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121-645: Heights, as shown in the panoramic photo (from left to right, view from the Babeș Peak): Cheia in Prahova is the source for several brands of bottled mineral water in Romania, including Keia Izvorul Zaganului Junior. 45°27′17″N 25°56′12″E  /  45.45472°N 25.93667°E  / 45.45472; 25.93667 This Prahova County location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bottled water Bottled water

242-472: A Rational Dissenter . Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised rational analysis of the natural world and the Bible. Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was David Hartley 's Observations on Man (1749). Hartley's psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a material theory of mind . Hartley aimed to construct

363-537: A heretic . Each year, Priestley travelled to London to consult with his close friend and publisher, Joseph Johnson , and to attend meetings of the Royal Society. When Priestley became its minister, Mill Hill Chapel was one of the oldest and most respected Dissenting congregations in England; however, during the early 18th century the congregation had fractured along doctrinal lines and was losing members to

484-428: A providentialist and naturalist account of history, arguing that the study of history furthered the comprehension of God's natural laws. Furthermore, his millennial perspective was closely tied to his optimism regarding scientific progress and the improvement of humanity. He believed that each age would improve upon the previous and that the study of history allowed people to perceive and to advance this progress. Since

605-424: A "mistake" for both Priestley and the congregation. Priestley yearned for urban life and theological debate, whereas Needham Market was a small, rural town with a congregation wedded to tradition. Attendance and donations dropped sharply when they discovered the extent of his heterodoxy . Although Priestley's aunt had promised her support if he became a minister, she refused any further assistance when she realised he

726-559: A Christian philosophy in which both religious and moral "facts" could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life. In his third year at Daventry, Priestley committed himself to the ministry, which he described as "the noblest of all professions". Robert Schofield , Priestley's major modern biographer, describes his first "call" in 1755 to the Dissenting parish in Needham Market , Suffolk, as

847-400: A Reformed English Church (1774), claiming that only the form of worship had been altered, not its substance, and attacking those who followed religion as a fashion. Priestley attended Lindsey's church regularly in the 1770s and occasionally preached there. He continued to support institutionalised Unitarianism for the rest of his life, writing several Defenses of Unitarianism and encouraging

968-893: A branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosophy, or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley's own invention". Furthermore, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley, in which he argues that science could destroy "undue and usurped authority" and that government has "reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine". Volume I of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air outlined several discoveries: "nitrous air" ( nitric oxide , NO); "vapor of spirit of salt", later called "acid air" or "marine acid air" ( anhydrous hydrochloric acid , HCl); "alkaline air" ( ammonia , NH 3 ); "diminished" or "dephlogisticated nitrous air" ( nitrous oxide , N 2 O); and, most famously, "dephlogisticated air" ( oxygen , O 2 ) as well as experimental findings that showed plants revitalised enclosed volumes of air,

1089-601: A century; Alessandro Volta (who later invented the battery), William Herschel (who discovered infrared radiation ), and Henry Cavendish (who discovered hydrogen ) all relied upon it. Priestley wrote a popular version of the History of Electricity for the general public titled A Familiar Introduction to the Study of Electricity (1768). He marketed the book with his brother Timothy, but unsuccessfully. Perhaps prompted by Mary Priestley's ill health, or financial problems, or

1210-538: A change in Priestley's theological thinking that is critical to understanding his later writings—it paved the way for his materialism and necessitarianism (the latter being the belief that a divine being acts in accordance with necessary metaphysical laws). Priestley's major argument in the Institutes was that the only revealed religious truths that could be accepted were those that matched one's experience of

1331-444: A cure for scurvy . He then published a pamphlet with Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air (1772). Priestley did not exploit the commercial potential of carbonated water, but others such as J. J. Schweppe made fortunes from it. For his discovery of carbonated water Priestley has been labelled "the father of the soft drink ", with the beverage company Schweppes regarding him as "the father of our industry". In 1773,

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1452-850: A desire to prove himself to the community that had rejected him in his childhood, Priestley moved with his family from Warrington to Leeds in 1767, and he became Mill Hill Chapel 's minister. Two sons were born to the Priestleys in Leeds: Joseph, Junior, on 24 July 1768 and William three years later. Theophilus Lindsey , a rector at Catterick, Yorkshire , became one of Priestley's few friends in Leeds, of whom he wrote: "I never chose to publish any thing of moment relating to theology, without consulting him." Although Priestley had extended family living around Leeds, they do not appear to have communicated. Schofield conjectures that they considered him

1573-567: A discovery that would eventually lead to the discovery of photosynthesis by Jan Ingenhousz . Priestley also developed a "nitrous air test" to determine the "goodness of air". Using a pneumatic trough , he would mix nitrous air with a test sample, over water or mercury, and measure the decrease in volume—the principle of eudiometry . After a small history of the study of airs, he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style. As an early biographer writes, "whatever he knows or thinks he tells: doubts, perplexities, blunders are set down with

1694-565: A full member. Priestley's illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time. In preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon , he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic , and Arabic. He was tutored by the Reverend George Haggerstone, who first introduced him to higher mathematics, natural philosophy , logic, and metaphysics through

1815-494: A half litre of small pack bottled water is 111 grams CO 2 equivalent. By comparison, the same sized PET plastic-bottled soft drink produces 240 grams CO 2 equivalent. Soft drink bottles require much thicker plastic due to carbonation, and therefore many more grams of CO 2 equivalent. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the national standards body of India working under the aegis of Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution , Government of India . It

1936-545: A lack of funds, he was forced to cease publishing the journal. However, he did revive it briefly in 1784 with similar results. Many of Priestley's political writings supported the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts , which restricted the rights of Dissenters. They could not hold political office, serve in the armed forces, or attend Oxford and Cambridge unless they subscribed to the Thirty-nine Articles of

2057-583: A market for imitation products. Carbonated waters developed to reproduce the natural effervescence of spring-bottled water, and in 1809 Joseph Hawkins was issued the first U.S. patent for "imitation" mineral water. Technological innovation in the 19th century led to cheaper glass and quicker bottling. So bottled water could be produced on a larger scale and grew in popularity. Many saw bottled water as safer than municipal water supplies, which could spread diseases such as cholera and typhoid . By around 1850, one of America's most popular bottlers, Saratoga Springs,

2178-611: A medallion of Priestley in cream-on-blue jasperware . On 23 June 1762, Priestley married Mary Wilkinson of Wrexham . Of his marriage, Priestley wrote: This proved a very suitable and happy connexion, my wife being a woman of an excellent understanding, much improved by reading, of great fortitude and strength of mind, and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous; feeling strongly for others, and little for herself. Also, greatly excelling in every thing relating to household affairs, she entirely relieved me of all concern of that kind, which allowed me to give all my time to

2299-641: A new Christian denomination that would not restrict its members' beliefs, Priestley and others hurried to his aid. On 17 April 1774, Lindsey held the first Unitarian service in Britain, at the newly formed Essex Street Chapel in London; he had even designed his own liturgy, of which many were critical. Priestley defended his friend in the pamphlet Letter to a Layman, on the Subject of the Rev. Mr. Lindsey's Proposal for

2420-412: A philosophy that incorporates four concepts: determinism , materialism , causation , and necessitarianism . By studying the natural world, he argued, people would learn how to become more compassionate, happy, and prosperous. Priestley strongly suggested that there is no mind-body duality , and put forth a materialist philosophy in these works; that is, one founded on the principle that everything in

2541-482: A proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian millennium . Priestley, who strongly believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters , which also led him to help found Unitarianism in England . The controversial nature of Priestley's publications, combined with his outspoken support of

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2662-590: A series of major metaphysical texts published between 1774 and 1780— An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind (1774), Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas (1775), Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777), The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated (1777), and Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever (1780)—he argues for

2783-437: Is drinking water (e.g., well water , distilled water , reverse osmosis water , mineral water , or spring water ) packaged in plastic or glass water bottles . Bottled water may be carbonated or not, with packaging sizes ranging from small single serving bottles to large carboys for water coolers . The consumption of bottled water is influenced by factors such as convenience, taste, perceived safety, and concerns over

2904-530: Is 100% recyclable, though recycling rates vary by region. In 2014, approximately 1.8 billion pounds of post-consumer PET bottles were collected in the United States and 1.75 million metric tons (approximately 3.9 billion pounds) were collected in the European Union, making it the most recycled plastic in both the United States and Europe. In the United States, the recycling rate for PET packaging

3025-418: Is a description of contemporary theories about electricity and suggestions for future research. The volume also contains extensive comments on Priestley's views that scientific inquiries be presented with all reasoning in one's discovery path, including false leads and mistakes. He contrasted his narrative approach with Newton's analytical proof-like approach which did not facilitate future researchers to continue

3146-528: Is completely prohibited, including the addition of any element that is likely to change bacterial colony counts. If natural mineral water is effervescent , it must be labelled accordingly, depending on the origin of the carbon dioxide: naturally carbonated natural mineral water (no introduction of CO 2 ); natural mineral water fortified with gas from the spring (reintroduction of CO 2 ); carbonated natural mineral water (CO 2 added following strict guidelines). Directive 2001–83/EC deals with bottled water that

3267-514: Is considered a "medicinal product" and is thus excluded from the scope of the other regulation. The bottled water industry in India witnessed a boom in the late 1990s soon after Bisleri launched its packaged drinking water in the country. This significant growth was fuelled by a surge in advertising by the industry players that "bottled water was pure and healthy". The total market was valued at ₹ 60 billion (US$ 720 million) in 2013, of which

3388-505: Is consonant with Christianity, a position based on his understanding of the natural world. Like the rest of nature, man's mind is subject to the laws of causation, Priestley contended, but because a benevolent God created these laws, the world and the people in it will eventually be perfected. Evil is therefore only an imperfect understanding of the world. Although Priestley's philosophical work has been characterised as "audacious and original", it partakes of older philosophical traditions on

3509-489: Is credited with his independent discovery of oxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of carbonated water , his writings on electricity , and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become

3630-589: Is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986. The minister in charge of the ministry or department having administrative control of the BIS is the ex-officio president of the BIS. Bottled water is comprehensively regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a packaged food product. By law, the FDA regulations for bottled water must be at least as stringent as

3751-629: Is often stored as part of an emergency kit in case of natural disaster . The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the "safest" and "most reliable" source of drinking water is store-bought bottled water. Commonly, disaster management experts recommend storing 1-US-gallon (3.8 L) of water per person, per day for at least three days. This amount is intended to include water for drinking and cooking as well as water for hand washing , washing dishes, and personal hygiene . Factory containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged. The sell-by date

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3872-501: Is used to produce polyester fibers, and another quarter is used in the production of preformed plastic containers—such as egg cartons, fruit boxes, and other plastic beverage bottles. On average, it takes 1.32 litres (L) of water to produce 1 L of bottled water. This includes 1 L of ingredient water and 0.32 L of water used in facility processes such as treatment, bottling, and maintenance. Small pack facilities (facilities that package water in containers between 8 oz. and 2.5 gallons) use

3993-445: Is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or food safety . The most common packaging material for single-serve, non-carbonated bottled water in the United States and Europe is polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic. Marked in many countries with resin identification code number "1", PET

4114-486: The Theological Repository in 1768, a journal committed to the open and rational inquiry of theological questions. Although he promised to print any contribution, only like-minded authors submitted articles. He was, therefore, obliged to provide much of the journal's content himself. This material also became the basis for many of his later theological and metaphysical works. After only a few years, due to

4235-423: The 1st Marquess of Landsdowne – had a rupture, the precise reasons for which remain unclear. Shelburne blamed Priestley's health, while Priestley claimed Shelburne had no further use for him. Some contemporaries speculated that Priestley's outspokenness had hurt Shelburne's political career. Schofield argues that the most likely reason was Shelburne's recent marriage to Louisa Fitzpatrick—apparently, she did not like

4356-639: The American Revolution and later the French Revolution , aroused public and governmental contempt; eventually forcing him to flee in 1791, first to London and then to the United States, after a mob burned down his Birmingham home and church. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania . A scholar and teacher throughout his life, Priestley made significant contributions to pedagogy , including

4477-501: The Environmental Protection Agency standards for tap water. The FDA has established "Standards of Identity" for bottled water products sold in the U.S. For a product to be considered "bottled water", it cannot contain sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences) and must be calorie-free and sugar-free. If flavors, extracts and essences—derived from spice or fruit—are added to

4598-520: The burgeoning chemistry of his day. Instead, he focused on gases and "changes in their sensible properties", as had natural philosophers before him. He isolated carbon monoxide (CO), but apparently did not realise that it was a separate "air". In August 1774 he isolated an "air" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, Priestley replicated

4719-404: The chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. Priestley's science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism . In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism , and determinism , a project that has been called "audacious and original". He believed that

4840-439: The general law was enunciated by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in the 1780s. Priestley's strength as a natural philosopher was qualitative rather than quantitative and his observation of "a current of real air" between two electrified points would later interest Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell as they investigated electromagnetism . Priestley's text became the standard history of electricity for over

4961-458: The "Athens of the North" (of England) during the 18th century, encouraged Priestley's growing interest in natural philosophy. He gave lectures on anatomy and performed experiments regarding temperature with another tutor at Warrington, his friend John Seddon . Despite Priestley's busy teaching schedule, he decided to write a history of electricity. Friends introduced him to the major experimenters in

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5082-520: The "corruptions" which had accumulated over the centuries. The fourth part of the Institutes , An History of the Corruptions of Christianity , became so long that he was forced to issue it separately in 1782. Priestley believed that the Corruptions was "the most valuable" work he ever published. In demanding that his readers apply the logic of the emerging sciences and comparative history to

5203-444: The (corpuscular) particle theory of light, influenced by the works of Reverend John Rowning and others. Furthermore, he did not include any of the practical sections that had made his History of Electricity so useful to practising natural philosophers. Unlike his History of Electricity , it was not popular and had only one edition, although it was the only English book on the topic for 150 years. The hastily written text sold poorly;

5324-588: The 19th century and widely sold throughout the British Empire ; in 1977 Perrier launched in the United States. Today, bottled water is the most popular commercial beverage in the United States, with about 25% of the consumption share versus 18.7% for soft drinks. Many of the early developments in the field of chemistry can be attributed to the study of natural mineral waters and attempts to replicate them for commercial sale. Joseph Priestley , who discovered oxygen in 1775, made his first contributions to

5445-458: The Bible and Christianity, he alienated religious and scientific readers alike—scientific readers did not appreciate seeing science used in the defence of religion and religious readers dismissed the application of science to religion. Priestley engaged in numerous political and religious pamphlet wars. According to Schofield, "he entered each controversy with a cheerful conviction that he was right, while most of his opponents were convinced, from

5566-657: The CFIA website. The regulations specific to bottled water is in Division 12 and 15, which specify what can be added, such as the amount of arsenic and lead . Regulations are always being updated to conform with new scientific data, laws, new products, and new improvements. In terms of the types of water sold, spring and mineral water must meet the following criteria: In Canada, there are two categories of bottled water: 1) spring/ mineral water , or 2) water other than mineral water or spring water. Emergency preparedness refers to

5687-468: The Church of England was a crime and that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects. Furious, Priestley lashed out with his Remarks on Dr. Blackstone's Commentaries (1769), correcting Blackstone's interpretation of the law, his grammar (a highly politicised subject at the time), and history. Blackstone, chastened, altered subsequent editions of his Commentaries : he rephrased the offending passages and removed

5808-574: The Church of England. Dissenters repeatedly petitioned Parliament to repeal the Acts, arguing that they were being treated as second-class citizens. Priestley's friends, particularly other Rational Dissenters, urged him to publish a work on the injustices experienced by Dissenters; the result was his Essay on the First Principles of Government (1768). An early work of modern liberal political theory and Priestley's most thorough treatment of

5929-645: The Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Regulations in Division 12, Part B of the Act must be met before it is approved for sale. Some of the regulations include: labeling terms, safety standards (i.e.: what is acceptable), and microbiological standards (i.e.: chlorine ). In addition to this, the type of filtration method the water has gone through must be shown on the label, as stated in Section B.12.009 Additional information regarding regulations can be found on

6050-562: The Royal Society recognised Priestley's achievements in natural philosophy by awarding him the Copley Medal . Priestley's friends wanted to find him a more financially secure position. In 1772, prompted by Richard Price and Benjamin Franklin, Lord Shelburne wrote to Priestley asking him to direct the education of his children and to act as his general assistant. Although Priestley was reluctant to sacrifice his ministry, he accepted

6171-503: The United States consumes 31.5  TWh (107.4  trillion   Btu ) of energy annually, which represents about 0.07% of yearly energy consumption in the country. According to the same study, 6.8 million tons of CO 2 equivalent are emitted by the bottled water industry a year in the United States, about 0.08% of annual emissions. An Aetna Group study in 2015 concluded that each litre of bottled water requires 240 kilojoules of energy to produce. The lifecycle carbon footprint for

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6292-466: The United States, bottled water production represents 0.011% of annual water consumption. Critics of bottled water argue that the industry should take in to account not just water used in its production and packaging process, but the total water footprint of its supply chain, which includes water used in the production of its packaging. A 2011 IBWA lifecycle inventory study found that the production, packaging, and transportation of bottled water within

6413-591: The average American drinking 41.9 gallons of bottled water annually. In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water . The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia . From 1970 (16 brands) over 1998 (50 brands) to 2012 (195 brands),

6534-509: The charismatic Methodist movement . Priestley believed that he could strengthen the bonds of the congregation by educating the young people there. In his three-volume Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion (1772–74), Priestley outlined his theories of religious instruction. More importantly, he laid out his belief in Socinianism . The doctrines he explicated would become the standards for Unitarians in Britain. This work marked

6655-627: The contaminated tap water was blamed for a massive outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease according to the Natural Resources Defense Council . Joseph Priestley Joseph Priestley FRS ( / ˈ p r iː s t l i / ; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist , Unitarian, natural philosopher , separatist theologian , grammarian , multi-subject educator and classical liberal political theorist . He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science. Priestley

6776-534: The cost of researching, writing, and publishing the Optics convinced Priestley to abandon his history of experimental philosophy. Priestley was considered for the position of astronomer on James Cook 's second voyage to the South Seas , but was not chosen. Still, he contributed in a small way to the voyage: he provided the crew with a method for making carbonated water , which he erroneously speculated might be

6897-418: The country. The U.S. is the second largest consumer market for bottled water in the world, followed by Mexico, Indonesia, and Brazil. China surpassed the United States to take the lead in 2013. In 2016, bottled water outsold carbonated soft drinks (by volume) to become the number one packaged beverage in the U.S. In 2018, bottled water consumption increased to 14 billion gallons, up 5.8 percent from 2017, with

7018-506: The description of English grammar, particularly his efforts to dissociate it from Latin grammar , led 20th-century scholars to describe him as "one of the great grammarians of his time". After the publication of Rudiments and the success of Priestley's school, Warrington Academy offered him a teaching position in 1761. In 1761, Priestley moved to Warrington in Cheshire and assumed the post of tutor of modern languages and rhetoric at

7139-402: The distribution of bottled water to the 500,000 area residents impacted by the ban. Additionally, the city of Flint, MI, supplied bottled water to its residents for four years after it was discovered that their tap water was contamintated with lead, and elevated levels of total trihalomethanes (TTHM) – cancer-causing chemicals that are by-products of the chlorination of water. In addition,

7260-457: The electrical properties of materials and on the electrical effects of chemical transformations demonstrated Priestley's early and ongoing interest in the relationship between chemical substances and electricity. Based on experiments with charged spheres, Priestley was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law , similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation . He did not generalise or elaborate on this, and

7381-611: The experiment for others, including French chemist Antoine Lavoisier . After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered "vitriolic acid air" ( sulphur dioxide , SO 2 ). In March he wrote to several people regarding the new "air" that he had discovered in August. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and a paper outlining the discovery, titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air",

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7502-649: The fastest growth rate of per capita consumption of bottled water. Lebanon has seven major brands of bottled mineral water for local consumption and for exportation to the water-starved countries on the Arabian Peninsula and in the Persian Gulf . Bottled water in New Zealand is regulated by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and must comply with the Food Act 1981 . From July 2009 fluoride

7623-534: The field in Britain— John Canton , William Watson , Timothy Lane , and the visiting Benjamin Franklin who encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he wanted to include in his history. Priestley also consulted with Franklin during the latter's kite experiments. In the process of replicating others' experiments, Priestley became intrigued by unanswered questions and was prompted to undertake experiments of his own design. (Impressed with his Charts and

7744-453: The field of chemistry by dissolving carbon dioxide in water, for which he was awarded the Copley Medal in 1773. He later worked with Johann Jacob Schweppe , founder of Schweppes , in developing "aerated" waters for commercial sale. In 1973, DuPont engineer Nathaniel Wyeth patented Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, the first plastic bottle to withstand the pressure of carbonated liquids. Today, PET plastic has replaced glass as

7865-592: The fifth reported on the conductivity of charcoals from different sources. His subsequent experimental work focused on chemistry and pneumatics . Priestley published the first volume of his projected history of experimental philosophy, The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light and Colours (referred to as his Optics ), in 1772. He paid careful attention to the history of optics and presented excellent explanations of early optics experiments, but his mathematical deficiencies caused him to dismiss several important contemporary theories. He followed

7986-568: The first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been the first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (that is, the first to explain oxygen without phlogiston theory). In his paper "Observations on Respiration and the Use of the Blood", Priestley was the first to suggest a connection between blood and air, although he did so using phlogiston theory . In typical Priestley fashion, he prefaced

8107-532: The foundation of new Unitarian chapels throughout Britain and the United States. Priestley's years in Calne were the only ones in his life dominated by scientific investigations; they were also the most scientifically fruitful. His experiments were almost entirely confined to "airs", and out of this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86). These experiments helped repudiate

8228-432: The ground and flowed over rock . Treatment of mineral water is restricted to removal of unstable elements such as iron and sulfur compounds. Treatment for such minerals may extend only to filtration or decanting with oxygenation . Free carbon dioxide may be removed only by physical methods, and the regulations for introduction (or reintroduction) of CO 2 are strictly defined. Disinfection of natural mineral water

8349-403: The inquiry. Priestley reported some of his own discoveries in the second section, such as the conductivity of charcoal and other substances and the continuum between conductors and non-conductors. This discovery overturned what he described as "one of the earliest and universally received maxims of electricity", that only water and metals could conduct electricity. This and other experiments on

8470-412: The last vestiges of the theory of four elements , which Priestley attempted to replace with his own variation of phlogiston theory . According to that 18th-century theory, the combustion or oxidation of a substance corresponded to the release of a material substance, phlogiston . Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer writes, it "has been seen as

8591-607: The least amount of water (1.26 L per 1 L), followed by mixed packaging facilities (1.46 L per 1 L). Facilities that package water for home and office delivery in sizes of 2.5 gallons to 5 gallons use the most water (1.56 L per 1 L). Bottled water has lower water usage than bottled soft drinks, which average 2.02 L per 1 L, as well as beer (4 L per 1 L) and wine (4.74 L per 1 L). The larger per-litre water consumption of these drinks can be attributed to additional ingredients and production processes, such as flavor mixing and carbonization for soft drinks and fermentation for beer and wine. In

8712-552: The location's tap water. In North America, these machines are typically located outside of supermarkets. It is not uncommon for businesses or individuals to subscribe to a bottled water service. These services deliver water either monthly or weekly, sometimes even daily. Traditionally, water in glass bottles (jugs) was provided to electric coolers in areas of businesses without plumbing. Plastic containers have replaced those glass jugs, however, dispensers at businesses now may stand alongside existing water taps or fountains. Bottled water

8833-646: The manufacturer, packer or distributor, net weight, and, if required, nutrition labeling. Public water systems are required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide households in their service territories with a Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) that provides information on the quality of their water during the previous year. Such disclosures are not required by the FDA of any packaged food or beverage product, including bottled water. All packaged foods and beverages, must be manufactured according to FDA regulations and must meet all applicable quality and safety standards. In Canada, bottled water must meet

8954-464: The manuscript of his history of electricity, Canton, Franklin, Watson, and Richard Price nominated Priestley for a fellowship in the Royal Society ; he was accepted in 1766.) In 1767, the 700-page The History and Present State of Electricity was published to positive reviews. The first half of the text is a history of the study of electricity to 1766; the second and more influential half

9075-409: The material universe. Leibniz and Priestley share an optimism that God has chosen the chain of events benevolently; however, Priestley believed that the events were leading to a glorious millennial conclusion, whereas for Leibniz the entire chain of events was optimal in and of itself, as compared with other conceivable chains of events. When Priestley's friend Theophilus Lindsey decided to found

9196-572: The most influential timelines published in the 18th century. Both were popular for decades, and the trustees of Warrington were so impressed with Priestley's lectures and charts that they arranged for the University of Edinburgh to grant him a Doctor of Law degree in 1764. During this period Priestley also regularly delivered lectures on rhetoric that were later published in 1777 as A Course of Lectures on Oratory and Criticism . The intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Warrington, often called

9317-400: The most refreshing candour." Priestley also described his cheap and easy-to-assemble experimental apparatus; his colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce his experiments. Faced with inconsistent experimental results, Priestley employed phlogiston theory. This led him to conclude that there were only three types of "air": "fixed", "alkaline", and "acid". Priestley dismissed

9438-662: The natural world. Since his views of religion were tied deeply to his understanding of nature, the text's theism rested on the argument from design . The Institutes shocked and appalled many readers, primarily because it challenged basic Christian orthodoxies, such as the divinity of Christ and the miracle of the Virgin Birth . Methodists in Leeds penned a hymn asking God to "the Unitarian fiend expel / And chase his doctrine back to Hell." Priestley wanted to return Christianity to its "primitive" or "pure" form by eliminating

9559-591: The number of mineral water brands in the U.S. has grown exponentially. China： In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates all packaged foods and beverage products, including bottled water, and mandates labeling requirements. FDA labeling requirements include a statement of the type of water in the container, compliance with the applicable definitions in the FDA Standards of Identity, ingredient labeling, name and place of business of

9680-497: The outset, that he was willfully and maliciously wrong. He was able, then, to contrast his sweet reasonableness to their personal rancor", but as Schofield points out Priestley rarely altered his opinion as a result of these debates. While at Leeds he wrote controversial pamphlets on the Lord's Supper and on Calvinist doctrine; thousands of copies were published, making them some of Priestley's most widely read works. Priestley founded

9801-471: The paper with a history of the study of respiration. A year later, clearly influenced by Priestley, Lavoisier was also discussing respiration at the Académie des sciences . Lavoisier's work began the long train of discovery that produced papers on oxygen respiration and culminated in the overthrow of phlogiston theory and the establishment of modern chemistry. Around 1779 Priestley and Shelburne – soon to be

9922-518: The position, resigning from Mill Hill Chapel on 20 December 1772, and preaching his last sermon on 16 May 1773. In 1773, the Priestleys moved to Calne in Wiltshire , and a year later Lord Shelburne and Priestley took a tour of Europe. According to Priestley's close friend Theophilus Lindsey , Priestley was "much improved by this view of mankind at large". Upon their return, Priestley easily fulfilled his duties as librarian and tutor. The workload

10043-439: The preface how important such discoveries were to rational religion. His paper narrated the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements; thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as both Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been

10164-550: The preferred material for single-serving bottled water containers due to its light weight and resistance to breaking. Some of the more common types of bottled water are: The Beverage Marketing Corporation defines the bottled water market segment as "retail PET, retail bulk, home and office delivery, vending, domestic sparkling and imports", but excluding "flavored and enhanced water." A number of cities and companies worldwide have vending machines that dispense purified water into customers' own containers. All dispensers filter

10285-445: The problems of free will, determinism, and materialism. For example, the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza argued for absolute determinism and absolute materialism. Like Spinoza and Priestley, Leibniz argued that human will was completely determined by natural laws; unlike them, Leibniz argued for a "parallel universe" of immaterial objects (such as human souls) so arranged by God that its outcomes agree exactly with those of

10406-575: The product label. The Council of Canadians , a social action organization, stressed the need for bottled water industry reform after launching a boycott of Nestlé in September 2016 after the company outbid a small town aiming to secure a long-term water supply through a local well as the country battles drought and depletion of ground water reserves. Premier Kathleen Wynne stated that her government will look for ways to put community needs ahead of bottled water corporations, saying "as we look at

10527-643: The progress of humanity and, paradoxically, the loss of a pure, "primitive Christianity". In his Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life (1765), Lectures on History and General Policy (1788), and other works, Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class students. He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history. Priestley's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary; he narrated

10648-400: The prosecution of my studies, and the other duties of my station. On 17 April 1763, they had a daughter, whom they named Sarah after Priestley's aunt. All of the books Priestley published while at Warrington emphasised the study of history; Priestley considered it essential for worldly success as well as religious growth. He wrote histories of science and Christianity in an effort to reveal

10769-428: The publication of a seminal work on English grammar and books on history; he prepared some of the most influential early timelines. The educational writings were among Priestley's most popular works. Arguably his metaphysical works, however, had the most lasting influence, as now considered primary sources for utilitarianism by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham , John Stuart Mill , and Herbert Spencer . Priestley

10890-408: The purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air". He had discovered oxygen gas (O 2 ). Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air , published in 1776. He did not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argued in

11011-568: The quality of municipal tap water . Concerns about the environmental impact of bottled water, including the production and disposal of plastic bottles, have led to calls for more sustainable practices in the industry. Although vessels to bottle and transport water were part of the earliest human civilizations, bottling water began in the United Kingdom with the first water bottling at the Holy Well in 1622. The demand for bottled water

11132-483: The same quality water. Despite ongoing water restrictions , an application to extract groundwater for bottled water was approved in 2020. Directive 2009–54/EC deals with the marketing and exploitation of natural mineral waters in the European Union . The two main types of bottled water recognized are mineral water and spring water. Broadly speaking, "mineral water" is groundwater that has emerged from

11253-446: The sections claiming that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects, but he retained his description of Dissent as a crime. Although Priestley claimed that natural philosophy was only a hobby, he took it seriously. In his History of Electricity , he described the scientist as promoting the "security and happiness of mankind". Priestley's science was eminently practical and he rarely concerned himself with theoretical questions; his model

11374-464: The standards in the Food and Drugs Act & Regulations (FDAR) as it is considered a food. The FDAR works in partnership with Health Canada and Canadian in developing the policies regarding bottled water. The CFIA focuses more on regulations pertaining to packaging, labeling, advertising, and other safety practices, whereas the FDAR focuses more on the water itself. For example, the bottled water must meet

11495-506: The state. Priestley's later radicalism emerged from his belief that the British government was infringing upon these individual freedoms. Priestley also defended the rights of Dissenters against the attacks of William Blackstone , an eminent legal theorist, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–69) had become the standard legal guide. Blackstone's book stated that dissent from

11616-761: The steps taken prior to a natural disaster or emergency to ensure safety throughout the event. The American Red Cross and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommend that individuals and families maintain disaster supply kits in the event that an emergency disrupts food supply or public water systems, blocks roads, or leaves people unable to find essentials. Following disasters such as floods, blizzards, or earthquakes, water sources can be cut off or contaminated, limiting access to safe, clean drinking water. For this reason, FEMA recommends that all disaster supply kits include one gallon of water per person per day for at least three days for drinking and sanitation. In hot climates, FEMA recommends doubling this quantity. For

11737-643: The study of history was a moral imperative for Priestley, he also promoted the education of middle-class women, which was unusual at the time. Some scholars of education have described Priestley as the most important English writer on education between the 17th-century John Locke and the 19th-century Herbert Spencer . Lectures on History was well received and was employed by many educational institutions, such as New College at Hackney, Brown , Princeton , Yale , and Cambridge . Priestley designed two Charts to serve as visual study aids for his Lectures . These charts are in fact timelines; they have been described as

11858-402: The subject, it—unusually for the time—distinguished political rights from civil rights with precision and argued for expansive civil rights. Priestley identified separate private and public spheres, contending that the government should have control only over the public sphere. Education and religion, in particular, he maintained, were matters of private conscience and should not be administered by

11979-459: The top five players ( Bisleri , PepsiCo , Coca-Cola and Parle ) accounted for 67% of the market share. This market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 22%, to reach ₹ 160 billion (US$ 1.9 billion) in 2018. In 2016, the state of Sikkim announced restrictions on the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products as it is associated with adverse health and environment impacts. Lebanon has one of

12100-520: The town's Dissenting academy , although he would have preferred to teach mathematics and natural philosophy. He fitted in well at Warrington, and made friends quickly. These included the doctor and writer John Aikin , his sister the children's author Anna Laetitia Aikin , and the potter and businessman Josiah Wedgwood . Wedgwood met Priestley in 1762, after a fall from his horse. Wedgwood and Priestley met rarely, but exchanged letters, advice on chemistry, and laboratory equipment. Wedgwood eventually created

12221-447: The town's Hospital Street; his time there was happier. The congregation cared less about Priestley's heterodoxy and he successfully established a school. Unlike many schoolmasters of the time, Priestley taught his students natural philosophy and even bought scientific instruments for them. Appalled at the quality of the available English grammar books, Priestley wrote his own: The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761). His innovations in

12342-521: The universe is made of matter that we can perceive. He also contended that discussing the soul is impossible because it is made of a divine substance, and humanity cannot perceive the divine. Despite his separation of the divine from the mortal, this position shocked and angered many of his readers, who believed that such a duality was necessary for the soul to exist. Responding to Baron d'Holbach 's Système de la Nature (1770) and David Hume 's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) as well as

12463-472: The water bottling industry, that has to be a question because we're talking about what we could argue is our most precious resource" that they have this "discussion about our water, the status of and the treatment of water bottling companies, that needs to be taken into consideration". Global bottled water consumption crossed the 3 billion hectoliter threshold in 2014. In 2017, the global rate of consumption rose by an estimated 7.6 percent. Per capita consumption

12584-600: The water of the Hotwell not only over England but all over the world." The first commercially distributed water in America was bottled and sold by Jackson's Spa in Boston in 1767. Early drinkers of bottled spa waters believed that the water at these mineral springs had therapeutic properties and that bathing in or drinking the water could help treat many common ailments. The popularity of bottled mineral waters quickly led to

12705-571: The water supply, FEMA recommends commercially bottled water kept in a cool, dark place. As an alternative, FEMA recommends using disinfected food-grade water containers to store tap water and replacing the water every six months. In August 2014, city officials in Toledo, Ohio, banned local tap water after toxins from an algae bloom in Lake Erie were found in the city's water supply. The American Red Cross and AmeriCares responded by helping coordinate

12826-616: The water, these additions must comprise less than 1% by weight of the final product. The FDA Code of Federal Regulations establishes limitations for the amount of fluoride that can be added to water. Mineral water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). "Purified water" is defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia . Food Standards Australia New Zealand 's Food Standards Code limits fluoride in bottled water to between 0.6 and 1.0 milligrams per litre, and requires any addition to be specified on

12947-572: The wealthy and childless Sarah (d. 1764) and John Keighley, 3 miles (4.8 km) from Fieldhead. Priestley was a precocious child—at the age of four, he could flawlessly recite all 107 questions and answers of the Westminster Shorter Catechism —and his aunt sought the best education for him, intending him to enter ministry. During his youth, Priestley attended local schools, where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he

13068-446: The works of Isaac Watts , Willem 's Gravesande , and John Locke . Priestley eventually decided to return to his theological studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry , a Dissenting academy. Because he was already widely read, Priestley was allowed to omit the first two years of coursework. He continued his intense study; this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward and he became

13189-534: The works of the French philosophers , Priestley maintained that materialism and determinism could be reconciled with a belief in God. He criticised those whose faith was shaped by books and fashion, drawing an analogy between the scepticism of educated men and the credulity of the masses. Maintaining that humans had no free will , Priestley argued that what he called "philosophical necessity" (akin to absolute determinism)

13310-464: Was 32% in 2014; in the European Union, the recycling rate for PET packaging for the same period was approximately 52%. The National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR), the trade association for the PET plastic packaging industry in the United States and Canada, identifies five major, generic end-use categories for recycled PET plastic: In Europe, more than one-third of recovered PET plastic

13431-612: Was 50.1 liters, up by 3 liters from 2016's 47.1 liters. The Australasian Bottled Water Institute is a regional member of the International Council of Bottled Water Associations. The bottled water industry in Australia is worth approximately $ 400 million per year, An upmarket restaurant in Sydney has stopped selling bottled water and started using a machine costing A$ 5000 to filter, chill and carbonate tap water to get

13552-423: Was allowed to be present in bottled water as an additive or as a natural occurring mineral. Due to contaminated water being widespread, in the mid-1980s urban families started installing filtration units at home. This later developed into companies providing mineral water delivery services at home. Use of these 1-US-gallon (3.8 L) bottles that could be attached to a dispenser is still widespread. Bottled water

13673-642: Was born in Birstall (near Batley ) in the West Riding of Yorkshire , to an established English Dissenting family who did not conform to the Church of England . He was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one. He returned home five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle,

13794-497: Was dying. Raised as a devout Calvinist , he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his theological upbringing, causing him to reject election and to accept universal salvation . As a result, the elders of his home church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike , near Leeds, refused him admission as

13915-484: Was fueled in large part by the resurgence in spa-going and water therapy among Europeans and American colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries. 'Bristol Water' taken from the spa at Hotwells was one of the first drinking waters to be bottled and marketed widely. Daniel Defoe noted in 1724 that there were over 15 glasshouses in Bristol, "which are more than in London...and vast numbers of bottles are used for sending

14036-426: Was his close friend, Benjamin Franklin. When he moved to Leeds , Priestley continued his electrical and chemical experiments (the latter aided by a steady supply of carbon dioxide from a neighbouring brewery). Between 1767 and 1770, he presented five papers to the Royal Society from these initial experiments; the first four papers explored coronal discharges and other phenomena related to electrical discharge , while

14157-496: Was intentionally light, allowing him time to pursue his scientific investigations and theological interests. Priestley also became a political adviser to Shelburne, gathering information on parliamentary issues and serving as a liaison between Shelburne and the Dissenting and American interests. When the Priestleys' third son was born on 24 May 1777, they named him Henry at the lord's request. Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne. In

14278-570: Was made famous by one of the largest marketing campaigns in Pakistan history undertaken by Nestle. In 1998, Pakistan became the birthplace for the Nestle Pure Life bottled water brand. Other bottlers include dozens of local ones, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Mineral Drops by water icon, Nature, Vey, Nova Pure Water Larkana, Mina Water, Great Water Islamabad, Murree Sparklettes and Dew Drop. Other imported brands such as Evian also began marketing in

14399-463: Was no longer a Calvinist. To earn extra money, Priestley proposed opening a school, but local families informed him that they would refuse to send their children. He also presented a series of scientific lectures titled "Use of the Globes" that was more successful. Priestley's Daventry friends helped him obtain another position and in 1758 he moved to Nantwich , Cheshire, living at Sweetbriar Hall in

14520-481: Was producing more than 7 million bottles of water annually. In the United States, the popularity of bottled water declined in the early 20th century, when the advent of water chlorination reduced public concerns about water-borne diseases in municipal water supplies. But it remained popular in Europe, where it spread to cafés and grocery stores in the second half of the century. Perrier water had been bottled since

14641-470: Was published in the Society's journal Philosophical Transactions . Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air", which he made in the famous experiment by focusing the sun's rays on a sample of mercuric oxide . He first tested it on mice, who surprised him by surviving quite a while entrapped with the air, and then on himself, writing that it was "five or six times better than common air for

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