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114-403: Chefoo School was described by a former student: "On the rising ground looking out across a sleepy, sun-kissed bay, there stood a group of rambling, ivy-covered, neo-Gothic buildings...For nearly fifty years these gracious, elegant, mellowing buildings were the home of a great English boarding school...where children of missionaries from all over China and children of other foreign residents received

228-554: A luan-ming (illegitimate order) and withheld knowledge of it from the public in the south. Yuan Shikai used his own forces to suppress Boxers in Shandong, and Zhang entered into negotiations with the foreigners in Shanghai to keep his army out of the conflict. The neutrality of these provincial and regional governors left the majority of Chinese military forces out of the conflict. The republican revolutionary Sun Yat-sen even took

342-476: A "Blood Royal"), who was anti-foreigner and pro-Boxer. He soon ordered the Imperial army to attack the foreign forces. Confused by conflicting orders from Beijing, General Nie Shicheng let Seymour's army pass by in their trains. After leaving Tianjin, the force quickly reached Langfang , but the railway was destroyed there. Seymour's engineers tried to repair the line, but the force found itself surrounded, as

456-746: A "scramble for concessions " by which Britain, France, Russia and Japan also secured their own sphere of influence in China. Germany gained exclusive control of developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership in Shandong province. Russia gained influence of all territory north of the Great Wall , plus the previous tax exemption for trade in Mongolia and Xinjiang , economic powers similar to Germany's over Fengtian , Jilin and Heilongjiang . France gained influence of Yunnan , most of Guangxi and Guangdong , Japan over Fujian . Britain gained influence of

570-653: A Bible-oriented, English 'public school' education up to Oxford Certificate level...the School survived the Boxer Rebellion , plague, tropical diseases, bandits and piracy on the China seas, but its greatest test came in the nineteen forties" during World War II . During the war the Japanese army took control of the school, and the students and staff were moved to the Weihsien Internment Camp . At

684-734: A Boxer boy and inexplicably executed him. In response, thousands of Boxers burst into the walled city of Beijing that afternoon and burned many of the Christian churches and cathedrals in the city, burning some victims alive. American and British missionaries took refuge in the Methodist Mission, and an attack there was repulsed by US Marines. The soldiers at the British Embassy and German legations shot and killed several Boxers. The Kansu Braves and Boxers, along with other Chinese, then attacked and killed Chinese Christians around

798-485: A Chinese lifestyle, but the children of CIM missionaries attended a school in which an objective was to prepare the students for an elite higher education in England—an education and elite status many of their parents did not have. CIM missionary parents were concerned about the professional futures of their children which might be compromised if they did not receive a British education The parents of CIM children also feared

912-406: A commitment that the children of CIM missionaries would be given a British education in China. In 1879, he purchased land from farmers for a school near the picturesque sea port of Chefoo (later Yantai ) and in 1881 Chefoo school opened with three students. The Chefoo School grew rapidly and in 1905 had 226 boys and 193 girls enrolled from China Inland Mission parents. In addition, the school admitted

1026-674: A few children of other missionary organizations, businessmen, and other Europeans working in China. The name of the school was initially the "Protestant Collegiate School." By 1908 it was called the "China Inland Mission school," but later it was usually called the "Chefoo School." Chefoo was a boarding school with students from all over China, many of whom had to travel for weeks to get to the school from where their parents were stationed. In 1940, in one exceptional case, 6-year old David Michell left his parents' home in remote Guiyang on 8 October and travelling by truck, railroad, and ship, accompanied by other students and teacher escorts and delayed by

1140-420: A few prostitutes, derelicts, and criminals. An internee described the dilapidated compound, about 6 acres (2.4 ha) in size, as "bare walls, bare floors, dim electric lights, no running water, primitive latrines, two houses with showers, three huge public kitchens, a desecrated church, and a dismantled hospital." A Japanese commandant and 40 guards provided meager food and fuel to the internees, but mostly left

1254-638: A group of Boxers attacked the Christian community of Liyuantun village where a temple to the Jade Emperor had been converted into a Catholic church. Disputes had surrounded the church since 1869, when the temple had been granted to the Christian residents of the village. This incident marked the first time the Boxers used the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners" ( 扶清滅洋 ; fu Qing mie yang ) that later characterised them. The Boxers called themselves

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1368-594: A head in June 1900, when Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners". Diplomats, missionaries, soldiers, and some Chinese Christians took refuge in the Legation Quarter , which the Boxers besieged. The Eight-Nation Alliance—comprising American, Austro-Hungarian, British, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian troops—moved into China to lift

1482-585: A heavy emphasis on religion with daily prayers and two church services on Sunday. All the teachers were CIM missionaries. Sports such as rowing, soccer , cricket, tennis and swimming were popular. Political chaos in China after 1925, the ongoing civil war between communists and the Chinese government, the invasion of China by Japan in 1937, and the beginning of World War II in Europe in 1939 caused many missionaries and other foreigners to leave China. Nevertheless,

1596-525: A hidden Qing munitions cache of which the Eight Powers had had no knowledge until then. There they dug in and awaited rescue. A Chinese servant slipped through the Boxer and Imperial lines, reached Tianjin, and informed the Eight Powers of Seymour's predicament. His force was surrounded by Imperial troops and Boxers, attacked nearly around the clock, and at the point of being overrun. The Eight Powers sent

1710-543: A mass movement. The previous year, the Hundred Days' Reform , in which progressive Chinese reformers persuaded the Guangxu Emperor to engage in modernizing efforts, was suppressed by Empress Dowager Cixi and Yuan Shikai . The Qing political elite struggled with the question of how to retain its power. The Qing government came to view the Boxers as a means to help oppose foreign powers. The national crisis

1824-503: A mile or so." Fear of disease, however, did not prevent the Chefoo school from employing many Chinese as servants and workers. In July 1937 Japan initiated war with China, a forerunner of World War II. Because of the war some students were unable to visit their families in other parts of China while others left the school to return to their family homes and did not return. The day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941,

1938-515: A relief column from Tianjin of 1,800 men (900 Russian troops from Port Arthur, 500 British seamen, and other assorted troops). On 25 June the relief column reached Seymour. The Seymour force destroyed the Arsenal: they spiked the captured field guns and set fire to any munitions that they could not take (an estimated £3 million worth). The Seymour force and the relief column marched back to Tientsin, unopposed, on 26 June. Seymour's casualties during

2052-532: A result of diplomatic pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders but did not punish anyone else. More martial secret societies started emerging after this. The early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement with a united purpose. Martial folk-religious societies such as the Baguadao ('Eight Trigrams') prepared the way for the Boxers. Like the Red Boxing school or

2166-473: A token force. During the reign of King Kalākaua the United States was granted exclusive rights to enter Pearl Harbor and to establish "a coaling and repair station". Although this treaty continued in force until August 1898, the U.S. did not fortify Pearl Harbor as a naval base. As it had for 60 years, the shallow entrance constituted a formidable barrier against the use of the deep protected waters of

2280-755: Is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu , Hawaii, west of Honolulu . It was often visited by the naval fleet of the United States , before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 . Much of the harbor and surrounding lands are now a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet . The U.S. government first obtained exclusive use of

2394-666: Is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States." From the conclusion of the Civil War , to the purchase of Alaska , to the increased importance of the Pacific states, the projected trade with countries in Asia and the desire for a duty-free market for Hawaiian staples, Hawaiian trade expanded. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast and Hawaii. Lackawanna in

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2508-951: The Big Swords Society , whose original purpose was to fight bandits. The German Catholic missionaries of the Society of the Divine Word had built up their presence in the area, partially by taking in a significant portion of converts who were "in need of protection from the law". On one occasion in 1895, a large bandit gang defeated by the Big Swords Society claimed to be Catholics to avoid prosecution. "The line between Christians and bandits became increasingly indistinct", remarks historian Paul Cohen . Some missionaries such as Georg Maria Stenz also used their privileges to intervene in lawsuits. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic properties and burning them. As

2622-547: The China Inland Mission (CIM) (after 1964 OMF International) in England in 1865 and it became the largest Protestant missionary organization in China. A major problem for missionaries was the education of their children. Most British and American missionaries sent their children back to their home countries for education which meant separations of the parents from their children for years. Taylor, however, had made

2736-514: The First Sino-Japanese War and this had prompted military reform that was still in its early stages when the Boxer rebellion occurred and they were expected to fight. The bulk of the fighting was conducted by the forces already around Zhili with troops from other provinces only arriving after the main fighting had ended. War/Revenue (field troops only) Staff (field troops only) (Zhili alone) (Zhili alone) The failure of

2850-536: The Hawaiians . Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the shark goddess, Kaʻahupahau, and her brother (or son), Kahiʻuka, in Hawaiian legends. According to tradition, Keaunui , the head of the powerful Ewa chiefs, is credited with cutting a navigable channel near the present Puʻuloa saltworks, by which he made the estuary, known as "Pearl River", accessible to navigation. Making due allowance for legendary amplification,

2964-839: The Philippines (1956–1981). Chefoo School Malaysia, which was based on the outskirts of Brinchang at the Cameron Highlands , was the longest running and last surviving post-war Chefoo School when it ceased function as a school in June 2001. The compound was subsequently transferred to the Methodist Church in Malaysia and was repurposed as the Methodist Centennial Chefoo Centre, a church-run retreat and hostel opened in 2009 following extensive renovation. The Chefoo Schools Association

3078-461: The Plum Flower tradition , the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, Zhu Hongdeng (Red Lantern Zhu), started as a wandering healer, specialising in skin ulcers, and gained wide respect by refusing payment for his treatments. Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty emperors, since his surname

3192-685: The "Militia United in Righteousness" for the first time in October 1899, at the Battle of Senluo Temple , a clash between Boxers and Qing government troops. By using the word "Militia" rather than "Boxers", they distanced themselves from forbidden martial arts sects and tried to give their movement the legitimacy of a group that defended orthodoxy. Violence toward missionaries and Christians drew sharp responses from diplomats protecting their nationals, including Western seizure of harbors and forts and

3306-468: The "polluting" and unhealthy environment their children experienced in China in their pre-school years. The Chinese environment was "conducive neither to health of body nor purity of minds." Many diseases were rampant in China and deaths from disease in missionary families were common. Isolating Chefoo students from contact with Chinese helped keep the school free of disease. The school's promotional literature advertised that "there are no Chinese houses within

3420-558: The 55-day Siege of the International Legations . Plunder and looting of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with summary execution of those suspected of being Boxers in retribution. The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901 provided for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and for 450 million taels of silver—more than

3534-598: The Allies also made no formal declaration of war. Regional governors in the south, who commanded substantial modernised armies, such as Li Hongzhang at Guangzhou, Yuan Shikai in Shandong, Zhang Zhidong at Wuhan, and Liu Kunyi at Nanjing, formed the Mutual Defense Pact of the Southeastern Provinces . They refused to recognise the imperial court's declaration of war, which they declared

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3648-475: The Boxer movement spread rapidly north from Shandong into the countryside near Beijing. Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. American Minister Edwin H. Conger cabled Washington, "the whole country is swarming with hungry, discontented, hopeless idlers". On 30 May the diplomats, led by British Minister Claude Maxwell MacDonald , requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend

3762-622: The Boxers in the countryside was almost universal and that suppression would be both difficult and unpopular, especially when foreign troops were on the march. On 15 June, Qing imperial forces deployed electric naval mines in the Beihe River to prevent the Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack. With a difficult military situation in Tianjin and a total breakdown of communications between Tianjin and Beijing,

3876-478: The Chefoo school in 1940 still had a student body of 338 students. In the first decade of the Chefoo School, several children of mixed European/Chinese parentage unofficially attended the Chefoo School, although by 1891 mixed-blood students were effectively, if not officially, banned from attending. Many Chefoo students had learned to speak Chinese at home from servants while toddlers, but speaking Chinese at

3990-711: The Chinese exploded in tunnels dug beneath the compound. The number of Chinese soldiers and Boxers besieging the Legation Quarter and the Beitang is unknown. Zaiyi's bannermen in the Tiger and Divine Corps led attacks against the Catholic cathedral church. On 22 and 23 June, Chinese soldiers and Boxers set fire to areas north and west of the British Legation, using it as a "frightening tactic" to attack

4104-526: The Chinese government, but the railway had been severed between Tianjin and Beijing. Seymour resolved to continue forward by rail to the break and repair the railway, or progress on foot from there, if necessary, as it was only 120 km from Tianjin to Beijing. The court then replaced Prince Qing at the Zongli Yamen with Manchu Prince Duan, a member of the imperial Aisin Gioro clan (foreigners called him

4218-716: The German Catholic Priest Georg Stenz, who had allegedly serially raped Chinese women in Juye County, Shandong. In an attack known as the Juye Incident , Chinese rebels attempted to kill Stenz in his missionary quarters, but failed to find him and killed two other missionaries. The German Navy's East Asia Squadron dispatched to occupy Jiaozhou Bay on the southern coast of the Shandong peninsula. In December 1897, Wilhelm declared his intent to seize territory in China , which triggered

4332-529: The German government took over Shandong, many Chinese feared that the foreign missionaries and possibly all Christian activities were imperialist attempts at "carving the melon", i.e., to colonise China piece by piece. A Chinese official expressed the animosity towards foreigners succinctly, "Take away your missionaries and your opium and you will be welcome." In 1899, the Boxer Rebellion developed into

4446-446: The Japanese visited the school and arrested the headmaster and imprisoned him for a month. Lacking access to funds, the school dismissed most of the Chinese staff and rationed food. The Japanese encroached on the school and slowly took over the buildings for the use of their army. On 5 November 1942 all the remaining students and staff were forced to leave. With a few belongings they walked to Temple Hill, an abandoned missionary compound in

4560-622: The Legation Quarter and advanced, brick by brick, on the foreign lines, forcing the foreign legation guards to retreat a few feet at a time. This tactic was especially used in the Fu, defended by Japanese and Italian sailors and soldiers, and inhabited by most of the Chinese Christians. Fusillades of bullets, artillery and firecrackers were directed against the Legations almost every night—but did little damage. Sniper fire took its toll among

4674-470: The Legation Quarter from 20 June to 14 August 1900. A total of 473 foreign civilians, 409 soldiers, marines and sailors from eight countries, and about 3,000 Chinese Christians took refuge there. Under the command of the British minister to China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald , the legation staff and military guards defended the compound with small arms, three machine guns, and one old muzzle-loaded cannon, which

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4788-420: The Legation Quarter in Beijing, and decided to continue advancing, this time along the Beihe River , toward Tongzhou , 25 km (16 mi) from Beijing. By 19 June, the force was halted by progressively stiffening resistance and started to retreat southward along the river with over 200 wounded. The force was now very low on food, ammunition, and medical supplies. They happened upon The Great Hsi-Ku Arsenal ,

4902-533: The Legation Quarter, but impressed Chinese Christians to do most of the physical labour of building defences. The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the Tartar Wall . Holding the top of the 45 ft (14 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide wall was vital. The German barricades faced east on top of the wall and 400 yd (370 m) west were

5016-598: The Manchu general Ronglu , later claimed he acted to protect the foreigners. Officials in the southern provinces ignored the imperial order to fight against foreigners. The Eight-Nation Alliance, after initially being turned back by the Imperial Chinese military and Boxer militia, brought 20,000 armed troops to China. They defeated the Imperial Army in Tianjin and arrived in Beijing on 14 August, relieving

5130-525: The Navy and the Air Force merged their two nearby bases; Pearl Harbor joined with Hickam Air Force Base to create Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam . In December 2016, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe made a joint visit to Pearl Harbor with US President Barack Obama . This trip marked the 75th anniversary of the attack and was the first official visit by a sitting Japanese leader. On December 4, 2019,

5244-515: The Qing forces to withstand the Allied forces was not surprising given the limited time for reform and the fact that the best troops of China were not committed to the fight, remaining instead in Huguang and Shandong. The officer corps was particularly deficient; many lacked basic knowledge of strategy and tactics, and even those with training had not actively commanded troops in the field. In addition,

5358-567: The Roman Catholic establishment totaled by 1894 some 750 European missionaries, 400 native priests, and over half a million communicants. By 1894 the newer Protestant mission effort supported over 1300 missionaries, mainly British and American, and maintained some 500 stations-each with a church, residences, street chapels, and usually a small school and possibly a hospital or dispensary-in about 350 different cities and towns. Yet they had made fewer than 60,000 Chinese Christian converts. There

5472-738: The U.S. and British militaries to the places where their families were located. Kathleen Strange and Joyce Kerry reunited with their families in England in December. They had not seen their families for five years and Strange did not recognize her mother. Both were uncomfortable with embraces by their family members. Kerry said, "No one had touched me in years and I felt uncomfortable and embarrassed." David Michell reunited with his family in Australia in November, not having seen them for more than six years. Former Chefoo students shared differing views on

5586-611: The United States for Commerce and Seamen" was appointed to look after American business in the Port of Honolulu . These commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions . American missionaries and their families became an integral part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu. In most cases,

5700-613: The United States in September 1943, leaving 205 interned "Chefusians," nearly all British, including 96 unaccompanied children. (One additional child was born later and one student died of an accident in Weihsien.) In September 1943, the staff and students of Chefoo school were loaded onto first a ship and later trucks and transported to the Weihsien Civilian Assembly Center, an internment camp located in

5814-474: The West. The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability against cannons, rifle shots, and knife attacks. The Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers would descend out of heaven to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression. In 1895, despite ambivalence toward their heterodox practices, Yuxian , a Manchu who was the then prefect of Cao Prefecture and would later become provincial governor, cooperated with

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5928-435: The air defense of Hawaii, for American commanders thought the Japanese would attack either Wake Island or the Philippines and had no understanding of the capabilities and proper employment of air power. As it was, had the Pacific Fleet acted on the war warnings, it undoubtedly would have sortied and been at sea on December 7, where the major ships would have been sunk in deep water, making salvage impossible. Shortly after

6042-448: The allied nations took steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June, Allied forces under Russian Admiral Yevgeni Alekseyev took the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and from there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore. When Cixi received an ultimatum that same day demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to foreigners, she defiantly stated before

6156-411: The baron's death back to the diplomatic compound. At this news, the other diplomats feared they also would be murdered if they left the legation quarter and they chose to continue to defy the Chinese order to depart Beijing. The legations were hurriedly fortified. Most of the foreign civilians, which included a large number of missionaries and businessmen, took refuge in the British legation, the largest of

6270-399: The camp, although rumors circulated among the adults that the Japanese were going to kill all the internees. Academic standards were maintained. Thirty-seven Chefoo students took the School Certificate Examination while in the camp and 34 passed, becoming eligible for admission to Britain's best universities. Protestant theologian Langdon Gilkey , however, was less than complimentary about

6384-429: The characteristics of the school as "ritual, predictability, and safety which was our salvation" by enabling the students to survive the rigors of imprisonment by the Japanese. Another student, Kathleen Strange, lamenting the long years separated from her parents, criticized the sternness of the school and the lack of affection from teachers. "We were never hugged, we never sat on anyone's lap, we were never kissed." After

6498-438: The city of Chefoo, and there were housed in crowded conditions until September 1943. The number of Chefoo staff and students interned at Temple Hill was 252 of whom 77 were adults and 175 were children. One hundred and fourteen of the children were separated from their parents. Ninety of the unaccompanied children were British (including Canadians, Australians, etc.) Forty-seven of this total, all Americans, were repatriated to

6612-472: The commanding officers carried letters from the U.S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian , printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U.S. establish a naval base in Hawaii for the protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie , remarked in 1840 that, "... my opinion

6726-439: The conservative Protestants, mostly from Chefoo, whom he knew at Weihsien. The "frequent Protestant reaction [was] of moral disapproval, and of spiritual if not physical withdrawal." They "typically huddled together...kept to their own flock of saved souls, evidently because they feared to be contaminated...by this sinful world." Six American soldiers and a Chinese interpreter parachuted into Weihsien on August 17, 1945. Unknown to

6840-424: The defenders. The nearby Hanlin Academy , a complex of courtyards and buildings that housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest and richest library in the world", caught fire. Each side blamed the other for the destruction of the invaluable books it contained. After the failure to burn out the foreigners, the Chinese army adopted an anaconda-like strategy. The Chinese built barricades surrounding

6954-419: The desire for the United States to have a permanent presence in the Pacific both contributed to the decision. Following the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, the United States Navy established a base on the island in 1899. On December 7, 1941, the base was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Navy airplanes and midget submarines, causing the American entry into World War II . There was no meaningful plan for

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7068-405: The devastating Japanese surprise attack at Pearl Harbor, two American military commanders, Lt. Gen. Walter Short and Adm. Husband Kimmel , were demoted of their full ranks. The two American commanders later sought to restore their reputations and full ranks. Over the years, Pearl Harbor remained a main base for the US Pacific Fleet after World War II along with Naval Base San Diego . In 2010,

7182-405: The diplomatic compounds. Chinese Christians were primarily housed in the adjacent palace (Fu) of Prince Su , who was forced to abandon his property by the foreign soldiers. On 21 June, Cixi issued an imperial decree stating that hostilities had begun and ordering the regular Chinese army to join the Boxers in their attacks on the invading troops. This was a de facto declaration of war, but

7296-441: The end of the Qing dynasty , by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists , known as the "Boxers" in English due to many of its members having practised Chinese martial arts , which at the time were referred to as "Chinese boxing". It was defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance of foreign powers. Following the First Sino-Japanese War , villagers in North China feared the expansion of foreign spheres of influence and resented

7410-433: The end of the war in 1945, the students and staff did not return to Chefoo, although "Chefoo Schools" were established in other locations. The last campus of Chefoo school in China was in Kuling, Jiujiang . Chefoo School Kuling Campus was established in 1947 and survived until 1951 when it was closed by the Chinese communist government. The Chefoo School called itself "the best school east of Suez." Hudson Taylor founded

7524-449: The entire Grand Council , "Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why don't we fight to the death?" It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of the Peking Field Force , which began the siege. Cixi stated that "I have always been of

7638-422: The estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is; but Keaunui is typically given the credit for widening and deepening it. During the early nineteenth century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The United States' interest in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an "Agent of

7752-447: The expedition were 62 killed and 228 wounded. Meanwhile, in Beijing, on 16 June, Empress Dowager Cixi summoned the imperial court for a mass audience and addressed the choice between using the Boxers to evict the foreigners from the city, and seeking a diplomatic solution. In response to a high official who doubted the efficacy of the Boxers, Cixi replied that both sides of the debate at the imperial court realised that popular support for

7866-493: The extension of privileges to Christian missionaries , who used them to shield their followers. In 1898, North China experienced several natural disasters, including the Yellow River flooding and droughts, which Boxers blamed on foreign and Christian influence. Beginning in 1899, the movement spread across Shandong and the North China Plain , destroying foreign property such as railroads, and attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians . The events came to

7980-479: The following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, "a locality of great and increasing interest and importance". This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan. As a result, the United States claimed Midway Island . The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his annual report of 1868, that in November 1867, 42 American flags flew over whaleships and merchant vessels in Honolulu to only six of other nations. This increased activity caused

8094-432: The foreign defenders. Despite their numerical advantage, the Chinese did not attempt a direct assault on the Legation Quarter although in the words of one of the besieged, "it would have been easy by a strong, swift movement on the part of the numerous Chinese troops to have annihilated the whole body of foreigners ... in an hour". American missionary Francis Dunlap Gamewell and his crew of "fighting parsons" fortified

8208-477: The freedom to preach anywhere in China and to buy land on which to build churches. There was strong public indignation over the dispossession of Chinese temples that were replaced by Catholic churches which were viewed as deliberately anti- feng shui . A further cause of discontent among Chinese people were the destruction of Chinese burial sites to make way for German railroads and telegraph lines. In response to Chinese protests against German railroads, Germans shot

8322-485: The government's annual tax revenue—to be paid as indemnity over the course of the next 39 years to the eight invading nations. The Qing dynasty's handling of the Boxer Rebellion further weakened their control over China, and led to the Late Qing reforms . According to John King Fairbank : The opening of the country in the 1860s facilitated the great effort to Christianize China. Building on old [French] foundations,

8436-415: The inland sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong , a region which had long been plagued by social unrest, religious sects, and martial societies. American Christian missionaries were probably the first people who referred to the well-trained, athletic young men as the "Boxers", because of the martial arts which they practised and the weapons training which they underwent. Their primary practice

8550-574: The inlet and the right to maintain a repair and coaling station for ships here in 1887. The surprise attack on the harbor by the Imperial Japanese Navy on December 7, 1941, led the United States to declare war on the Empire of Japan , marking the United States' entry into World War II . Pearl Harbor was originally an extensive shallow embayment called Wai Momi (meaning 'Waters of Pearl') or Puʻuloa (meaning 'long hill') by

8664-493: The inner harbor. The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom signed the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 as supplemented by Convention on December 6, 1884. This treaty was ratified in 1887. On January 20, 1887, the United States Senate allowed the Navy the exclusive right to maintain a coaling and repair station at Pearl Harbor. (The US took possession on November 9 that year). The Spanish–American War of 1898 and

8778-482: The interior part of Shandong province. There, they would remain for two years until the end of the war. The Chefoo students arriving at Weihsien "had grown up in a very cloistered, old-fashioned, Bible-reading, soul-saving religious community." In Weihsien they found themselves members of a community of 1,500 people, mostly British and from all walks of life: businessmen, scholars, Roman Catholic priests, liberal Christians, an African-American jazz band, and more than

8892-463: The internees alone to sort out the details of their confined lives. The Chefoo staff attempted, mostly with success, to keep the Chefoo students isolated from other internees. They had their own school, separate from the several schools attended by other children in the camp. Romances and friendships between Chefoo students and other children in the camp were broken up by the teachers. Student Mary Previte said that she never feared for her own safety in

9006-557: The internees, three days earlier the Japanese had announced their surrender, but another two weeks would pass before the surrender papers were signed. The paratroopers were sent by the Office of Strategic Services the forerunner of the CIA , to liberate the internees. Unable to land in the compound because of the guards, they made a low drop from a B-24 into a nearby cornfield. A Salvation Army band began playing " The Star-Spangled Banner " and

9120-467: The introduction of co-education in 1934; the construction of a new teaching and preparatory bloc; the creation of the Chefoo Orchestra in 1930; the teaching of Chinese Studies; and the beginning of a Girl Guides company. In 1936, Chefoo School adopted the Chinese dolphin as its crest." The curriculum was British, focused on preparing Chefoo students for entrance to British universities. There was

9234-540: The islands and to the mainland aboard U.S. warships were arranged for members of the Hawaiian royal family and important island government officials. When King Lunalilo died in 1873, negotiations were underway for the cession of Pearl Harbor as a port for the duty-free export of sugar to the U.S. With the election of King Kalākaua in March 1874, a riot prompted landing of sailors from USS Tuscarora and Portsmouth . The British warship, HMS  Tenedos , also landed

9348-409: The legations in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese. As the situation grew more violent, the Eight Powers authorities at Dagu dispatched a second multinational force to Beijing on 10 June 1900. This force of 2,000 sailors and marines was under the command of Vice Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour , the largest contingent being British. The force moved by train from Dagu to Tianjin with the agreement of

9462-476: The legations that the diplomats and other foreigners depart Beijing under escort of the Chinese army within 24 hours. The next morning, diplomats from the besieged legations met to discuss the Empress's offer. The majority quickly agreed that they could not trust the Chinese army. Fearing that they would be killed, they agreed to refuse the Empress's demand. The German Imperial Envoy, Baron Clemens von Ketteler ,

9576-746: The legations. Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested Ottoman caliph Abdul Hamid II to find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to the Kaiser's request and sent Enver Pasha (not to be confused with the later Young Turk leader ) to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time. On 11 June, the first Boxer was seen in the Peking Legation Quarter . The German Minister Clemens von Ketteler and German soldiers captured

9690-486: The legations. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day a multinational force of 435 navy troops from eight countries debarked from warships and travelled by train from the Taku Forts to Beijing. They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions. On 5 June 1900, the railway line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside, and Beijing was isolated. On 11 June, at Yongdingmen ,

9804-605: The movement. A drought followed by floods in Shandong province in 1897–98 forced farmers to flee to cities and seek food. A major source of discontent in northern China was missionary activity. The Boxers opposed German missionaries in Shandong and in the German concession in Qingdao . The Treaty of Tientsin and the Convention of Peking , signed in 1860 after the Second Opium War , had granted foreign missionaries

9918-472: The moving in of troops in preparation for all-out war, as well as taking control of more land by force or by coerced long-term leases from the Qing. In 1899, the French minister in Beijing helped the missionaries to obtain an edict granting official status to every order in the Roman Catholic hierarchy, enabling local priests to support their people in legal or family disputes and bypass the local officials. After

10032-585: The opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great benefits" on China. On receipt of the news of the attack on the Dagu Forts on 19 June, Empress Dowager Cixi immediately sent an order to

10146-678: The opportunity to submit a proposal to Li Hongzhang to declare an independent democratic republic, although nothing came of the suggestion. The legations of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia and Japan were located in the Beijing Legation Quarter south of the Forbidden City . The Chinese army and Boxer irregulars besieged

10260-697: The permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters. It also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulu's. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $ 50,000 on March 1, 1869, to deepen the approaches to this harbor. After 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in business disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law and order. Periodic voyages among

10374-480: The prisoners hoisted their rescuers onto their shoulders. Suddenly, unexpectedly, the war was over for them, and they were free. Chefoo student Mary Previte recalled: "The camp went berserk. We didn't know the war was over, people were dancing, weeping, pounding the ground." The Japanese guards at the camp surrendered. It was late September before the Chefoo students were able to leave Weihsien. The 96 students who had been separated from their parents were transported by

10488-458: The protestors. Economic conditions in Shandong also contributed to rebellion. Northern Shandong's economy focused significantly on cotton production and was hampered by the importation of foreign cotton. Traffic along the Grand Canal was also decreasing, further eroding the economy. The area had also experienced periods of drought and flood. A major precipitating incident was anger at

10602-624: The railway in both behind directions was destroyed. They were attacked from all sides by Chinese irregulars and imperial troops. Five thousand of Dong Fuxiang's Gansu Braves and an unknown number of Boxers won a costly but major victory over Seymour's troops at the Battle of Langfang on 18 June. The Seymour force could not locate the Chinese artillery, which was raining shells upon their positions. Chinese troops employed mining, engineering, flooding, and simultaneous attacks. The Chinese also employed pincer movements , ambushes, and sniping with some success. On 18 June, Seymour learned of attacks on

10716-418: The region destroying their reputation and leading to Britain temporarily vacating their civilian workers from the front lines. In January 1900, with a majority of conservatives in the imperial court, Cixi changed her position on the Boxers and issued edicts in their defence, causing protests from foreign powers. Cixi urged provincial authorities to support the Boxers, although few did so. In the spring of 1900,

10830-493: The regular soldiers were noted for their poor marksmanship and inaccuracy, while cavalry was ill-organised and was not used to its full extent. Tactically, the Chinese still retained their belief in the superiority of defence, often withdrawing as soon as they were flanked, a tendency attributable to their lack of combat experience and training as well as a lack of initiative from commanders who would rather retreat than counterattack. However, accusations of cowardice were minimal; this

10944-755: The school in Kuling . By the first summer, there were 126 students. By May 1949, Communist forces had occupied Kuling. The school continued until 1951 when the China Inland Mission decided to withdraw completely from China. Staff and students of Chefoo School withdrew to Hong Kong between February and April 1951, where missionary parents waited for their children. Following the redeployment of missionaries throughout east Asia, new Chefoo schools were established in Japan (1951–1998), Malaya / Malaysia (1952–2001), Thailand (1952–1954), Taiwan (1954–1961), and

11058-459: The school was banned for many years, and many forgot the Chinese they had spoken when younger. Study of Chinese culture and language was not offered to students until 1917 and was not mandatory until 1934. "We were in a British compound in the middle of China," said one former student, "and we [might as well] have been in London." CIM policy demanded that its missionaries wear Chinese clothing and live

11172-478: The school. "The best ten years of my life," said one. Others said, "one big happy family," and "a wonderful atmosphere of sheer joyful faith, understanding, infinite patience, and love of the staff." The negative views included: "a Public School transplanted to the East with vast overdoses of religion" and "an isolated and abnormal society, fascinating but not healthy." One of the students, Mary Previte , later described

11286-424: The secretary of the Japanese legation, Sugiyama Akira, was attacked and killed by the forces of General Dong Fuxiang , who were guarding the southern part of the Beijing walled city. Armed with Mauser rifles but wearing traditional uniforms, Dong's troops had threatened the foreign legations in the fall of 1898 soon after arriving in Beijing, so much that United States Marines had been called to Beijing to guard

11400-469: The siege and on 17 June stormed the Dagu Fort at Tianjin . Empress Dowager Cixi , who had initially been hesitant, supported the Boxers and on 21 June issued an imperial decree that was a de facto declaration of war on the invading powers. Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favouring conciliation, led by Prince Qing . The supreme commander of the Chinese forces,

11514-489: The walls: Their yells were deafening, while the roar of gongs, drums, and horns sounded like thunder ... They waved their swords and stamped on the ground with their feet. They wore red turbans, sashes, and garters over blue cloth ... They were now only twenty yards from our gate. Three or four volleys from the Lebel rifles of our marines left more than fifty dead on the ground. Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor

11628-594: The war between Japan and China, did not arrive in Chefoo until January 1941. Chefoo had three departments—the Boys', Girls', and Preparatory School. In 1886 the Boys' and Girls' schools were separated. "In 1895 a Preparatory School for children aged 6 to 10 was opened and in 1896 a new Boys' School (ages 11 to 16) was built and enlargements made to the Girls' School (also ages 11 to 16) which opened in 1898. Head Master Pat Bruce (1930-1945) made significant changes at Chefoo such as

11742-612: The war, the Communist forces occupied north China and the school never returned to Chefoo. During the war, branches of the Chefoo School were temporarily opened at (Kiating) (1941–1944) (in a part of China not occupied by Japan), Kalimpong , India (1944–1946) and Shanghai (1946–1947). In 1947, the CIM purchased the buildings of the defunct Kuling American School in Kuling, Jiujiang , a hill station and rest and recreation community for missionaries. Students and staff gradually gathered at

11856-647: The west-facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward both positions by building barricades even closer. "The men all feel they are in a trap", said the US commander Capt. John Twiggs Myers , "and simply await the hour of execution". On 30 June, the Chinese forced the Germans off the Wall, leaving the American Marines alone in its defence. In June 1900, one American described the scene of 20,000 Boxers storming

11970-643: The whole Yangtze valley (defined as all provinces adjoining the Yangtze, as well as Henan and Zhejiang ), parts of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces and part of Tibet. Only Italy's request for Zhejiang was declined by the Chinese government. These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority. The Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and even established their municipal administration on several cities. In October 1898,

12084-681: Was a marked improvement from the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, as Chinese troops did not flee en masse as before. If led by courageous officers, the troops would often fight to the death as occurred under Nie Shicheng and Ma Yukun. On the other hand, Chinese artillery was well-regarded, and caused far more casualties than the infantry at Tientsin, and proving themselves superior to Allied artillery in counter-battery fire. The infantry, for their part, were commended for their good usage of cover and concealment in addition to their tenacity in resistance. The Boxers also targeted Jewish groups in

12198-413: Was a type of spiritual possession which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations, and incantations to deities. The opportunities to fight against Western encroachment were especially attractive to unemployed village men, many of whom were teenagers. The tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of

12312-485: Was an anti-imperialist movement which sought to expel foreigners from China and end the system of foreign concessions and treaty ports . The rebellion had multiple causes. Escalating tensions caused Chinese to turn against "foreign devils" who engaged in the Scramble for China in the late 19th century. The Western success at controlling China, growing anti-imperialist sentiment, and extreme weather conditions sparked

12426-755: Was founded in 1908 to operate as an association for all former students and past and present members of staff of the Chefoo Schools. A magazine entitled Chefoo (organ of the Chefoo Schools Association) was first published in 1908, and continued until 2018. Boxer Rebellion Boxer Protocol The Boxer Rebellion , also known as the Boxer Uprising , was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist , and anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901, towards

12540-413: Was infuriated with the actions of the Chinese army troops and determined to take his complaints to the royal court. Against the advice of the fellow foreigners, the baron left the legations with a single aide and a team of porters to carry his sedan chair. On his way to the palace, von Ketteler was killed on the streets of Beijing by a Manchu captain. His aide managed to escape the attack and carried word of

12654-400: Was limited success in terms of converts and establishing schools in a nation of about 400 million people. The missions faced escalating anger directed at the threat of cultural imperialism. The main result was the Boxer Rebellion, in which missions were attacked and thousands of Chinese Christians were massacred to destroy Western influences. The Righteous and Harmonious Fists arose in

12768-749: Was nicknamed the International Gun because the barrel was British, the carriage Italian, the shells Russian and the crew American. Chinese Christians in the legations led the foreigners to the cannon and it proved important in the defence. Also under siege in Beijing was the Northern Cathedral ( Beitang ) of the Catholic Church. The cathedral was defended by 43 French and Italian soldiers, 33 Catholic foreign priests and nuns, and about 3,200 Chinese Catholics. The defenders suffered heavy casualties from lack of food and from mines which

12882-471: Was the surname of the Ming imperial family. He announced that his goal was to "Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners" ( 扶清滅洋 fu Qing mie yang ). The enemy was seen as foreign influence. They decided the "primary devils" were the Christian missionaries while the "secondary devils" were the Chinese converts to Christianity, which both had either to repent, be driven out or killed. The Boxer Rebellion

12996-404: Was widely perceived as caused by "foreign aggression" inside, even though afterwards a majority of Chinese were grateful for the actions of the alliance. The Qing government was corrupt, common people often faced extortions from government officials and the government offered no protection from the violent actions of the Boxers. The military of the Qing dynasty had been dealt a severe blow by

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