-460: The Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting . The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as
4407-617: The Controller General's department in Paris in 1782 regarding his projects for bottle-making, dyeing and the manufacture of artificial soda. His articles were published by the Académie Royale des Sciences and in the Annales de chimie . In 1790, Chaptal published the scientific treatise, the Ėléments de chimie (3 vols, Montpellier , 1790). His treatise introduced the term " nitrogen ". Reflecting later in his life on
4520-459: The Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to proliferate, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to Saint-Omer , was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army. By the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as
4633-606: The Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror , largely in the south, when unofficial groups supporting the monarchy sought revenge against those who had aided Napoleon's return: about 200–300 were killed, while thousands fled. About 70,000 government officials were dismissed. The pro-Bourbon perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which
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4746-772: The Legion of Honor and an important place in the Senate. Chaptal wrote to Napoleon that he wanted to return to his scientific endeavors. In 1802, Chaptal purchased the Château de Chanteloup and its extensive grounds in Touraine, near Amboise. He raised merino sheep and experimented there in his later years on a model farm for the cultivation of sugar beets . At Chanteloup, Chaptal wrote his applied science reports, entertained notables and made himself available for consultations. He had chemical factories there at Ternes and Nanterre. Chaptal
4859-699: The Ministers of Interior and Foreign Affairs, plus the Director General of Customs, Jean-Baptiste Collin de Sussy, Napoleon's " douanier par excellence ." In addition, two sixty-member advisory councils of leading manufacturers and merchants were organized (7 June 1810) and attached to the Ministry of Interior, then under Count Montalivet: a Conseil général des Manufactures and a Conseil général de Commerce. The advisory councils of manufacturers and merchants had no influence on Napoleon. Chaptal's vision of
4972-437: The Ministry of Interior, ten years of Revolution and war had produced much disruption. Chaptal's work focussed on reconstruction and reorganization across multiple accumulated civic and infrastructure problems. Chaptal worked to design and implement a fundamentally new administrative structure and a new primary and secondary educational system. Chaptal created a Bureau of Statistics for his ministry to gather basic data from each of
5085-733: The Netherlands, predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1820 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. Claude-Louis Berthollet's 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique , published with colleagues Antoine Lavoisier , Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau , and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy ,
5198-636: The Restoration was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux , Marseille , and Lyon , helped reassure the Allies. Louis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen , granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814 , which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role
5311-536: The Revolution in France, Chaptal wrote: "In the widespread confusion and flood of all passions, the wise man will consider carefully the role he must play; it will appear to him equally dangerous in the midst of such agitation to remain either inactive or to participate." Chaptal initially, he welcomed the Revolution. But in 1793 he determined to lead opposition in Montpellier against the percieved extremism of
5424-457: The Revolution. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente ) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately to their original investment, and that
5537-416: The actions of préfects , who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and
5650-688: The application of scientific principles to the cultivation of land, the Chimie appliquée à l'agriculture (1823) He lived long enough to witness the Revolution of 1830 that brought Louis Philippe I to the throne. He was 76 years old when he died in 1832. His name is one of the 72 names of famous French scientists engraved on the Eiffel Tower in Paris . Bourbon Restoration in France Defunct Defunct The Second Bourbon Restoration
5763-441: The army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports. Napoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba . On his Route Napoléon , most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis fled from Paris to Ghent on 19 March. After Napoleon
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#17327807997585876-404: The body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans , to power. There is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled
5989-501: The budget of the Conservatory of Arts and Sciences. Chaptal was a member of national and international scientific societies. In 1819 he was named by Louis XVIII to the Restoration's Chamber of Peers. In 1819, Chaptal reflected on his career: If I might be permitted to speak for myself, I would say that I have lived in workshops ( ateliers ) and in the midst of artists for forty years; that I have created important businesses; that
6102-607: The censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election . In April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard . The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece and daughter in law, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine . Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response,
6215-429: The chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816 . Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy, hoping to reconcile
6328-552: The conservative Bourbons. Between 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the revolution. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops . In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners , kept
6441-557: The departments on population and the condition of agriculture, commerce and industry. Chaptal sponsored the formation of Councils of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce in each of France's departments (1801); Chambers of Commerce were reestablished in 23 of the largest cities (1802) and Chambres Consultatives des Arts et Manufactures were organized in 150 of the smaller urban areas (1803). Chaptal's believed that government should "protect and encourage industry, open new markets for its products and defend it against undue foreign competition." Chaptal
6554-443: The formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye . Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose
6667-407: The future Charles X, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras. Richelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot , were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give
6780-633: The general administration of commerce, agriculture and industry was conferred on me during my ministry; that the sessions of the Académie des Sciences , and those of the Société d'Encouragement which I presided over since its founding, allowed me to see and judge every day the progress and state . . . of production in France and often worldwide. In the 1820s Chaptal's son experienced financial ruin. To cover his son's debts due to business speculations, Chaptal sold Chanteloup and his home in Paris. During his last years he resided in an apartment in Paris at No.8 rue Grenelle. In this decade, Chaptal wrote his study of
6893-450: The government continued to consolidate its position. By 1820, the opposition liberals —who, with the ultras, made up half the chamber—proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. In February 1820, the assassination by a Bonapartist of the Duc de Berry , the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive,
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#17327807997587006-517: The government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824. This only inflamed the opposition even more, and the bill was withdrawn. The Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats , which sponsored Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with other opponents of press censorship (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form
7119-480: The government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia . France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar . Polignac also initiated
7232-520: The institutions, of the Ancien régime . Exiled supporters of the monarchy returned to France but were unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution . Exhausted by the Napoleonic Wars , the nation experienced a period of internal and external peace, stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialization. Following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Napoleon Bonaparte became ruler of France. After years of expansion of his French Empire by successive military victories,
7345-480: The king retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not pursue his policies with
7458-428: The medical school and rebuilding his chemicals industry. He estimated his losses because of the Revolution at 500,000 francs, almost all of his fortune. In 1798 he decided to move to Paris, leaving his business enterprises in Montpellier to his long-time partner, Étienne Bérard. Captal was elected to the Institut (24 May 1798) and became a member of the editorial board of the Annales de chimie . He then began to build up
7571-439: The militia in July 1816. Owing to tension between the King's government and the ultra-royalist Chamber of Deputies, the latter began to assert their rights. After they attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget, the government conceded that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament. In September 1816,
7684-490: The monarchy with the French Revolution and power with liberty . The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering , and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on
7797-409: The monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux (the lands confiscated by the revolution) by the Catholic Church and the returning émigrés' attempts to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill-feeling towards Louis included
7910-412: The nation to disaster. Both groups shared a fear of social disorder, but the level of distrust as well as the cultural differences were too great, and the monarchy too inconsistent in its policies, for political cooperation to be possible. The returning old aristocracy recovered much of the land they had owned directly. However, they lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and
8023-448: The new law, leading to a sharp rise in its value. On 29 May 1825 the Coronation of Charles X took place at Reims Cathedral , the traditional site of French coronations . In 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture , at least for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberals and the press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. Their vociferous criticism prompted
8136-457: The next three expositions held at the Louvre in 1801, 1802 and 1806. Napoleon was in attendance with Chaptal for the distribution of awards at the 1801 exposition (229 exhibits). Emmanuel-Anatole Chaptal (1861–1943) wrote that his great-grandfather was "the voice of commerce, agriculture and industry" for Napoleon. Chaptal resigned as Minister of Interior on August 6, 1804. Napoleon awarded Chaptal
8249-466: The official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head. The Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While
8362-530: The peasants were no longer under their control. The pre-Revolutionary aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative and supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Citizens' rights: Public anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but
8475-471: The peasants' biens nationaux , and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801 . However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a "concession and grant", given "by the free exercise of our royal authority". After
8588-508: The place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicisation of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by
8701-492: The political establishment was relatively stable until the subsequent reign of Charles X. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics. Throughout the Bourbon Restoration, France experienced a period of stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialisation. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which
8814-439: The political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses. By 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold
8927-459: The public good. Chaptal was proud of the 1801 establishment of the Société d'Encouragement pour l'industrie nationale , patterned after the successful English society founded in London in 1754, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. Chaptal was the president of the new French association. The society was financed by member subscriptions. It offered prizes and published
9040-502: The ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811, but it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor. Berthollet
9153-426: The redistribution was just. The final law allocated state funds of 988 million francs for compensation ( le milliard des émigrés ), financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs at 3% interest. Around 18 million francs were paid per year. Unexpected beneficiaries of the law were some one million owners of biens nationaux , the old confiscated lands, whose property rights were now confirmed by
9266-673: The reputation of being "more royalist than the king". The legislature threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing judgement against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil servants, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who " had nothing at all to do with the new France", was appointed Prime Minister . The chambre introuvable , meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold
9379-552: The right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. Also, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and
9492-404: The same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers . This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X. While the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought
9605-505: The section in 1802 soon after Napoleon appointed him Minister of Interior (6 November 1800). Napoleon's coup d'état of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799) lead to the establishment of the Consulate (1799–1804) and opened up a new career for Chaptal. Jean-Jacques Cambacérès was one of Chaptal's friends from Montpellier. There was also Claude-Louis Berthollet, by then a close friend of Napoleon, who called Berthollet "my chemist": they were on
9718-482: The tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the " Year Without a Summer " in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices. At
9831-559: The throne. Chaptal declined an invitation by the American consul to move to the United States of America. Chaptal's turned over the management of his chemical industries to his son. At Chanteloup, Chaptal focused on leisure, writing and farming. Chaptal eventually resumed his position as president of the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry and organizer of industrial expositions (1819, 1823, 1827). In 1817 he published
9944-730: The throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered a regency for Napoleon's son, the King of Rome , and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans , Louis Philippe , or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , Napoleon's former Marshal , who was heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of
10057-475: The ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue. The restraint Louis had exercised on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-revolutionary years, the ultras worked to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Church and State Concordat of 11 June 1817
10170-471: The use of chemistry in a range of applications. As an industrialist, he was a producer of hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids, and was sought after as a technical consultant for the manufacture of gunpowder. Chaptal published works which drew on Antoine Lavoisier 's theoretical chemistry to make advances in wine-making. Chaptal promoted the procedure of adding sugar to increase the final alcohol content of wines, now referred to as " chaptalization ." Chaptal
10283-520: The wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election . After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle , a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry , gave birth to a "miracle child", Henri , seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son,
10396-468: Was a Savoyard -French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. He is known for his scientific contributions to the theory of chemical equilibria via the mechanism of reverse chemical reactions, and for his contribution to modern chemical nomenclature. On a practical basis, Berthollet was the first to demonstrate the bleaching action of chlorine gas, and was first to develop
10509-411: Was an admirer of Adam Smith 's laissez-faire doctrines, but also believed in state sponsorship of industrialization. He believed that his ministry should play an active role in forging a new industrial order capable of competing with England. In his approach, scientists, entrepreneurs, artisans, workers, farmers and government officials would work together and government would mediate private interests for
10622-448: Was an important factor in their calculations. The working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However, France was very slow to industrialise, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still split into localities, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that focused national pride in
10735-403: Was appointed to the Restoration's Chamber of Peers. With Joseph Degérando, Benjamin Delessert and Scipion Perier, Chaptal organized a society to improve primary school instruction (1815). He also helped found two important business schools in Paris, the École Speciale de Commerce (1816) and the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (1828). As a member of the Chamber of Peers, Chaptal supervised
10848-605: Was born in Nojaret (Lozère) in southwestern France, the youngest son of small landowners, Antoine Chaptal and Françoise Brunel. Chaptal's record at the area collèges of Mende and Rodez encouraged his uncle, Claude Chaptal who was a physician at Montpellier, to finance him through medical school at the University of Montpellier , 1774–1776. After receiving his degree of doctor of medicine, he persuaded his uncle to continue his support for postgraduate study in medicine and chemistry at Paris. There he attended courses on chemistry at
10961-448: Was charged with the management of the major gunpowder factory at Grenelle in Paris. Chaptal recounts in his memoirs how, with the help of his fellow scientists—Berthollet, Fourcroy, Guyton and others—he introduced new and more rapid methods for refining saltpeter (at Saint-Germain-des-Prés) and produced increasing amounts of gunpowder at Grenelle. After Thermidor (July 1794), Chaptal spent about four years mainly in Montpellier teaching at
11074-482: Was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code , which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties,
11187-497: Was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile, Louis returned. During his absence a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag. Talleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons were restored to power, as was Joseph Fouché , Napoleon's minister of police during
11300-584: Was doing well producing a variety of industrial acids, alum and soda. In 1804 Chaptal bought a new home in Paris, the Hôtel de Mailly, at No.70 rue de Grenelle-Saint-Germain. He began to frequent meetings of the Society of Arcueil , an association of scientists who gathered at the homes of Berthollet and Laplace in Arcueil. Berthollet was Chaptal's close friend for forty years. The meetings at his home at Arcueil were
11413-569: Was his basic policy. He did not try to recover land and property taken from the royalist exiles. He continued in peaceful fashion the main objectives of Napoleon's foreign policy, such as the limitation of Austrian influence. He reversed Napoleon regarding Spain and the Ottoman Empire , restoring the friendships that had prevailed until 1792. Politically, the period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but persistent civil unrest and disturbances. Otherwise,
11526-774: Was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015. A French High School located in Annecy is named after him (Lycée Claude Louis Berthollet). Berthollet married Marie Marguerite Baur in 1788. Their son, Amédée-Barthélémy Berthollet, died in 1811 of carbon monoxide poisoning via charcoal-burning suicide in which he had recorded his physiological and psychological experiences as
11639-513: Was impracticable because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition. Louis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu , and Élie, duc Decazes ; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable , elected in 1815 , given the nickname "unobtainable" by Louis, was dominated by an overwhelming ultra-royalist majority which quickly acquired
11752-479: Was now based in certain elements of the middle class and even the peasantry. The great masses of French people were peasants in the countryside or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behaviour. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt
11865-665: Was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte . In April, 1789 Berthollet was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . In 1809, Berthollet was elected an associate member first class of the Royal Institute of
11978-478: Was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction , and hence, chemical equilibrium . Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist, Joseph Proust , on the validity of the law of definite proportions . While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to
12091-496: Was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 status, rather than 1792 as in the previous treaty. Until 1818, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers, including around 200,000 under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814,
12204-504: Was politically impossible to restore them. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries) and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious were paid state salaries. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became
12317-524: Was set to replace the Concordat of 1801 , but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi including many deputies, voted in the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts . The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused
12430-455: Was succeeded by his brother, who reigned as Charles X . The new king pursued a more conservative form of governance than Louis. His more reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830). Exasperated by public resistance and disrespect, the king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the general election of 1830 through their July Ordinances . This sparked a revolution in the streets of Paris, Charles abdicated, and on 9 August 1830
12543-432: Was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, which they blamed on the government's law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering
12656-416: Was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists , or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities looked on helplessly at the violence, the King and his ministers sent out officials to restore order. A new Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the 1814 treaty . France
12769-455: Was the period of French history during which the House of Bourbon returned to power after the fall of Napoleon in 1815. The Second Bourbon Restoration lasted until the July Revolution of 26 July 1830. Louis XVIII and Charles X , brothers of the executed King Louis XVI , successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all
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