61-526: Charles William Heckethorn (c. 1829 – 13 January 1902) was a Swiss-born, naturalized British, author best known for his history of secret societies which was produced in two editions and translated into German, and his works relating to the history of London . Charles Heckethorn was born in Switzerland, around 1829. His early years appear to have been spent in Basel but he later moved to Britain and became
122-457: A German language edition in 1900. In 1875, Heckethorn produced Roba d'Italia, or, Italian lights and shadows , an account of a journey through Italy, which was criticised by The Literary Review for plagiarising William Wetmore Story 's Roba di Roma . The journal then alternately criticised and praised the book for its eccentric nature and digressions before heartily recommending it to its readers. The papal anecdotes were found to be amusing but
183-454: A battle when King Æthelred returned to attack Danish-occupied London. According to the saga, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears. Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats. Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending
244-561: A centre of England's nascent Jewish population , the first of whom arrived in about 1070. Its growing self-government was consolidated by the election rights granted by King John in 1199 and 1215. On 17 October 1091 a tornado rated T8 on the TORRO scale (equivalent to an F4 on the Fujita scale ) hit London; it directly struck the church of St. Mary-le-Bow ; four rafters 7.9 meters long (26 feet) were said to have been buried so deep into
305-463: A chapter on the history of South Lambeth Road . The book was criticised in The Spectator for its arrogant view of the past which condemned earlier generations as "barbarians in manners, and in morals reprobates" and contained the claim that "nothing will elevate man but science". The reviewer concluded by condemning the book as the work of a sciolist . The first American edition (1900) changed
366-497: A favourite practising ground for the archers, Mile End , then a common on the Great Eastern Road and famous as a rendezvous for the troops. The preparations for King James I becoming king were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic, which may have killed over thirty thousand people. The Lord Mayor's Show , which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king in 1609. The dissolved monastery of
427-617: A naturalised British citizen. In 1850 he was "Professor of French and German in Mr. Bass's School Ryde, Isle of Wight". He married Sarah Forsyth at St Mary-at-Lambeth in London in 1851. According to the 1901 census, the couple had a daughter, Wilhelmine J. Heckethorn, born around 1879. During the 1890s, Heckethorn was living at 67 South Lambeth Road, London. It appears that Sarah died as in 1895 he married Jane Baker in Lambeth. Heckethorn's first book
488-513: A new makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated. Subsequently, an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists. This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark. London was not seriously threatened by
549-568: A small part of the wider metropolis. Some recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. At the Fulham Palace site in Fulham in modern west London, evidence of prehistoric activity dating from the late Mesolithic and early Neolithic age was uncovered by various archaeological investigations undertaken there since the early 1970s, depicting
610-470: A strong antithesis to the church was noted throughout the work that condemned the waste of teaching the dimensions of Solomon's temple while the "laws of nature and scientific truths" were neglected. Heckethorn then produced books at regular intervals including poetry and children's stories, and a history of the Lincoln's Inn Fields area. His last work, London Souvenirs , was published in 1899 and contained
671-489: A trading settlement. Recent excavations have also highlighted the population density and relatively sophisticated urban organisation of this earlier Anglo-Saxon London, which was laid out on a grid pattern and grew to house a likely population of 10–12,000. Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the Middle Saxons , from whom the name of the county of Middlesex is derived, but who probably also occupied
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#1732779769701732-533: Is the exception, being of medieval origin). By the 5th century, the Roman Empire was in rapid decline and in 410 AD, the Roman occupation of Britannia came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the 5th century was practically abandoned. Until recently it was believed that Anglo-Saxon settlements initially avoided the area immediately around Londinium. However,
793-529: The Charterhouse , which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times, was purchased by Thomas Sutton for £13,000. The new hospital, chapel, and schoolhouse were begun in 1611. Charterhouse School was to be one of the principal public schools in London until it moved to Surrey in the Victorian era, and the site is still used as a medical school . The general meeting-place of Londoners in
854-468: The Iceni led by their queen Boudica . The city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years; the city grew rapidly over the following decades. Although some sources claim that during the 2nd century Londinium replaced Colchester as the capital of Roman Britain (Britannia) there is no surviving evidence to prove it was ever the capital of Roman Britain. Its population
915-737: The Tower of London and executed the Lord Chancellor , Archbishop Simon Sudbury , and the Lord Treasurer . The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings. Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor William Walworth in a confrontation at Smithfield and the revolt collapsed. Trade increased steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew heavily as a result. In 1100, London's population
976-624: The 650s. During the 8th century, the kingdom of Mercia extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation. London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s. Viking attacks dominated most of the 9th century, becoming increasingly common from around 830 onwards. London was sacked in 842 and again in 851. The Danish " Great Heathen Army ", which had rampaged across England since 865, wintered in London in 871. The city remained in Danish hands until 886, when it
1037-687: The City itself as the centre of government. Edward's death at Westminster in 1066 without a clear heir led to a succession dispute and the Norman conquest of England . Earl Harold Godwinson was elected king by the witangemot and crowned in Westminster Abbey but was defeated and killed by William the Bastard, Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings . The surviving members of the witan met in London and elected King Edward's young nephew Edgar
1098-811: The Levant, and the Americas. This was the period of mercantilism and monopoly trading companies such as the Muscovy Company (1555) and the British East India Company (1600) were established in London by royal charter. The latter, which ultimately came to rule India, was one of the key institutions in London, and in Britain as a whole, for two and a half centuries. Immigrants arrived in London not just from all over England and Wales, but from abroad as well, for example Huguenots from France;
1159-515: The Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe , the Middle East , and North Africa . In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates. This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate , Newgate , Aldersgate , Cripplegate , Bishopsgate and Aldgate ( Moorgate
1220-486: The Thames or went to a now lost island in the river. Dendrology dated the timbers to between 1750 BC and 1285 BC. In 2001, a further dig found that the timbers were driven vertically into the ground on the south bank of the Thames west of Vauxhall Bridge. In 2010, the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to between 4800 BC and 4500 BC were found, again on the foreshore south of Vauxhall Bridge. The function of
1281-514: The Unready issued the Laws of London there in 978. Following the resumption of Viking attacks in the reign of Æthelred, London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994 by an army under King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. As English resistance to the sustained and escalating Danish onslaught finally collapsed in 1013, London repulsed an attack by the Danes and was the last place to hold out while the rest of
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#17327797697011342-580: The Viking occupation of London. This story presumably relates to Æthelred's return to power after Sweyn's death in 1014, but there is no strong evidence of any such struggle for control of London on that occasion. Following the extinction of Cnut's dynasty in 1042 English rule was restored under Edward the Confessor . He was responsible for the foundation of Westminster Abbey and spent much of his time at Westminster , which from this time steadily supplanted
1403-489: The approximate area of modern Hertfordshire and Surrey . However, by the early 7th century the London area had been incorporated into the kingdom of the East Saxons . In 604 King Saeberht of Essex converted to Christianity and London received Mellitus , its first post-Roman bishop. At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King Æthelberht of Kent , and it was under Æthelberht's patronage that Mellitus founded
1464-546: The baronial rebels against King John and was acclaimed as King of England in St Paul's Cathedral . However, following John's death in 1217 Louis's supporters reverted to their Plantagenet allegiance, rallying round John's son Henry III , and Louis was forced to withdraw from England. In 1224, after an accusation of ritual murder , the Jewish community was subjected to a steep punitive levy. Then in 1232, Henry III confiscated
1525-576: The capital city of England and the United Kingdom , extends over 2000 years. In that time, it has become one of the world's most significant financial and cultural capital cities. It has withstood plague , devastating fire , civil war , aerial bombardment , terrorist attacks , and riots . The City of London is the historic core of the Greater London metropolis , and is today its primary financial district, though it represents only
1586-607: The centre of the English print trade all contributed to the spread of the new ideas of religious reform. Before the Reformation, more than half of the area of London was the property of monasteries , nunneries and other religious houses. Henry VIII 's " Dissolution of the Monasteries " had a profound effect on the city as nearly all of this property changed hands. The process started in the mid-1530s, and by 1538 most of
1647-450: The city. The wall was about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) thick. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the City of London 's perimeters for centuries to come. The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across
1708-474: The country submitted to Sweyn, but by the end of the year it too capitulated and Æthelred fled abroad. Sweyn died just five weeks after having been proclaimed king and Æthelred was restored to the throne, but Sweyn's son Cnut returned to the attack in 1015. After Æthelred's death at London in 1016 his son Edmund Ironside was proclaimed king there by the witangemot and left to gather forces in Wessex. London
1769-432: The day-time was the nave of Old St. Paul's Cathedral . Merchants conducted business in the aisles, and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers received clients at their particular pillars; and the unemployed looked for work. St Paul's Churchyard was the centre of the book trade and Fleet Street was a centre of public entertainment. Under James I the theatre, which established itself so firmly in
1830-531: The discovery in 2008 of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Covent Garden indicates that the incomers had begun to settle there at least as early as the 6th century and possibly in the 5th. The main focus of this settlement was outside the Roman walls, clustering a short distance to the west along what is now the Strand , between the Aldwych and Trafalgar Square . It was known as Lundenwic , the -wic suffix here denoting
1891-492: The first St. Paul's Cathedral , traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although Christopher Wren found no evidence of this). It would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's pagan successors. The permanent establishment of Christianity in the East Saxon kingdom took place in the reign of King Sigeberht II in
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1952-407: The great difficulty in acquiring English citizenship. Dutch cities proved more hospitable, and many left London permanently. Foreigners are estimated to have made up 4,000 of the 100,000 residents of London by 1600, many being Dutch and German workers and traders. London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century. In the opening years of that century
2013-506: The ground that only 1.2 meters (4 feet) was visible. Other churches in the area were destroyed as well; it was reported to have also destroyed over 600 houses (although most of them were primarily wood) and hit the London Bridge , after the tornado the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The tornado caused 2 deaths and an unknown number of injuries; this tornado is mentioned in chronicles by Florence of Worcester and William of Malmesbury ,
2074-411: The immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered not conducive to health. Immediately to the north was Moorfields , which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers, who crossed it in order to get into London. Adjoining Moorfields were Finsbury Fields,
2135-585: The larger monastic houses had been abolished. Holy Trinity Aldgate went to Lord Audley , and the Marquess of Winchester built himself a house in part of its precincts. The Charterhouse went to Lord North, Blackfriars to Lord Cobham , the leper hospital of St Giles to Lord Dudley, while the king took for himself the leper hospital of St James, which was rebuilt as St James's Palace . The period saw London rapidly rising in importance among Europe's commercial centres. Trade expanded beyond Western Europe to Russia,
2196-520: The latter of the two describing it as "a great spectacle for those watching from afar, but a terrifying experience for those standing near". In 1097, William Rufus , the son of William the Conqueror, began the construction of 'Westminster Hall', which became the focus of the Palace of Westminster . In 1176, construction began of the most famous incarnation of London Bridge (completed in 1209), which
2257-510: The latter years of Elizabeth, grew further in popularity. The performances at the public theatres were complemented by elaborate masques at the royal court and at the inns of court. Charles I acceded to the throne in 1625. During his reign, aristocrats began to inhabit the West End in large numbers. In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of
2318-512: The leading members of the Church and aristocracy to submit to William at Berkhamsted , although according to some accounts there was a subsequent violent clash when the Normans reached the city. Having occupied London, William was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. The new Norman regime established new fortresses within the city to dominate the native population. By far the most important of these
2379-516: The mesolithic structure is not known. All these structures are on the south bank at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes, "Because no LPRIA [Late pre-Roman Iron Age] settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." Londinium
2440-419: The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. The growth of the population and wealth of London was fuelled by a vast expansion in the use of coastal shipping. The late 16th and early 17th century saw the great flourishing of drama in London whose preeminent figure was William Shakespeare . During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's reign, some of her courtiers and some of
2501-568: The principal synagogue of the London Jewish community because he claimed their chanting was audible in a neighboring church. In 1264, during the Second Barons' War , Simon de Montfort 's rebels occupied London and killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts. London's Jewish community was forced to leave England by the expulsion by Edward I in 1290. They left for France, Holland and further afield; their property
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2562-739: The property to South Eastern Railway . Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries , where it was considered indispensable. During the Reformation , London was the principal early centre of Protestantism in England. Its close commercial connections with the Protestant heartlands in northern continental Europe, large foreign mercantile communities, disproportionately large number of literate inhabitants and role as
2623-617: The royal family. In January 1642 five members of parliament whom the King wished to arrest were granted refuge in the City. In August of the same year the King raised his banner at Nottingham , and during the English Civil War London took the side of the parliament. Initially the king had the upper hand in military terms and in November he won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London. The City organised
2684-427: The royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians' victory in the war. The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the " Great Plague " It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which
2745-560: The title to "London Memories". Heckethorn also pseudonymously co-authored, with Henry Vizetelly, The gambling world : anecdotic memories and stories of personal experience in the temples of hazard and speculation, with some mysteries and iniquities of stock exchange affairs . Heckethorn died on 13 January 1902 at his home in South Lambeth Road, London. Probate was granted to his widow Jane Heckethorn on an estate of £222. History of London The history of London ,
2806-565: The use of struck flint. The site appears to have been an isolated eyot within the braided river channel of the River Thames. Later prehistoric activity dating to the Bronze Age , was revealed in the form of a possible barrow, whilst there is limited evidence for a late Iron Age occupation. In 1993, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the Thames's south foreshore, upstream of Vauxhall Bridge . This bridge either crossed
2867-575: The wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in Middlesex , Essex and Surrey . This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but at the time of Elizabeth's death in 1603, London was still relatively compact. Xenophobia was rampant in London, and increased after the 1580s. Many immigrants became disillusioned by routine threats of violence and molestation, attempts at expulsion of foreigners, and
2928-406: The year simply for the social life. This was the beginning of the "London season". Lincoln's Inn Fields was built about 1629. The piazza of Covent Garden , designed by England's first classically trained architect Inigo Jones followed in about 1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of
2989-413: The Ætheling as king. The Normans advanced to the south bank of the Thames opposite London, where they defeated an English attack and burned Southwark but were unable to storm the bridge. They moved upstream and crossed the river at Wallingford before advancing on London from the north-west. The resolve of the English leadership to resist collapsed and the chief citizens of London went out together with
3050-458: Was Exercises in French orthography , published in 1850 while he was working at Mr. Bass's School Ryde, Isle of Wight. He then produced a translation of The Frithjof Saga by Esaias Tegnér in 1856. He did not produce another book until 1875 (foreword dated 1874) when his two volume history, The secret societies of all ages and countries , was published. A second edition was published in 1897 and
3111-510: Was around 60,000 inhabitants. It boasted major public buildings, including the largest basilica north of the Alps, temples , bath houses , an amphitheatre and a large fort for the city garrison. Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards led to a slow decline. At some time between 180 AD and 225 AD, the Romans built the defensive London Wall around the landward side of
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#17327797697013172-565: Was built on the site of several earlier timber bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the River Thames until 1739. Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation. In 1216, during the First Barons' War London was occupied by Prince Louis of France , who had been called in by
3233-457: Was captured by the forces of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and reincorporated into Mercia, then governed under Alfred's sovereignty by his son-in-law Ealdorman Æthelred . Around this time the focus of settlement moved within the old Roman walls for the sake of defence, and the city became known as Lundenburh . The Roman walls were repaired and the defensive ditch re-cut, while the bridge
3294-461: Was established as a civilian town by the Romans about four years after the invasion of 43 AD . London, like Rome, was founded on the point of the river where it was narrow enough to bridge and the strategic location of the city provided easy access to much of Europe. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park . In around 60 AD, it was destroyed by
3355-557: Was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as timber and straw, which made fire a constant threat, while sanitation in cities was of low-quality. In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up its main English trading base ( kontor ) in London, called Stalhof or Steelyard . It existed until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck , Bremen and Hamburg sold
3416-493: Was probably rebuilt at this time. A second fortified Borough was established on the south bank at Southwark , the Suthringa Geworc (defensive work of the men of Surrey ). The old settlement of Lundenwic became known as the ealdwic or "old settlement", a name which survives today as Aldwich. From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government. Following Æthelred's death in 911 it
3477-536: Was seized, and many suffered robbery and murder as they departed. Over the following centuries, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest. The city would figure heavily in the development of Early Modern English . During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, London was invaded by rebels led by Wat Tyler . A group of peasants stormed
3538-541: Was somewhat more than 15,000. By 1300, it had grown to roughly 80,000. London lost at least half of its population during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, but its economic and political importance stimulated a quick recovery despite further epidemics. Trade in London was organised into various guilds , which effectively controlled the city, and elected the Lord Mayor of the City of London . Medieval London
3599-402: Was the Tower of London at the eastern end of the city, where the initial timber fortification was rapidly replaced by the construction of the first stone castle in England. The smaller forts of Baynard's Castle and Montfichet's Castle were also established along the waterfront. King William also granted a charter in 1067 confirming the city's existing rights, privileges and laws. London was
3660-436: Was then subjected to a systematic siege by Cnut but was relieved by King Edmund's army; when Edmund again left to recruit reinforcements in Wessex the Danes resumed the siege but were again unsuccessful. However, following his defeat at the Battle of Assandun Edmund ceded to Cnut all of England north of the Thames, including London, and his death a few weeks later left Cnut in control of the whole country. A Norse saga tells of
3721-456: Was transferred to Wessex, preceding the absorption of the rest of Mercia in 918. Although it faced competition for political pre-eminence in the united Kingdom of England from the traditional West Saxon centre of Winchester , London's size and commercial wealth brought it a steadily increasing importance as a focus of governmental activity. King Athelstan held many meetings of the witan in London and issued laws from there, while King Æthelred
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