Traditional
100-742: Chembai Sangeetholsavam is an annual Carnatic music festival held in Guruvayur by the Guruvayur Devaswom (similar to the Thyagaraja Aradhana at Thiruvaiyaru ) in memory of Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar , a Carnatic classical musician and a devotee of Guruvayurappan . Chembai had conducted the festival in the temple town on his own for about 60 years. He used to invite anyone interested in Carnatic music, from small children to renowned musicians of his time, to perform at
200-673: A raga . The features and rules of the raga (also known as the sanchaaraas of a raga) include how each note of the raga should be stressed, the scale of the raga, and so on. All varnams consist of lyrics, as well as swara passages, including a pallavi , an anupallavi , muktayi swaras , a charanam , and chittaswaras . Known for their complex structure, varnams are a fundamental form in Carnatic music. Varnams are practised as vocal exercises in multiple speeds by performers of Carnatic music, to help develop voice culture, and maintain proper pitch and control of rhythm. In Carnatic music concerts, varnams are often performed by musicians as
300-466: A pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary, garland), a water pot, and a musical instrument (lute or vina). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, and a pot of water represents the power to purify right from wrong. The musical instrument, typically
400-527: A veena , represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. The Saraswatirahasya Upanishad of the Yajurveda contain ten verses called " dasa sloki " which are in praise of Sarasvati. In this Upanishad, she is extolled as You are the swan gliding over the pond of creative energy, waves and waves of creative forces emanating from your form! Radiant Goddess resplendent in white, dwells forever in
500-464: A broad range of culturally valued goals and activities. Her connection with motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and activities in Hindu literature. She manifests in every activity, from water to mountains, from arts to inspiring warriors, from agriculture to dance. Parvati's numerous aspects, states Gross, reflect the Hindu belief that the feminine has
600-536: A cognate of devi is Latin dea . When capitalised, Devi maata refers to the mother goddess in Hinduism. Deva is short for devatā and devi for devika . According to Douglas Harper, the etymological root dev- means "a shining one", from * div -, "to shine", it is an Indo-European cognate of the Greek dios , Gothic divine and Latin deus (Old Latin deivos ); see also *Dyēus . A synonym for
700-462: A day over nine days. These are: Shailaputri , Brahmacharini , Chandraghanta , Kushmanda , Skandamata , Katyayani , Kaalratri , Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri . In the goddess-worshiping Shaktidharma denomination of Hinduism, the supreme deity Mahadevi manifests as the goddess Mahasaraswati in order to create, as the goddess Mahalaxmi in order to preserve, and as the goddess Mahakali ( Parvati ) in order to destroy. These three forms of
800-511: A fixed time cycle or metre, set for a particular composition, which is built from groupings of beats. Tala s have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms. Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Tala
900-404: A hint of the song to be performed. Theoretically, this ought to be the easiest type of improvisation, since the rules are so few, but in fact, it takes much skill to sing a pleasing, comprehensive (in the sense of giving a "feel for the ragam") and, most importantly, original raga alapana. Niraval, usually performed by the more advanced performers, consists of singing one or two lines of text of
1000-635: A long time in Sri Lanka, Carnatic music was associated with Indian immigrants, and was often derogatorily referred to as " thosai kade music" ("music from the dosa shop"), in reference to the South Indians-owned restaurants and eateries that typically played this kind of music. From the 20th century, Carnatic music gained significant popularity among certain social strata of the Sri Lankan population , who were then heavily influenced by
1100-457: A part of the bhakti movement symbolising "yearning of human soul drawn to Krishna". In South India , she is considered as Bhumidevi . Though goddess Radha has more than thousand names but some of her common names used by devotees are – Radhika, Radhe, Radharani, Madhavi, Keshavi, Shyama, Kishori, Shreeji, Swamini ji (in Pushtimarg ) , Raseshwari, Vrindavaneshwari and Laadli ji. In
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#17327878806001200-539: A prominent cultural movement known as the Hindu revival. Carnatic music was thus appropriated and highly promoted during the 1920s and 1930s as a cultural and identity marker of the Colombo and Jaffna bourgeoisies, and by extension of the Sri Lankan Tamils . The place given to Carnatic music in the construction of a modern Sri Lankan Tamil identity has reached significant proportions, such as its rise in
1300-558: A shakta Upanishad, Sita is extolled as the supreme goddess. The Upanishad identifies Sita with Prakrti (nature) which is constituted by "will" ichha , activity ( kriya ) and knowledge ( jnana ). The Upanishad also states that Sita emerged while furrowing, at the edge of the plough . She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya for her virtuous qualities; taking their names destroys all sins. Her life story and journeys with her husband Rama and brother-in-law Lakshmana are part of
1400-615: A shakta or tantric poem, is dedicated to the Supreme Deity of the sect, Parvati who is considered much superior to Shiva. It celebrates Parvati and her feminine persona. It is an approach to the tantra through Parvati. In Shakti Tantra traditions, Devis are visualized with yantra and are a tool for spiritual journey for the tantric adept. The adepts ritually construct triangle yantras with proper use of visualization, movement, and mantra. The adepts believe, state John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, that "to establish such yantra
1500-485: A song repeatedly, but with a series of melodic improvised elaborations. Although niraval consists of extempore melodic variations, generally, the original patterns of duration are maintained; each word in the lines of text stay set within their original place ( idam ) in the tala cycle. The lines are then also played at different levels of speed which can include double speed, triple speed, quadruple speed and even sextuple speed. The improvised elaborations are made with
1600-438: A system called the melakarta , which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. There are seventy-two melakarta ragas , thirty six of whose madhyama ( subdominant ) is shuddha ( perfect fourth from the tonic), the remaining thirty-six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is prati (an augmented fourth from the tonic). The ragas are grouped into sets of six, called chakras ("wheels", though actually segments in
1700-405: A total of 108 tala s. Improvisation in raga is the soul of Indian classical music – an essential aspect. " Manodharma Sangeetam " or " kalpana Sangeetam " ("music of imagination") as it is known in Carnatic music, embraces several varieties of improvisation. The main traditional forms of improvisation in Carnatic music consist of the following: An alapana, sometimes also called ragam,
1800-590: A type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency. Svara s also refer to the solfege of Carnatic music, which consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni" (compare with the Hindustani sargam : sa- re -ga-ma-pa- dha -ni or Western do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti). These names are abbreviations of the longer names shadja , rishabha , gandhara , madhyama , panchama , dhaivata and nishada . Unlike other music systems, every member of
1900-478: A universal range of activities, and her gender is not a limiting condition. In Hindu belief, Parvati is the recreative energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release. Devi is portrayed as the ideal wife, mother, and householder in Indian legends. In Indian art, this vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of
2000-542: A verse at the end of the charana , called the madhyamakāla . It is sung immediately after the charana , but at double speed. There are many composers in Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) is referred to as the Pitamaha (the father or grandfather) of Carnatic music as he formulated the basic lessons in teaching Carnatic music, and in honour of his significant contribution to Carnatic music. He structured graded exercises known as Swaravalis and Alankaras , and at
2100-427: A view of outlining the raga, the tempo, and the theme of the composition. Kalpanaswaram, also known as swarakalpana, consists of improvising melodic and rhythmic passages using swaras (solfa syllables). Like niraval, kalpanaswaras are sung to end on a particular swara in the raga of the melody and at a specific place ( idam ) in the tala cycle. Kalpanaswaras have a somewhat predictable rhythmical structure;
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#17327878806002200-404: A white lotus . She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the color symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom. She is generally shown to have 8 to 10 arms, but sometimes just shows two. The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning –
2300-791: Is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings ." Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess Lakshmi in the Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium BCE. She is also revered in other non-Hindu cultures of Asia, such as in Tibet.She is also worshipped in Buddhism. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium CE. In modern times, Lakshmi
2400-521: Is adept enough to perform at a concert. Devi Devī ( / ˈ d eɪ v i / ; Sanskrit : देवी ) is the Sanskrit word for ' goddess '; the masculine form is deva . Devi and deva mean 'heavenly, divine, anything of excellence', and are also gender-specific terms for a deity in Hinduism . The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas , which were composed around
2500-539: Is also mentioned as the creative power of Shiva in Tripura Upanishad , Bahvricha Upanishad and Guhyakali Upanishad. Devi identifies herself in the Devi Upanishad as Brahman in her reply to the gods stating that she rules the world, blesses devotees with riches, that she is the supreme deity to whom all worship is to be offered and that she infuses Ātman in every soul. Devi asserts that she
2600-415: Is an example of the later, where she subsumes all goddesses, becomes the ultimate goddess, and is sometimes just called Devi. Theological texts projected Mahadevi as ultimate reality in the universe as a "powerful, creative, active, transcendent female being." The Puranas and Tantra literature of India celebrates this idea, particularly between the 12th–16th century, and the best example of such texts being
2700-618: Is astride on a tiger or lion. In the Skanda Purana , the Devi Bhagvata Purana and other Puranas , Devi assumes the form of a warrior-goddess and defeats an asura called Durgamasura , who assumes the form of a buffalo. In this aspect, she is known by the name Durga. In later Hindu literature, states Jansen, she is attributed the role of the "energy, power (shakti) of the Impersonal Absolute". In
2800-410: Is believed to be a divine art form which originated from the devas and devis ( Hindu gods and goddesses), and is venerated as symbolic of nāda brāhman . Ancient treatises also describe the connection of the origin of the svaras , or notes, to the sounds of animals and birds and man's effort to simulate these sounds through a keen sense of observation and perception. The Samaveda , which
2900-482: Is believed to have laid the foundation for Indian classical music, consists of hymns from the Rigveda , set to musical tunes which would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic yajnas . The Yajurveda , which mainly consists of sacrificial formulae, mentions the veena as an accompaniment to vocal recitations. References to Indian classical music are made in many ancient texts, including epics like
3000-468: Is called in Yoga Vasistha as Prakṛti or "all of nature". She is described in the text, state Shimkhanda and Herman, as the "one great body of cosmos", and same as Devis "Durga, Jaya and Siddha, Lakshmi, Gayatri, Saraswati, Parvati, Savitri". She is the power that supports the earth, with all its seas, islands, forests, deserts and mountains, asserts Yoga Vasistha . She is not to be confused with
3100-479: Is celebrated as " Radhashtami ". She is described by scriptures as the chief of gopis . She is also revered as the queen of Barsana , Vrindavan and her spiritual abode Goloka . Her love affair with Krishna was set in Vraja and its surrounding forests. It is said that " Krishna enchants the world but Radha can even enchant Krishna due to her selfless love and complete dedication towards him ". Radha has always been
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3200-463: Is clothed in a tiger skin, rides a tiger, and wields a staff topped by a human skull. She destroys the asuras. Literature on goddess Kali recounts several such appearances, mostly in her terrifying but protective aspects. Kali appears as an independent deity, or like Parvati, viewed as the wife of Shiva . In this aspect, she represents the omnipotent Shakti of Shiva. She holds both the creative and destructive power of time. Kali, also called Kalaratri,
3300-416: Is constantly increasing. The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki ). Like Hindustani music , Carnatic music rests on two main elements: rāga , the modes or melodic formulae, and tāḷa , the rhythmic cycles. Today, Carnatic music
3400-412: Is expressed with a different name, giving her over 1008 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, including the popular names such as Gauri. Along with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity) and Saraswati (goddess of knowledge and learning), she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses . Parvati is married to Shiva – the destroyer, recycler, and regenerator of the universe and all life. She
3500-473: Is formed with three basic parts (called anga s) which are laghu , dhrtam , and anudhrtam , though complex talas may have other parts like plutam , guru , and kaakapaadam . There are seven basic tala groups which can be formed from the laghu , dhrtam , and anudhrtam : A laghu has five variants (called jaathi s) based on the counting pattern. Five jaathis times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic tala s, although use of other anga s results in
3600-399: Is integral to Ragam Tanam Pallavi. Originally developed for the veena, it consists of expanding the raga with syllables like tha, nam, thom, aa, nom, na, etc. Ragam, Tanam, and Pallavi are the principal long form in concerts, and is a composite form of improvisation. As the name suggests, it consists of raga alapana, tanam, and a pallavi line. Set to a slow-paced tala , the pallavi line
3700-426: Is often composed by the performer. Through niraval, the performer manipulates the pallavi line in complex melodic and rhythmic ways. The niraval is followed by kalpanaswarams. Tani Avartanam refers to the extended solo that is played by the percussionists in a concert, and is usually played after the main composition in a concert. The percussionist displays the full range of his skills and rhythmic imagination during
3800-412: Is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in gāyaki (singing) style. Although there are stylistic differences, the basic elements of śruti (the relative musical pitch), svara (the musical sound of a single note), rāga (the mode or melodic formulae), and tala (the rhythmic cycles) form
3900-458: Is presented by musicians in concerts or recordings, either vocally or through instruments. Carnatic music itself developed around musical works or compositions of phenomenal composers (see below). Śruti commonly refers to musical pitch. It is the approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western music; it is the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in
4000-400: Is propounded in many Hindu texts such as the Devi Upanishad , which teaches that Shakti is essentially Brahman (ultimate metaphysical Reality) and that from her arises prakṛti (matter) and purusha (consciousness) and that she is bliss and non-bliss, the Vedas and what is different from it, the born and the unborn and all of the universe. Shakti is Parvati , Shiva ’s wife. She
4100-549: Is the creator of earth and heaven and resides there. Her creation of the sky as father and the seas as the mother is reflected as the 'Inner Supreme Self'. Her creations are not prompted by any higher being and she resides in all her creations. She is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and 'all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman'. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, says June McDaniel,
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4200-443: Is the exposition of a raga or tone – a slow improvisation with no rhythm, where the raga acts as the basis of embellishment. In performing alapana, performers consider each raga as an object that has beginnings and endings and consists somehow of sequences of thought. The performer will explore the ragam and touch on its various nuances, singing in the lower octaves first, then gradually moving up to higher octaves, while giving
4300-404: Is the mother of Hindu gods Ganesha and Kartikeya . Her parents are Himavan and Maināvati. According to Puranas she performed strict tapasya and achieved the position of consort of Shiva. Rita Gross states, the view of Parvati only as an ideal wife and mother is an incomplete symbolism of the power of the feminine in the mythology of India. Parvati, along with other goddesses, are involved with
4400-411: Is the usage of the terms yantra , bindu , bija , mantra , shakti and chakra . Among the major world religions, the concept of Goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine has had the strongest presence since ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, beauty, purity and devotion. She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects
4500-525: Is thereafter invincible, and revered as "preserver of Dharma , destroyer of evil". Durga's emergence and mythology is described in the Puranas , particularly the Devi Mahatmya . The text describes Kālī 's emerging out of Parvati when she becomes extremely angry. Parvati's face turns pitch dark, and suddenly Kali springs forth from Parvati's forehead. She is black, wears a garland of human heads ,
4600-424: Is to place the macrocosm within oneself", and doing so can yield temporal benefits, spiritual powers or enlightenment. A tantric text titled "Vigyan Bhairav Tantra", 'Vigyan' meaning "consciousness" is a conversation between Shiva and Parvati rendered in 112 verses, elaborates on "wisdom and insight of pure consciousness." Devi Puja is the worship of Parvati which is observed through four forms of Devi Yantra;
4700-401: Is traditionally taught according to the system formulated by Purandara Dasa . This involves sarali swaras (graded exercises), alankaras (exercises based on the seven talas), geetams or simple songs, and Swarajatis . After the student has reached a certain standard, varnams are taught and later, the student learns kritis . It typically takes several years of learning before a student
4800-423: Is usually only one variant of each note present. The exceptions exist in "light" ragas, in which, for artistic effect, there may be two, one ascending (in the arohanam ) and another descending (in the avarohanam ). A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody – very similar to the Western concept of mode . It specifies rules for movements up ( aarohanam ) and down ( avarohanam ),
4900-555: Is worshipped as the goddess of wealth. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor. Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom, and learning. She is the consort of Brahma . The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda . She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate
5000-604: The Ramayana and the Mahabharata . The Yajnavalkya Smriti states, " vīṇāvādana tattvajñaḥ śrutijātiviśāradaḥ tālajñaścāprayāsena mokṣamārgaṃ niyacchati" (The one who is well versed in veena , one who has the knowledge of srutis and one who is adept in tala, attains liberation ( moksha ) without doubt"). Contemporray Carnatic music is based on musical concepts (including svara , raga , and tala ) that were described in detail in several ancient works, particularly
5100-463: The Rigveda . However, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods ( devas ). Devi appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era. All gods and goddesses are distinguished in Vedic times, but in post-Vedic texts, particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi,
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#17327878806005200-430: The divya prabandham , thevaram and ugabhoga are often performed similarly, however, these forms can also have a set melody and rhythm like the devaranama , javali , padam , thillana and thiruppugazh forms. The most common and significant forms in Carnatic music are the varnam and the kriti (or kirtanam ). Varnams are short metric pieces which encapsulate the main features and requirements of
5300-542: The Bharata 's Natya Shastra and Cilappatikaram by Ilango Adigal . Owing to Persian and Islamic influences in North India from the 12th century onwards, Indian classical music began to diverge into two distinct styles — Hindustani music and Carnatic music. Commentaries and other works, such as Sharngadeva 's Sangita Ratnakara , further elaborated on the musical concepts found in Indian classical music. By
5400-599: The Dravidian languages ) is a system of music commonly associated with South India , including the modern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu and portions of east and south Telangana and southern Odisha . It is one of three main subgenres of Indian classical music that evolved from ancient Hindu texts and traditions, particularly the Samaveda . (The other two are Hindustani music and Odissi music .) The main emphasis in Carnatic music
5500-569: The Kali Yuga , which is spelled similarly yet holds a different meaning. The Kali Yuga is presented as a threat to Mother India, with pictures from the nineteenth century depicting the age as a "ferocious meat-eating demon" in comparison to India's depiction of "a cow giving milk to her children". The largest annual festival associated with the goddess is Durga Puja celebrated in the month of Ashvin (September–October), where nine manifestations of Parvati ( Navadurga ) are worshipped, each on
5600-477: The Maratha rulers of Tanjore . Some of the royalty of the kingdoms of Mysore and Travancore were themselves noted composers and proficient in playing musical instruments, such as the veena , rudra veena , violin , ghatam , venu , mridangam , nadaswaram , and swarabat . Some famous court-musicians proficient in music were Veene Sheshanna (1852–1926) and Veene Subbanna (1861–1939), among others. During
5700-648: The Rigveda (10.125.1 to 10.125.8) is among the most studied hymns declaring that the ultimate reality is a goddess: I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being, and dwell within them. I permeate the earth and heaven, and all created entities with my greatness and dwell in them as eternal and infinite consciousness. The Vedas name numerous cosmic goddesses such as Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night) and Aranyani (forest); bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati and Mahi are among others are mentioned in
5800-483: The Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. Further, Devi is viewed as central in the Hindu traditions of Shaktism and Shaivism . Devi and deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature around the 3rd millennium BCE. Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi . Monier-Williams translates it as 'heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones'. Etymologically,
5900-460: The Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, found particularly in eastern states of India, Durga is a popular goddess form of Adishakti . In the medieval era composed texts such as the Puranas, she emerges as a prominent goddess in the context of crisis, when evil asuras were on the ascent. The male gods were unable to contain and subdue the forces of evil. The warrior goddess, Devi, kills the asura, and
6000-816: The Trinity of Carnatic music include Sripadaraja , Vyasatirtha , Kanakadasa , Vadiraja Tirtha , Arunachala Kavi , Annamacharya , Narayana Theertha , Vijaya Dasa , Jagannatha Dasa , Gopala Dasa , Bhadrachala Ramadas , Sadasiva Brahmendra and Oottukkadu Venkata Kavi . Other composers are Swathi Thirunal , Gopalakrishna Bharathi , Neelakanta Sivan , Patnam Subramania Iyer , Mysore Vasudevachar , Koteeswara Iyer , Muthiah Bhagavathar , Subramania Bharathiyar , Kalyani Varadarajan , M. Balamuralikrishna and Papanasam Sivan . The compositions of these composers are rendered frequently by artists of today. Composers of Carnatic music were often inspired by religious devotion and were usually scholars proficient in one or more of
6100-541: The ghatam , kanjira , morsing , venu flute, veena , and chitraveena . The greatest concentration of Carnatic musicians is to be found in the city of Chennai . Various Carnatic music festivals are held throughout India and abroad, including the Madras Music Season , which has been considered to be one of the world's largest cultural events. Like all art forms in Indian culture , Indian classical music
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#17327878806006200-441: The scale of which notes should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with gamaka (ornamentation), which phrases should be used or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be observed, either absolutely or with a particular frequency. In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are classified into
6300-530: The 16th and 17th centuries, there was a clear demarcation between Carnatic and Hindustani music; Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences. It was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in Vijayanagara , while the Vijayanagara Empire reached its greatest extent. Purandara Dasa , who is known as the "father ( pitamaha ) of Carnatic music", formulated
6400-562: The 18th century, South Indian immigrant communities abroad increased, especially in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka . Communities such as the Nattukottai Chettiars participate in the extension of the Carnatic cultural scene abroad, thanks to their rich patronage activity. Carnatic music artists therefore perform abroad among South Indian communities who request their coming, in order to enliven local community life. For
6500-440: The 2nd millennium BCE. However, they did not play a vital role in that era. Goddesses such as Durga , Kali , Lakshmi , Parvati , Radha , Saraswati and Sita have continued to be revered in the modern era. The medieval era Puranas witness a major expansion in mythology and literature associated with Devi, with texts such as the Devi Mahatmya , wherein she manifests as the ultimate truth and supreme power. She has inspired
6600-491: The Carnatic music repertoire. The performance of the Sanskrit sloka , Tamil viruttam , Kannada Ugabhoga and Telugu padyamu or sisapadya forms are particularly unique. Though these forms consist of lyric-based verses , musicians improvise raga phrases in free rhythm, like an alapana , so both the sound value, and the meaning of the text, guide the musician through elaborate melodic improvisations. Forms such as
6700-457: The Hindu epic Ramayana , an allegorical story with Hindu spiritual and ethical teachings. However, there are many versions of Ramayana, and her story as a goddess in Hindu mythology. Her legends also vary in southeast Asian versions of the epic Ramayana, such as in the Ramakien of Thailand where she is spelled as Sida (or Nang Sida ). In Valmiki Ramayana, Sita is repeatedly expressed as
6800-555: The Kashmir of my heart. Saraswati is also found outside India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia) and Myanmar. Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess matching the concept of Durga. Her legends appear in the medieval era, as an angry, ferocious form of the mother goddess Mahalakshmi , who assumes the avatar of Durga . She manifests as a goddess with eight or ten arms, holding weapons and skulls of demons, and
6900-731: The North and Karnataka (later called Carnatic) in the South. The term "Karnataka" music originated from the Vijayanagara Empire, historically known as the Karnataka Empire. The British later influenced the change in name to "Carnatic" music, and the term is only about 150–200 years old. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Carnatic music was mainly patronised by the local kings of the Kingdom of Mysore , Kingdom of Travancore , and
7000-881: The Supreme Power. Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism; in the Smarta tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman that is revered. In other Hindu traditions, Devi embodies the active energy and power of Deva, and they always appear together complementing each other. Examples of this are Parvati with Shiva in Shaivism , Saraswati with Brahma in Brahmanism and Lakshmi with Vishnu , Sita with Rama and Radha with Krishna in Vaishnavism . Devi-inspired philosophy
7100-561: The continuation of humanity. Radha means "prosperity, success, and lightning." She is the female counterpart and consort of Krishna . She is also considered as the internal potency of Krishna. In Puranic literature such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana , she is known as the Goddess of love and is also described as the " Prakriti " along with goddess Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati and Gayatri. She has figured prominently in
7200-444: The conventional representation) grouped according to the supertonic and mediant scale degrees. There is a system known as the katapayadi sankhya to determine the names of melakarta raga s. Raga s may be divided into two classes: janaka raga s (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and janya raga s (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Janya ragas are themselves subclassified into various categories. Tala refers to
7300-445: The curricula of most Jaffna colleges, where it gradually replaced from the mid-1930s the teaching of Western classical music , or its high esteem among the upper social classes of Colombo and Jaffna, where the learning of Carnatic music among young women is expected as a sign of good education. Many people have travelled to India for improving their skills, and the flow of students to India from Sri Lanka or of Sri Lankan Tamil origin
7400-495: The evolution of Carnatic music. Most Carnatic compositions are in Telugu and Sanskrit. Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians, consisting of a principal performer (usually a vocalist), a melodic accompaniment (usually a violin ), a rhythm accompaniment (usually a mridangam ), and a tambura , which acts as a drone throughout the performance. Other typical instruments used in performances may include
7500-412: The festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring) in her honor, and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Saraswati, Parvati (goddess of power, fertility, love, beauty), and Lakshmi (goddess of material wealth, prosperity, and fortune). Saraswati is often depicted dressed in pure white, often seated on
7600-669: The festival. The Guruvayur Devaswom over the festival after his death in 1974, renaming it Chembai Sangeetholsavam in his memory. About 3000 musicians participate every year and it lasts about two weeks culminating on the Guruvayur Ekadasi day, when all the musicians sing five favorite songs of Chembai and also the Pancharatna Kritis of Thyagaraja. Kodungallur Kovilakam Carnatic music Traditional Carnatic music or Karnataka Sangita (known as Karnāṭaka saṃgīta or Karnāṭaka saṅgītam in
7700-460: The foundation of improvisation and composition in both Carnatic and Hindustani music. Although improvisation plays an important role, Carnatic music is mainly sung through compositions, especially the kriti (or kirtanam) – a form developed between the 14th and 20th centuries by composers such as Purandara Dasa , and the Trinity of Carnatic music . Carnatic music is also usually taught and learned through compositions. Telugu language predominates in
7800-513: The four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life – dharma , kama , artha , and moksha . She is the mother goddess in Hinduism. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Lakshmi, Parvati (goddess of power, love, beauty), and Saraswati (goddess of music, wisdom, and learning). In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. The marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia Monaghan,
7900-436: The languages Kannada , Malayalam , Sanskrit , Tamil , or Telugu . They usually included a signature, called a mudra , in their compositions. For example, all songs by Tyāgarāja (who composed in Sanskrit and Telugu) have the word Tyagaraja in them, all songs by Muttuswāmi Dīkṣitar (who composed in Sanskrit and Maṇipravāl̥am) have the words Guruguha in them; songs by Śyāma Śāstri (who composed in Sanskrit and Telugu) have
8000-404: The late 19th century, the city of Madras (now known as Chennai) emerged as the locus for Carnatic music. With the dissolution of the erstwhile princely states and the Indian independence movement reaching its conclusion in 1947, Carnatic music went through a radical shift in patronage into an art of the masses with ticketed performances organised by private institutions called sabhās . From
8100-509: The manifestation of Lakshmi, as the one who blesses abundance in agriculture, food, and wealth. She is referred to golden goddess, wherein after Rama (Vishnu) is bereaved of her, he refuses to marry again, insists that he is married solely and forever to her, and uses a golden image of Sita as a substitute in the performance of his duties as a king. Sita, in many Hindu mythology, is the Devi associated with agriculture, fertility, food and wealth for
8200-714: The musical element itself. This poses a special challenge for the musicians because rendering this music does not involve just playing or singing the correct musical notes; the musicians are expected to understand what was conveyed by the composer in various languages, and sing musical phrases that act to create the effect that was intended by the composer in his/her composition. There are many types/forms of compositions. Geethams and swarajatis (which have their own peculiar composition structures) are principally meant to serve as basic learning exercises. Compositions more commonly associated with Indian classical dance and Indian devotional music have also been increasingly used in
8300-423: The musician's interpretation. A Carnatic composition really has two elements, one being the musical element, the other being what is conveyed in the composition. It is probably because of this fact that most Carnatic music compositions are composed for singing. In addition to the rich musical experience, each composition brings out the knowledge and personality of the composer, and hence the words are as important as
8400-631: The ninth and fourteenth centuries the Goddess is addressed in the most general and universal of terms, as Mahadevi, and represents all goddesses as different manifestations of her. The Lalita Sahasranama (Thousand names of Lalita ( Parvati ) states that Mahadevi is known by different synonyms such as Jagatikanda (anchors the world), Vishvadhika (one who surpasses the universe), Nirupama (one who has no match), Parameshwari (dominant governor), Vyapini (encompasses everything), Aprameya (immeasurable), Anekakotibrahmadajanani (creator of many universes), Vishvagarbha (she whose Garba or womb subsumes
8500-470: The opening item – acting as a warm up for the musicians, and as a means of grabbing the attention of the audience. Carnatic songs (kritis) are varied in structure and style, but generally consist of three units: This kind of song is called a keerthanam or a kriti . There are other possible structures for a kriti , which may in addition include swara passages named chittaswara . A chittaswara consists only of notes, and has no words. Still others have
8600-426: The other, represented as Ardhanarishvara . Parvati is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast Asia . Lakshmi , also called Sri , is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material and spiritual). She is the consort and active energy of Vishnu . Her four hands represent
8700-405: The poems of Vidyapati (1352–1448) as a cosmic queen and later became inspiration behind many forms of art, literature, music and dance. She is also seen as the incarnation of Lakshmi . Some traditions worship Radha as the lover consort of Krishna while many other traditions worship Radha as the married consort of Lord Krishna. Radha was made famous through Jayadeva 's Gitagovinda poem which
8800-595: The same time, introduced the Raga Mayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by beginners. He also composed Gitas (simple songs) for novice students. The contemporaries Tyagaraja (1767– 1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar , (1776–1835) and Syama Sastri , (1762–1827) are regarded as the Trinity of Carnatic music because of the quality of Syama Sastri's compositions, the varieties of compositions of Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Tyagaraja's prolific output in composing kritis . Prominent composers prior to
8900-408: The sense of graded pitches in an octave . While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or raga) in Carnatic music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two (although over the years, several of them have converged). In this sense, while sruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also an expression in the listener's mind. Svara refers to
9000-654: The sixth century when Devi Mahatmya came into practice the name Devi (goddess) or Mahadevi (Great Goddess) came into prominence to represent one female goddess to encompass the discrete goddesses like Parvati and so forth. In the Hindu mythology, Devi and Deva are usually paired, complement and go together, typically shown as equal but sometimes the Devi is shown smaller or in the subordinate role. Some goddesses, however, play an independent role in Hindu pantheon, and are revered as Supreme without any male god(s) present or with males in subordinate position. Mahadevi, as mother goddess,
9100-559: The solfege (called a swara ) has three variants. The exceptions are the drone notes, shadja and panchama (also known as the tonic and the dominant ), which have only one form; and madhyama (the subdominant ), which has two forms. A 7th century stone inscription in Kudumiyan Malai in Tamil Nadu shows vowel changes to solfege symbols with ra, ri, ru etc. to denote the higher quarter-tones. In one scale, or raga , there
9200-409: The solo, which may take from two to twenty minutes. In contrast to Hindustani music of the northern part of India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encode many intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvisation. Nearly every rendition of a Carnatic music composition is different and unique as it embodies elements of the composer's vision, as well as
9300-652: The supreme goddess Mahadevi are collectively called the Tridevi .These Tridevi are said to be the Shakti of all the Gods or Deva . Like Mahasaraswati is the Shakti of Brahma; Lakshmi is the Shakti of Vishnu; and Mahakali is Shakti of Shiva. Sita, an incarnation of Lakshmi, is married to Rama , an avatar of Vishnu. She is shakti or prakriti of Rama as told in the Ram Raksha Stotram . In Sita Upanishad ,
9400-418: The swaras are sung to end on the samam (the first beat of the rhythmical cycle). The swaras can also be sung at the same speed or double the speed of the melody that is being sung, though some artists sing triple-speed phrases too. Kalpanaswaram is the most elementary type of improvisation, usually taught before any other form of improvisation. Tanam is one of the most important forms of improvisation, and
9500-519: The system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music. Venkatamakhin invented and authored the formula for the melakarta system of raga classification in his Sanskrit work, the Chaturdandi Prakasika (1660 AD). Govindacharya is known for expanding the melakarta system into the sampurna raga scheme – the system that is in common use today. By the 16th century, Indian classical music split into two styles: Hindustani in
9600-767: The universe), Sarvadhara (helps all), Sarvaga (being everywhere at the same time, Sarvalokesi (governs all worlds) and Vishavdaharini one who functions for the whole universe). The Mahadevi goddess has many aspects to her personality. She focuses on that side of her that suits her objectives, but unlike male Hindu deities, her powers and knowledge work in concert in a multifunctional manner. The ten aspects of her, also called Mahavidyas (or great forms of her knowledge) are forms of Parvati and they are: Kali , Tara , Tripura Sundari , Bhairavi , Bhuvanesvari , Chhinnamasta , Dhumavati , Bagalamukhi , Matangi and Kamala . Tantric literature such as Soundarya Lahari meaning "Flood of Beauty", credited to Adi Shankaracharya
9700-480: The various manuscript versions of Devi Bhagavata Purana with the embedded Devi Gita therein. Devi Bhagavata Purana gives prime position to Mahadevi as the mother of all-encompassing the three worlds and gives her the position of being all of universe – the material and the spiritual. In the Upanishadic text Devi Upanishad , a Sakta Upanishad and an important Tantric text probably composed sometime between
9800-528: The word Devi in the Vedas is Bhagavati. Bhagavatī (Devanagari: भगवती, IAST: Bhagavatī), is an Indian epithet of Sanskrit origin, used as an honorific title for goddesses in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, it is primarily used to address the goddesses Lakshmi and Durga. In Buddhism, it is used to refer to several Mahayana Buddhist female deities, like Cundā. The worship of Devi-like deities dates back to period of Indus Valley civilisation . The Devīsūkta of
9900-657: The words Ś yāma Kr̥ṣṇa in them; all songs by Purandaradasa (who composed in Kannada and Sanskrit) have the words Purandara Vitthala ; while Gopalakrishna Bharathi (who composed in Tamil) used the signature Gopalakrishnan in his compositions. Papanasam Sivan, who has been hailed as the Tamil Tyagaraja of Carnatic music, composed in Tamil and Sanskrit, and used the signature Ramadasan in his compositions. Carnatic music
10000-462: Was written in 12th century. It is a lyrical drama, a "mystical erotic poem" which describes the love of Krishna and Radha . Some other texts which mentioned Radha are – Brahma Vaivarta Purana , Padma Purana , Skanda Purana , Devi Bhagvata Purana , Matsya Purana , Narada Pancharatra , Brahma Samhita , Shiva Purana and Garga Samhita . Radha was born in Barsana and every year, her birthday
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