Misplaced Pages

#202797

66-1125: For the Italian Classical and pre-Romantic composer, see Luigi Cherubini . [REDACTED] Look up Cherubini in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Cherubini is an Italian surname. Cherubini may refer to: People [ edit ] Bruno Cherubini (1897-1947), Italian lyricist, brother of Bixio Bixio Cherubini (1899–1987), Italian lyricist, playwright and poet Caterina Cherubini (died 1811), Italian miniature painter Corkin Cherubini (born 1944), American educator, musician, and writer Francesco Cherubini (1585–1656), Catholic cardinal who served as Bishop of Senigallia Gianluca Cherubini (born 1974), Italian professional football player Laerzio Cherubini (1556–1626), Italian criminal lawyer and jurisconsult in Rome Lorenzo Cherubini (born 1966), birthname of

132-631: A soundboard , a thin panel of wood usually made of spruce , fir or—in some Italian harpsichords— cypress . The soundboard efficiently transmits the vibrations of the strings into vibrations in the air; without a soundboard, the strings would produce only a very feeble sound. A string is attached at its far end by a loop to a hitchpin that secures it to the case. While many harpsichords have one string per note, more elaborate harpsichords can have two or more strings for each note. When there are multiple strings for each note, these additional strings are called "choirs" of strings. This provides two advantages:

198-439: A soundboard , which is mounted in a wooden case; the soundboard amplifies the vibrations from the strings so that the listeners can hear it. Like a pipe organ , a harpsichord may have more than one keyboard manual , and even a pedal board . Harpsichords may also have stop buttons which add or remove additional octaves. Some harpsichords may have a buff stop, which brings a strip of buff leather or other material in contact with

264-412: A wrest pin ) at the end nearest the player. When rotated with a wrench or tuning hammer, the tuning pin adjusts the tension so that the string sounds the correct pitch. Tuning pins are held tightly in holes drilled in the pinblock or wrestplank , an oblong hardwood plank. Proceeding from the tuning pin, a string next passes over the nut , a sharp edge that is made of hardwood and is normally attached to

330-570: A 5-octave instrument is F 1 –F 6 (FF–f‴). Tuning pitch is often taken to be A 4  = 415 Hz, roughly a semitone lower than the modern standard concert pitch of A 4  = 440 Hz. An accepted exception is for French baroque repertoire, which is often performed with a = 392 Hz, approximately a semitone lower again. See Jean-Philippe Rameau 's Treatise on Harmony (1722) [Dover Publications], Book One, chapter five, for insight into French baroque tuning; "Since most of these semitones are absolutely necessary in

396-673: A French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique . Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an opera seria commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III , Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France "Saint-Jean de Palestine" Masonic Lodge in 1784. Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini ; this appears in all extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name

462-553: A coupler. The jacks labeled A in Figure 5 have a "dogleg" shape that permits either keyboard to play A. If the player wishes to play the upper 8' from the upper manual only and not from the lower manual, a stop handle disengages the jacks labeled A and engages instead an alternative row of jacks called "lute stop" (not shown in the Figure). A lute stop is used to imitate the gentle sound of a plucked lute . The use of multiple manuals in

528-627: A family of three children. The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life. Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments. Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade. He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city. In 1808 Cherubini

594-408: A great many different ways: with plain buff paint (e.g. some Flemish instruments), with paper printed with patterns, with leather or velvet coverings, with chinoiserie , or occasionally with highly elaborate painted artwork. The virginal is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord having only one string per note; the strings run parallel to the keyboard, which is on the long side of

660-439: A harpsichord was not originally provided for the flexibility in choosing which strings would sound, but rather for transposition of the instrument to play in different keys (see History of the harpsichord ). Some early harpsichords used a short octave for the lowest register. The rationale behind this system was that the low notes F ♯ and G ♯ are seldom needed in early music . Deep bass notes typically form

726-413: A pedal harpsichord, most pedal harpsichords were built based on the designs of extant pedal pianos from the 19th century, in which the instrument is as wide as the pedalboard. While these were mostly intended as practice instruments for organists, a few pieces are believed to have been written specifically for the pedal harpsichord. However, the set of pedals can augment the sound from any piece performed on

SECTION 10

#1732772840203

792-412: A position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830). In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame. Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France ,

858-452: A resurgence, being used in historically informed performances of older music, in new compositions, and, in rare cases, in certain styles of popular music (e.g., Baroque pop ). The harpsichord was most likely invented in the late Middle Ages. By the 16th century, harpsichord makers in Italy were making lightweight instruments with low tension brass stringing. A different approach was taken in

924-616: A tuning other than equal temperament is used, the instrument requires retuning once the keyboard is shifted. Throughout the historical period, the harpsichord was characteristically decorated; for extensive discussion and illustration see Kottick (2003). Cases were painted in bright colors (especially in 18th century France), or covered with elaborate wood veneer (18th century England), or adorned with sculptural moldings and knobs (Italy). Soundboards bore paintings, either of individual items such as flowers and animals (Flanders, also France), or even (in expensive instruments), full-scale paintings of

990-422: A two-foot (2') choir (two octaves higher; quite rare). When there are multiple choirs of strings, the player is often able to control which choirs sound. This is usually done by having a set of jacks for each choir, and a mechanism for "turning off" each set, often by moving the upper register (through which the jacks slide) sideways a short distance, so that their plectra miss the strings. In simpler instruments this

1056-419: A violin: kept for storage in a protective outer case, and played after taking it out of its case and placing it on a table. Such tables were often quite high – until the late 18th century people usually played standing up. Eventually, harpsichords came to be built with just a single case, though an intermediate stage also existed: the false inner–outer , which for purely aesthetic reasons was built to look as if

1122-472: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Luigi Cherubini Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760. There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth. Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct. Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which

1188-422: Is done by manually moving the registers, but as the harpsichord evolved, builders invented levers, knee levers and pedal mechanisms to make it easier to change registration. Harpsichords with more than one keyboard (this usually means two keyboards, stacked one on top of the other in a step-wise fashion, as with pipe organs) provide flexibility in selecting which strings play, since each manual can be set to control

1254-803: Is favored nowadays. Performances of Démophoon were favorably received at the Académie Royale de Musique in 1788. With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789. Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau. This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament. Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring. His first major success

1320-433: Is found in the later Flemish instruments and those derived from them. The case also gives the harpsichord its external appearance and protects the instrument. A large harpsichord is, in a sense, a piece of furniture, as it stands alone on legs and may be styled in the manner of other furniture of its place and period. Early Italian instruments, on the other hand, were so light in construction that they were treated rather like

1386-469: Is his series of 555 harpsichord sonatas . Perhaps the most celebrated composers who wrote for the harpsichord were Georg Friedrich Händel (1685–1759), who composed numerous suites for harpsichord, and especially J. S. Bach (1685–1750), whose solo works (for instance, The Well-Tempered Clavier and the Goldberg Variations ), continue to be performed very widely, often on the piano. Bach

SECTION 20

#1732772840203

1452-406: Is not just louder but also richer and more complex. A particularly vivid effect is obtained when the strings plucked simultaneously are an octave apart. This is normally heard by the ear not as two pitches but as one: the sound of the higher string is blended with that of the lower one, and the ear hears the lower pitch, enriched in tonal quality by the additional strength in the upper harmonics of

1518-527: Is the French "shove coupler", in which the lower manual slides forward and backward. In the backward position, "dogs" attached to the upper surface of the lower manual engage the lower surface of the upper manual's keys. Depending on choice of keyboard and coupler position, the player can select any of the sets of jacks labeled in "figure 4" as A, or B and C, or all three. The English "dogleg" jack system (also used in Baroque Flanders) does not require

1584-573: Is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin. His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo, maestro al cembalo ("Master of the harpsichord ", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord ). Considered a child prodigy , Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age. By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works. In 1780, he

1650-516: The Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1814) and Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts (1815). In 1841, he was made Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur , the first musician to receive that title. Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery , just four metres from his friend Chopin. His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by

1716-493: The Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority. German builders such as Hieronymus Albrecht Hass extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding sixteen-foot and two-foot choirs; these instruments have recently served as models for modern builders. Around the year 1700 the first fortepiano was built by Bartolomeo Cristofori . The early fortepiano uses percussion,

1782-562: The Southern Netherlands starting in the late 16th century, notably by the Ruckers family. Their harpsichords used a heavier construction and produced a more powerful and distinctive tone with higher tension steel treble stringing. These included the first harpsichords with two keyboards, used for transposition . The Flemish instruments served as the model for 18th-century harpsichord construction in other nations. In France,

1848-408: The continuo group . The basso continuo part acted as the foundation for many musical pieces in this era. During the late 18th century, with the development of the fortepiano (and then the increasing use of the piano in the 19th century) the harpsichord gradually disappeared from the musical scene (except in opera, where it continued to be used to accompany recitative ). In the 20th century, it made

1914-476: The root of the chord, and F ♯ and G ♯ chords were seldom used at this time. In contrast, low C and D, both roots of very common chords, are sorely missed if a harpsichord with lowest key E is tuned to match the keyboard layout. When scholars specify the pitch range of instruments with this kind of short octave, they write "C/E", meaning that the lowest note is a C, played on a key that normally would sound E. In another arrangement , known as "G/B',

1980-448: The surname Cherubini . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cherubini&oldid=1257220951 " Categories : Surnames Italian-language surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description

2046-487: The Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz , who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant. Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity. There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, "some maintain his temper was very even, because he

Cherubini - Misplaced Pages Continue

2112-783: The Italian singer Jovanotti Luigi Cherubini (1760–1842), Italian Classical and pre-Romantic composer, close friend of Beethoven Mattia Cherubini (born 1988), former Italian footballer Nicole Cherubini (born 1970), American visual artist and sculptor Sallustio Cherubini (died 1659), Roman Catholic prelate who served as Bishop of Città Ducale Other uses [ edit ] Cherubini Quartet , German string quartet from Düsseldorf, founded in 1978 Conservatorio Luigi Cherubini , Italian academic music school located in florence See also [ edit ] Cherub (disambiguation) List of operas by Luigi Cherubini [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with

2178-424: The ability to vary volume and ability to vary tonal quality. Volume is increased when the mechanism of the instrument is set up by the player (see below) so that the press of a single key plucks more than one string. Tonal quality can be varied in two ways. First, different choirs of strings can be designed to have distinct tonal qualities, usually by having one set of strings plucked closer to the nut, which emphasizes

2244-502: The apparent lowest key B is tuned to G, and apparent C-sharp and D-sharp are tuned to A and B respectively. The wooden case holds in position all of the important structural members: pinblock, soundboard, hitchpins, keyboard, and the jack action. It usually includes a solid bottom, and also internal bracing to maintain its form without warping under the tension of the strings. Cases vary greatly in weight and sturdiness: Italian harpsichords are often of light construction; heavier construction

2310-466: The case. A spinet is a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle (usually about 30 degrees) to the keyboard. The strings are too close together for the jacks to fit between them. Instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, and the jacks are in the larger gaps between the pairs. The two jacks in each gap face in opposite directions, and each plucks a string adjacent to the gap. The English diarist Samuel Pepys mentions his "tryangle" several times. This

2376-404: The current scene. Harpsichords vary in size and shape, but all have the same basic mechanism. The player depresses a key that rocks over a pivot in the middle of its length. The other end of the key lifts a jack (a long strip of wood) that holds a small plectrum (a wedge-shaped piece of quill , often made of plastic in the 21st century), which plucks the string. When the player releases the key,

2442-666: The day. The first of his two comic works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783. Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the King's Theatre . In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti , who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society. Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to

2508-463: The double keyboards were adapted to control different choirs of strings, making a more musically flexible instrument (so-called 'expressive doubles'). Instruments from the peak of the French tradition, by makers such as the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin , are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used as models for the construction of modern instruments. In England,

2574-714: The early Renaissance, but lessened in popularity later on. However, the ottavino remained very popular as a domestic instrument in Italy until the 19th century. In the Low Countries, an ottavino was commonly paired with an 8' virginals, encased in a small cubby under the soundboard of the larger instrument. The ottavino could be removed and placed on top of the virginal, making, in effect, a double manual instrument. These are sometimes called 'mother-and-child' or 'double' virginals. Occasionally, harpsichords were built which included another set or sets of strings underneath and played by foot-operated pedal keyboard which trigger

2640-415: The far end returns to its rest position, and the jack falls back; the plectrum, mounted on a tongue mechanism that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, a felt damper atop the jack stops the string's vibrations. These basic principles are explained in detail below. Each string is wound around a tuning pin (also known as

2706-545: The harpsichord began with instruments that used piano technology, with heavy strings and metal frames. Starting in the middle of the 20th century, ideas about harpsichord making underwent a major change, when builders such as Frank Hubbard , William Dowd , and Martin Skowroneck sought to re-establish the building traditions of the Baroque period. Harpsichords of this type of historically informed building practice dominate

Cherubini - Misplaced Pages Continue

2772-400: The higher harmonics , and produces a "nasal" sound quality. The mechanism of the instrument, called "stops" (following the use of the term in pipe organs ) permits the player to select one choir or the other. Second, having one key pluck two strings at once changes not just volume but also tonal quality; for instance, when two strings tuned to the same pitch are plucked simultaneously, the note

2838-407: The instrument, as demonstrated on several albums by E. Power Biggs . The archicembalo , built in the 16th century, had an unusual keyboard layout, designed to accommodate variant tuning systems demanded by compositional practice and theoretical experimentation. More common were instruments with split sharps , also designed to accommodate the tuning systems of the time. The folding harpsichord

2904-420: The kind usually executed on canvas. Keyboards could have the same "white keys" and "black keys" that pianos have today, but builders frequently employed the opposite pattern, with white sharps and black naturals. The study of harpsichord decoration became an important scholarly field in the 20th century, notably with the work of Sheridan Germann (2002), whose knowledge extended to the point of being able to pin down

2970-498: The last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada , was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini 's La vestale ; it received critical praise but few performances. Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses , two requiems , and many shorter pieces. During this period (under the restored monarchy ) he was appointed Surintendant de la Musique du Roi ,

3036-511: The most famous composers who wrote for the harpsichord were the members of English virginal school of the late Renaissance, notably William Byrd ( c. 1540–1623). In France, a great number of highly characteristic solo works were created and compiled into four books of ordres by François Couperin (1668–1733). Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) began his career in Italy but wrote most of his solo harpsichord works in Spain; his most famous work

3102-458: The note sounded by the higher string. When describing a harpsichord it is customary to specify its choirs of strings, often called its disposition . To describe the pitch of the choirs of strings, pipe organ terminology is used. Strings at eight-foot pitch (8') sound at the normal expected pitch, strings at four-foot pitch (4') sound an octave higher. Harpsichords occasionally include a sixteen-foot (16') choir (one octave lower than eight-foot) or

3168-401: The outer case contained an inner one, in the old style. Even after harpsichords became self-encased objects, they often were supported by separate stands, and some modern harpsichords have separate legs for improved portability. Many harpsichords have a lid that can be raised, a cover for the keyboard, and a music stand for holding sheet music and scores. Harpsichords have been decorated in

3234-684: The particular anonymous artists who worked with particular builders. The great bulk of the standard repertoire for the harpsichord was written during its first historical flowering, the Renaissance and Baroque eras. The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord was published around the early 16th century. Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole Baroque era in European countries including Italy, Germany, England and France. Solo harpsichord compositions included dance suites , fantasias , and fugues . Among

3300-468: The piano starting roughly in the late 1770s. Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was almost completely supplanted by the piano. In the 20th century, composers returned to the instrument, as they sought out variation in the sounds available to them. Under the influence of Arnold Dolmetsch , the harpsichordists Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1951) and in France, Wanda Landowska (1879–1959), were at

3366-413: The plucking of a different set of strings. This means that a player can have, for instance, an 8' manual and a 4' manual ready for use, making it possible to switch between them to obtain higher (or lower) pitches or different tone. In addition, such harpsichords often have a mechanism (the "coupler") that couples manuals together, so that a single manual plays both sets of strings. The most flexible system

SECTION 50

#1732772840203

3432-504: The plucking of the lowest-pitched keys of the harpsichord. Although there are no known extant pedal harpsichords from the 18th century or before, from Adlung (1758): the lower set of usually 8' strings "...is built like an ordinary harpsichord, but with an extent of two octaves only. The jacks are similar, but they will benefit from being arranged back to back, since the two [bass] octaves take as much space as four in an ordinary harpsichord Prior to 1980 when Keith Hill introduced his design for

3498-416: The sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing "Music" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath. [REDACTED] Category Harpsichord A harpsichord is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard . This activates a row of levers that turn a trigger mechanism that plucks one or more strings with a small plectrum made from quill or plastic. The strings are under tension on

3564-474: The strings being struck with leathered paper hammers instead of being plucked. Unlike the harpsichord, the fortepiano is capable of changes in dynamic volume, giving it its name. By the late 18th century the harpsichord was supplanted by the piano and almost disappeared from view for most of the 19th century: an exception was its continued use in opera for accompanying recitative , but the piano sometimes displaced it even there. Twentieth-century efforts to revive

3630-412: The strings, muting their sound to simulate the sound of a plucked lute . The term denotes the whole family of similar plucked-keyboard instruments, including the smaller virginals , muselar , and spinet . The harpsichord was widely used in Renaissance and Baroque music , both as an accompaniment instrument and as a soloing instrument. During the Baroque era, the harpsichord was a standard part of

3696-461: The tuning of organs and other similar instruments, the following chromatic system has been drawn up." Tuning an instrument nowadays usually starts with setting an A; historically it would commence from a C or an F. The harpsichord uses the bass clef (F clef). Some modern instruments are built with keyboards that can shift sideways, allowing the player to align the mechanism with strings at either A = 415 Hz or A = 440 Hz. If

3762-437: The wrestplank. The section of the string beyond the nut forms its vibrating length , which is plucked and creates sound. At the other end of its vibrating length, the string passes over the bridge , another sharp edge made of hardwood . As with the nut, the horizontal position of the string along the bridge is determined by a vertical metal pin inserted into the bridge, against which the string rests. The bridge itself rests on

3828-560: Was Lodoïska (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism. This was followed by Elisa (1794), set in the Swiss Alps , and Médée (1797), Cherubini's best-known work. Les deux journées (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success. These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique. Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began

3894-493: Was a huge success. The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms . In 1836, Cherubini wrote a Requiem in D minor to be performed at his own funeral. It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work. In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue , in 1835. His role at

3960-466: Was also a pioneer of the harpsichord concerto, both in works designated as such, and in the harpsichord part of his Fifth Brandenburg Concerto . Two of the most prominent composers of the Classical era , Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), wrote harpsichord music. For both, the instrument featured in the earlier period of their careers, and was largely supplanted by

4026-417: Was always angry." Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska , Rossini , Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres . The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin. In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer. Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write

SECTION 60

#1732772840203

4092-444: Was an instrument that could be folded up to make it more compact, thus facilitating travelling with it. On the whole, earlier harpsichords have smaller ranges than later ones, although there are many exceptions. The largest harpsichords have a range of just over five octaves , and the smallest have under four. Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range in the bass with a " short octave ". The traditional pitch range for

4158-518: Was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan . Cherubini's early opere serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno , Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions. His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli , Tommaso Traetta , and Antonio Sacchini , who were the leading Italian composers of

4224-610: Was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands . After Les deux journées , Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu . Cherubini's opera-ballet Anacréon was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success. Faniska , produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven. Les Abencérages (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during

4290-437: Was important. Wilhelm Altmann , writing in his Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler ( Handbook for String Quartet Players ) about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos. 1 and 3 as masterworks. His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work. During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors. These included

4356-587: Was not the percussion instrument that we call triangle today; rather, it was a name for octave-pitched spinets, which were triangular in shape. A clavicytherium is a harpsichord with the soundboard and strings mounted vertically facing the player, the same space-saving principle as an upright piano . In a clavicytherium, the jacks move horizontally without the assistance of gravity, so that clavicytherium actions are more complex than those of other harpsichords. Ottavini are small spinets or virginals at four-foot pitch . Harpsichords at octave pitch were more common in

#202797