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106-622: The Biscayne was named after Biscayne Bay , near Miami, Florida , following a trend by Chevrolet at the time to name cars after coastal cities or beaches such as the Bel Air and the later Chevrolet Malibu . The first use of the Biscayne name by Chevrolet was on the 1955 Biscayne XP-37 concept car built for the General Motors Motorama . Biscaynes were produced primarily for the fleet market, though they were also available to

212-557: A barrier island and Miami on the mainland , from Dumfoundling Bay on the north to the Rickenbacker Causeway to the south. Other municipalities on the western shore of the lagoon include Aventura (on Dumfoundling Bay), North Miami Beach, North Miami , and Miami Shores . Municipalities bordering the lagoon on the barrier islands north of Miami Beach include Sunny Isles Beach, Bal Harbour , Bay Harbor Islands , Surfside , and Indian Creek Village . North Bay Village

318-620: A V8 engine starting midway through the 1971 model year. Production of the Biscayne for the United States market ended for 1972; it wasn't advertised that year in Chevrolet's brochure but was available for fleet buyers. However, the Biscayne name was still used in Canada through the 1975 model year, with a 350 cubic-inch V8 engine and Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmission made standard for 1974. The station wagon model had been sold as

424-427: A barrel is worn and needs to be replaced. The end of the chamber, freebore and leade (the unrifled portion of the barrel just forward of the chamber), as well as the first few centimeters or few inches of rifling, in rifles are subject to very high temperatures—as the energy content of rifle propellants can exceed 3500 kJ/kg—and pressures that can exceed 380 MPa (55,114 psi). The propellant gases act similarly as

530-475: A bath surface tension less than 35 dyn/cm is necessary to prevent plating solution from becoming airborne when bubbles rise to the surface and pop. This requires a frequent cycle of treating the bath with a wetting agent fume suppressant and confirming the effect on surface tension. Usually, surface tension is measured with a stalagmometer or tensiometer . This method is, however, tedious and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up to 22 dyn/cm have been reported), and

636-552: A broader set of conditions (such as oxidation resistance), and bulking material for worn parts to restore their original dimensions. It is very hard, measuring between 65 and 69 HRC (also based on the base metal's hardness). Hard chrome tends to be thicker than decorative chrome, with standard thicknesses in non-salvage applications ranging from 20 to 40 μm, but it can be an order of magnitude thicker for extreme wear resistance requirements, in such cases 100 μm or thicker provides optimal results. Unfortunately, such thicknesses emphasize

742-614: A causeway and bridges connecting Key Biscayne to the Ragged Keys and beyond on the grounds that such construction would block the free outflow of storm surges from the bay across the flats to the ocean. It is believed that it does moderate the effects of storm surges on the bay. The transportation of sand southward along the Atlantic Coast of Florida by longshore drift ends in the area of the Safety Valve. The structure of

848-606: A complementary color. In the last years of the Korean War , the US contemplated banning chrome in favor of several cheaper processes (such as plating with zinc and then coating with shiny plastic). In 2007, a Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) was issued banning several toxic substances for use in the automotive industry in Europe, including hexavalent chromium , which is used in chrome plating. However, chrome plating

954-527: A lagoon behind the ancient reef that became the Key Largo limestone, and is the same age as the Key Largo limestone. The limestone bottom of the lagoon is overlain by 1.2 to 4.6 metres (3.9 to 15.1 ft) of sand, carbonate mud, and coral rubble sediments. For purposes of discussion and analysis, Biscayne Bay is often divided into three sections: North Bay, Central Bay, and South Bay. The North Bay of Biscayne Bay principally lies between Miami Beach on

1060-643: A location in the Florida Keys. Due to its distance from the open ocean and the restrictive passages between other components of Biscayne Bay, Manatee Bay experiences low tidal exchange, while the C-197 canal allows fresh water from the C-111 canal to flow into Manatee Bay. Salinity levels in Manatee Bay range from 14 parts-per-thousand (ppt) to 45 ppt (seawater has an average salinity of 35 ppt). In July 2023,

1166-555: A maximum depth of 4 metres (13 ft). The eastern rim of the lagoon is based on an ancient coral reef which existed along the southeastern edge of the Florida Platform about 100,000 years ago. The ensuing Wisconsin glaciation lowered sea levels, leaving the reef above water. The dead reef became fossilized, forming the Key Largo Limestone (commonly called "coral rock"). Key Largo Limestone underlies

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1272-419: A platform for the rear seating area. This was described, but not pictured, in the dealer brochure. In 1959, the car was redesigned, and now sat on an inch-and-a-half (3.8 cm) longer wheelbase. In 1959 the two-door Utility Sedan appeared, a version lacking a rear seat and being intended as a delivery vehicle. In total, there was 2 different body styles, 2-door sedan and 4-door sedan. The Chevrolet Biscayne had

1378-519: A price of $ 2,365, the entry level Biscayne Fleet Master had a price of $ 2,295 and the top level Impala had a price of $ 2,772. 1960 Chevy Biscayne were used as presidential vehicle in South Korea . In 1960, a lower-priced, sparsely trimmed version of the Biscayne called the Fleetmaster was produced. Aimed primarily at the fleet market, the Fleetmaster included a lower grade of upholstery than

1484-652: A second causeway connecting Miami to the barrier islands of Miami Beach, and the County Causeway—;later the MacArthur Causeway —opened on February 17, 1920. In 1925, Biscayne Point was created in Miami Beach's north end. In 1929, a third causeway crossed Biscayne Bay at Normandy Isle , which developer Henri Levy had created several years earlier by dredging and filling the south half of Meade Island. The Julia Tuttle Causeway

1590-687: A small park. It is located on the John F. Kennedy (79th Street) Causeway in North Bay. The City of Miami has many parks fronting on the lagoon, the more important of which are Bayfront Park , Alice Wainwright Park , Margaret Pace Park , Maurice A. Ferré Park , Morningside Park, and Peacock Park . Public marinas on Biscayne Bay operated by the City of Miami include: Dinner Key Marina, Miami Marine Stadium Marina, and Miamarina at Bayside . The Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve includes most of Biscayne Bay (in

1696-531: A surface area of about 271 square miles (700 km ). Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda related in the 16th century that a sailor from the Bay of Biscay called the Viscayno or Biscayno had lived on the lower east coast of Florida for a while after being shipwrecked, and a 17th-century map shows a Cayo de Biscainhos , the probable origin of the name for Key Biscayne . The lagoon was known as "Key Biscayne Bay" in

1802-414: A toxic mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath. Wet scrubbers are used to control these emissions. The liquid from the wet scrubbers is treated to precipitate the chromium and remove it from the wastewater before it is discharged. Additional toxic waste created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates , which form in the bath because lead anodes are used. Barium

1908-403: Is hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and the role of chromate is to scavenge H ions in a reaction that competes with H 2 evolution: The shine of plated chrome depends on whether microscopic cracks in the plating are visible on the surface. The dull appearance of some chrome layers is due to continuous cracks that propagate through the whole plated metal layer, while bright deposits appear in

2014-460: Is also dependent on the current density, because a higher current density requires a higher temperature. Finally, the whole bath is agitated to keep the temperature steady and achieve a uniform deposition. One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power . This means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem

2120-584: Is also popular for the etching of nimonic alloys. Sometimes the component enters the chrome plating vat while electrically live. Sometimes the component has a conforming anode made from lead/tin or platinized titanium. A typical hard chrome vat plates at about 0.001 inches (25 μm) per hour. Some common industry specifications governing the chrome plating process are AMS 2460, AMS 2406, and MIL-STD-1501. Hexavalent chromium plating , also known as hex-chrome , Cr , and chrome(VI) plating, uses chromium trioxide (CrO 3 , also known as chromic anhydride) as

2226-497: Is also used to control the sulfate concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate (BaSO 4 ). Trivalent chromium is intrinsically less toxic than hexavalent chromium. Because of the lower toxicity it is not regulated as strictly, which reduces overhead costs . Other health advantages include higher cathode efficiencies, which lead to less chromium air emissions; lower concentration levels, resulting in less chromium waste and anodes that do not decompose. Maintaining

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2332-576: Is at Black Point. Chrome plating Chrome plating (less commonly chromium plating ) is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a metal object. A chrome plated part is called chrome , or is said to have been chromed . The chromium layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, facilitate cleaning, and increase surface hardness. Sometimes a less expensive substitute for chrome, such as nickel, may be used for aesthetic purposes. Chromium compounds used in electroplating are toxic . In most countries, their disposal

2438-678: Is dependent on the user's experience and capabilities. While they are effective for the control of toxic airborne chromium, many widely used wetting agent fume suppressants are toxic themselves because they contain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are hazardous chemicals that can cause long-term health effects. This makes electroplating one of the jobs with the highest risk of occupational exposure to PFAS, but not as high as firefighters using fluorinated aqueous film forming foams . In addition to their detrimental effects on human health, PFAS are persistent pollutants that cause significant bioaccumulation and biomagnification , putting animals at

2544-425: Is designed to be aesthetically pleasing and durable. Thicknesses range from 2 to 20 μin (0.05 to 0.5 μm), however, they are usually between 5 and 10 μin (0.13 and 0.25 μm). The chromium plating is usually applied over bright nickel plating . Typical base materials include steel , aluminium , plastic , copper alloys, and zinc alloys. Decorative chrome plating is also very corrosion resistant and

2650-563: Is done from liquids comprising Cr species. Such solutions were avoided prior to ca. 2020, because of air-sensitivity and hydrogen evolution from aqueous Cr solutions. In the 2020s, it was discovered that chromous chloride has ca. 4.0 M solubility in water at room temperature (i.e. with H 2 O:Cr molar ratio around 14:1), and such liquids behave like supersaturated electrolytes with a reduced propensity toward hydrogen evolution. The best quality bright deposits are produced at relatively high current density of 20 mA/cm . Decorative chrome

2756-400: Is located on two artificial islands in the middle of the lagoon. North Bay is the part of the lagoon that has been most modified by human works, including channels and other dredged areas, and spoil banks and artificial islands created with material dredged from channels. More than 40% of the area of North Bay had either been dredged or filled to form artificial islands, and more than half of

2862-472: Is metal and contains no hexavalent chromium after it is rinsed, so chrome plating is not banned. Chrome-lining protects the barrel or chamber of arms from corrosion and makes these parts also easier to clean, but this is not the main purpose for lining a barrel or chamber. Chrome-lining was introduced in machine guns to increase the wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts like barrels and chambers, allowing more rounds to be fired before

2968-413: Is more robust than hexavalent chromium because it can withstand current interruptions. One of the disadvantages when the process was first introduced was that decorative customers disapproved of the color differences. Companies now use additives to adjust the color. In hard coating applications, the corrosion resistance of thicker coatings is not quite as good as it is with hexavalent chromium. The cost of

3074-442: Is now Fisher Island at the south end of Miami Beach . The opening of Government Cut in 1905 separated Fisher Island from Miami Beach and slightly shortened the barrier spit. The dredging of Baker's Haulover Inlet in 1925 across the barrier spit near the north end of the bay converted that part of the barrier spit where Miami Beach was located into a barrier island. Modification of the flow of fresh water through waterways, and

3180-415: Is often used on car parts, tools and kitchen utensils. Thin dense chrome (TDC) differs from decorative chrome. While decorative chrome is applied primarily for aesthetic purposes with thin layers that provide a shiny finish, TDC, such as Armoloy , focuses on enhancing surface performance. It delivers wear resistance, corrosion protection, and hardness without adding significant thickness. TDC also avoids

3286-533: Is subject to different types of quality requirements depending on the application; for instance, the plating on hydraulic piston rods are tested for corrosion resistance with a salt spray test . Most bright decorative items affixed to cars are referred to as "chrome", meaning steel that has undergone several plating processes to protect it from weathering and moisture but the term passed on to cover any similar-looking shiny decorative auto parts, including silver plastic trim pieces in casual terminology. Triple plating

Chevrolet Biscayne - Misplaced Pages Continue

3392-491: Is the least affected by human activities, although it also suffers from the loss of natural fresh water flow. The Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station is a significant presence on the mainland shore. Card Sound is an extension of Biscayne Bay to the south of South Bay. Little Card Sound is the next south, separated from Card Sound by Card Bank. The causeway of the Card Sound Bridge now separates Barnes Sound to

3498-418: Is the most expensive and durable process, which involves plating the steel first with copper and then nickel before the chromium plating is applied. Prior to the application of chrome in the 1920s, nickel electroplating was used. In the short production run prior to the US entry into World War II , the government banned plating to save chromium and automobile manufacturers painted the decorative pieces in

3604-488: Is tightly regulated. Some fume suppressants used to control the emission of airborne chromium from plating baths are also toxic, making disposal even more difficult. The preparation and chrome plating of a part typically includes some or all of these steps: There are many variations to this process, depending on the type of substrate being plated. Different substrates need different etching solutions, such as hydrochloric , hydrofluoric , and sulfuric acids . Ferric chloride

3710-730: Is wasted when grinding the piece back to desired dimensions. Modern engineered coatings do not suffer such drawbacks, which often price hard chrome out due to labor costs alone. Hard chrome replacement technologies outperform hard chrome in wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and cost. Hardness up to 80 HRC is not extraordinary for such materials. Modern engineered coatings applied using spray deposition can form layers of uniform thickness that often require no further polishing or machining. These coatings are often composites of polymers , metals, and ceramic powders or fibers as proprietary formulas protected by patents or as trade secrets, and thus are usually known by brand names. Hard chromium plating

3816-516: The Brookwood , but for 1973 the Biscayne station wagon made a return for the Canadian market only. Like its stablemates, the 1975 Biscayne received new dashboard, radio and climate control graphics (including a 100-mph speedometer with kilometer equivalents) and the availability of two new options: an Econominder gauge package (with temperature gauge and a gauge that monitored fuel economy, based on

3922-742: The Cutler Fossil Site , a sinkhole that is now a couple of kilometers from the bay. At the time of European contact, in the early 16th century, the area around the bay was occupied by the Tequesta . The Tequesta belonged to the Glades culture , which had been in place for about 2,000 years. The chief town of the Tequesta, also called Tequesta, was on the bay at the mouth of the Miami River, from about 1200. The Miami Circle , just south of

4028-696: The University of Miami 's Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science are located on the southern end of Virginia Key , the only part of that island bordering on Central Bay. Grove Isle , near the Miami neighborhood of Coconut Grove , is an artificial island in Central Bay. The large marina at Dinner Key is also in Coconut Grove. Central Bay has been adversely affected primarily by bulkheading, urban runoff discharged by canals, and

4134-529: The "Street Racer Special," a 1968 Biscayne coupe with dealer-fitted high-performance 427 cubic-inch V8, and heavy-duty suspension components, turning the Biscayne into a serious drag car. Biscayne with high-performance equipment was often nicknamed "Bisquick" by enthusiasts. Like the slightly upscale Bel Airs, Biscaynes are easily identified by the use of two taillights per side; the only exceptions to this were in 1959 and 1972. The more expensive Impalas (and later Caprices) have three taillights per side. The Biscayne

4240-432: The "active Cr " also undergoes within less than 1 second a transition into "inactive Cr ", which is believed to be a polymeric hexa-aqua complex. Some complexes of Cr with ligand other than water can undergo relatively fast electroreduction to metallic chromium, and they are used in chromate-free chromium plating methods. A different school of thought suggests, that the main problem with chromium plating from Cr solution

4346-418: The 1964 models came standard with deluxe steering wheels with horn rings, deep-twist carpeting and foam-cushioned front seats. At its introduction for the 1958 model year, the Biscayne was available as a two- or four-door pillared sedan. In 1958, there was also the even lower-priced Chevrolet Delray , but this was discontinued for 1959. There was a 2-door Delray Utility Sedan offered in 1958, which substituted

Chevrolet Biscayne - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-465: The 1970 model year. The 1967 Chevrolet Biscayne 2-door sedan with a 427 under the hood and a 3-speed manual did 0-60 mph in 6.1 seconds, and the quarter mile in 14.6 seconds. A base model 2-door Biscayne would cost you $ 2,472 (the Impala was $ 2,728) in 1965. In 1970 a base model Biscayne would cost $ 2,897 (the Impala was $ 3,150). The Turbo Hydra-Matic transmission was made standard on all cars ordered with

4558-423: The 19th century, finally shrinking to "Biscayne Bay" late in the 19th century. The lagoon has been known by several names. Juan Ponce de León called it Chequescha in 1513, and Pedro Menéndez de Avilés called it Tequesta in 1565. Those names are variant spellings of " Tequesta ", the name of the people who lived around the lagoon at the time. The British, during their occupation of Florida (1763–1783), called

4664-522: The Atlantic Ocean to the east by a string of barrier islands in the northern part of the lagoon, a large shoal in the central section, and the northernmost of the Florida Keys in the south. The lagoon is about 35 miles (56 km) long from Dumfoundling Bay (25° 58′ North latitude) (north of North Miami Beach) to Card Sound, and another 25 miles (40 km) to Jewfish Creek (25° 24′ North latitude), if Card Sound and Barnes Sound are included in

4770-808: The Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserves. Card Sound and Barnes Sound lie within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . The Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge on Key Largo includes 650 acres (2.6 km ) of open water in Card Sound and Barnes Sound. Lobsters are protected year-round in the Biscayne Bay-Card Sound Lobster Sanctuary. The sanctuary includes all of the lagoon from a line running from Cape Florida to Matheson Hammock County Park south to

4876-583: The Biscayne to put more effort into cars like the Chevrolet Vega and Chevrolet Chevette . Biscayne Bay Biscayne Bay is a lagoon with characteristics of an estuary located on the Atlantic coast of South Florida . The northern end of the lagoon is surrounded by the densely developed heart of the Miami metropolitan area while the southern end is largely undeveloped with a large portion of

4982-617: The Biscayne, the first being that the government wanted more fuel efficient cars, and the Biscayne was not such. The second reason being that the Chevrolet Biscayne was starting to overlap with other GM models like the Chevrolet Bel Air and the Pontiac Catalina , including prices that also overlapped. The third and final reason was money, Chevrolet was losing money to foreign imports, so Chevrolet phased out

5088-538: The Card Sound Bridge and causeway. The sea level at Virginia Key has been rising at an average rate of 2.97 millimetres (0.117 in) a year from 1931 to 2020, equivalent to 0.97 feet (0.30 m) a century. The islands adjacent to the lagoon are low-lying and threatened with significant flooding in the near future. Gas and oil exploration wells have been drilled near the lagoon, although none reached exploitable deposits. Canals and quarries have disturbed

5194-539: The Eastern edge of the barrier islands and the shoals (Safety Valve) along the northern and middle part of the lagoon. It makes a brief appearance at Soldier Key , in the middle of the Safety Valve, and rises above sea level to the south to form the upper Florida Keys. The western side of the bay has characteristics of an estuary , with 16 waterways, the largest of which is the Miami River , flowing into it. All of

5300-468: The Florida Keys north of Key Largo, are within the boundaries of Biscayne National Park . A number of other state and local parks front on the lagoon, primarily on North Bay and the northern rim of Central Bay. Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park is located on the southern part of Key Biscayne. Oleta River State Park is located on the south side of the Oleta River where it flows into the segment of

5406-484: The Intracoastal Waterway connecting Dumfoundling Bay and North Bay, fronting on North Bay as it widens to the south. Miami-Dade County operates a number of parks with frontage on Biscayne Bay. Haulover Park is on the barrier island running north from Baker's Haulover Inlet. Crandon Park covers the northern part of Key Biscayne. The Vizcaya Museum and Gardens are located on the mainland in Miami near

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5512-588: The MacArthur Causeway have been created, in whole or in part, with material dredged from the lagoon bottom. Most of the islands, such as the Venetian Islands, are residential. Brickell Key , another residential island, is just south of the mouth of the Miami River. Dodge Island , across the main ship channel to the south of the MacArthur Causeway, was enlarged in the 1960s when the Port of Miami

5618-871: The Miami-Dade County-Monroe County line, and from the limit of Florida territorial waters in the Atlantic to the Intracoastal Waterway in Biscayne Bay. When the Biscayne National Monument was upgraded to a National Park, all waters in the National Park were removed from the Biscayne Bay-Cape Florida to Monroe County Line Aquatic Preserve. The remainder of that preserve consists of about 4,163 acres (16.85 km ) of submerged lands near Key Biscayne. The two preserves are known collectively as

5724-414: The Safety Valve has been stable for at least the last century. (The area was called Bocas de Miguel de Mora on Spanish maps and derroteros during the era of Spanish Florida . ) Stiltsville is a collection of buildings on pilings on several sand flats at the northern end of the Safety Valve. What is now Biscayne Bay was a freshwater basin 4,000 years ago. As the sea level rose, ocean water entered

5830-507: The activation step is done in the chromium bath. The chromium bath is a mixture of chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid , the ratio of which varies greatly between 75:1 to 250:1 by weight. This results in an extremely acidic bath (pH 0). The temperature and current density in the bath affect the brightness and final coverage. For decorative coating the temperature ranges from 35 to 45 °C (100 to 110 °F), but for hard coating it ranges from 50 to 65 °C (120 to 150 °F). Temperature

5936-481: The basin, turning it into an estuary/lagoon. Before the 20th century, a coastal ridge west of and parallel to the bay caused most of the ground water west of the ridge to flow towards the Everglades and Florida Bay , while ground water on the narrow coastal strip east of the ridge flowed into the bay. Freshwater marshes were located all along the western shore of the bay, and fresh water springs were located along

6042-545: The bay was in the news when a bouy there recorded a water temperature of 101.1 °F (38.4 °C). The Safety Valve is a series of shallow sand flats separated by tidal flow channels, stretching about 8 miles (13 km) from the south end of Key Biscayne to the Ragged Keys just north of the Florida Keys . The term "safety valve" was applied to the tidal flats by Ralph Munroe , who argued against building

6148-690: The bedrock on the shores of the lagoon. Miami-Dade County operates a 300-acre (120 ha) landfill at Black Point adjacent to the lagoon. Miami-Dade County operates three wastewater treatment plants close to the lagoon. The oldest is the Central District Wastewater Treatment Plant on Virginia Key. The North District Wastewater Treatment Plant is in North Miami, and the South District Wastewater Treatment Plant

6254-415: The brand-new, high-powered 409 V8s (of which only 142 were built in 1961) even found their way into the bargain-basement Biscayne Fleetmaster, with the direct intention of being used for drag racing. The all-new 1965 Biscayne was larger yet, and offered an even wider range of engines, including a new, larger 250-ci inline-six. For the 1967 model year the smaller 230 was dropped. For 1966 the top engine became

6360-405: The chemicals is greater, but this is usually offset by greater production rates and lower overhead costs. In general, the process must be controlled more closely than in hexavalent chromium plating, especially with respect to metallic impurities. This means processes that are hard to control, such as barrel plating, are much more difficult using a trivalent chromium bath. Divalent chromium plating

6466-442: The design featured an optional third row of forward-facing seats accessed by the rear side doors and a folding second-row seat — and could accommodate a 4 x 8' sheet of plywood with rear seats folded. The clamshell design required no increased footprint or operational area to open, allowing a user to stand at the cargo opening without impediment of a door — for example, in a closed garage. Three main factors helped kill off

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6572-505: The driver's current driving habits) and intermittent windshield wipers. The fourth generation wagons featured a 'clamshell' design marketed as the Glide-away tailgate, also called a "disappearing" tailgate because when open, the tailgate was completely out of view. On the clamshell design, the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof and the lower tailgate (with either manual or optional power operation), lowered completely below

6678-404: The end of the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling. Hard chrome-lining protects the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling with a thin coat of wear resistant chrome. This significantly extends barrel life in arms that are fired for prolonged periods in full-auto or sustained rapid fire modes. Some arms manufacturers use Stellite-lining alloy as an alternative to hard chrome-lining to further increase

6784-455: The flame from a cutting torch, the gases heating up the metal to red-hot state and the velocity tearing away metal. Under slow fire conditions, the affected areas are able to cool sufficiently in between shots. Under sustained rapid fire or automatic/cyclic fire there is no time for the heat to dissipate. The heat and pressure effects exerted by the hot propellant gasses and friction by the projectile can quickly cause damage by washing away metal at

6890-457: The general public — particularly to those who wanted low-cost, no-frills transportation with the convenience, room and power of a full-size automobile . While most Biscaynes were sold with a six-cylinder engine through the late 1960s, the V8 engine became the more popular powerplant by the early 1970s. The Biscayne was usually built as a two- or four-door sedan , although a four-door station wagon

6996-513: The highest trophic level at the highest risk for toxic effects. It has been known for over a century, that chromium electroplating is relatively easy from (di)chromate solutions, but difficult from Cr solutions. Several theories have been proposed to explain this finding. An earlier view suggested, that an active Cr species (perhaps, with a ligand rather than water) forms initially from electroreduced Cr . This active Cr species can be reduced into metallic chromium relatively easy. However,

7102-565: The lagoon "Cape River", "Dartmouth Sound", and "Sandwich gulph". Biscayne Bay is a semi- or subtropical lagoon extending most of the length of Miami-Dade County , from North Miami Beach to the upper Florida Keys . Biscayne Bay, in the strictest sense, extends from a point between North Miami Beach and Sunny Isles Beach south to the Arsenicker Keys and the Cutter Bank just to the east of those islands. Many discussions about

7208-399: The lagoon include Dumfoundling Bay, a small lagoon just north of North Miami Beach, as part of Biscayne Bay, and include Card Sound and Barnes Sound , in southern Miami-Dade County adjacent to Key Largo , as either part of a system of connected lagoons including Biscayne Bay, or as part of Biscayne Bay itself. The lagoon is bordered on its west by the mainland of Florida, and is separated from

7314-479: The lagoon included in Biscayne National Park . The part of the lagoon that is traditionally called "Biscayne Bay" is approximately 35 miles (56 km) long and up to 8 miles (13 km) wide, with a surface area of 221 square miles (570 km ). Various definitions may include Dumfoundling Bay, Card Sound, and Barnes Sound in a larger "Biscayne Bay", which is 60 miles (97 km) long with

7420-501: The lagoon. The lagoon is 8 miles (13 km) across at its widest point. The lagoon, from Dumfoundling Bay to the Arsenicker Keys, has a surface area of about 572 square kilometres (221 sq mi). The larger lagoon, including Card Sound and Barnes Sound, has a surface area of about 703 square kilometres (271 sq mi). It has an average depth of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) and, except where channels have been dredged ,

7526-400: The lightest car possible). The Fleetmaster was dropped after 1961. Under 5,000 of them were made. The Biscayne underwent a full model change for the 1961 model year. The stripped down Fleetmaster and the three-passenger Utility Sedan were still available for 1961 but sold in very small numbers. Series numbers were 1100 and 1200 (six- and eight-cylinder Biscayne), with the 1300 and 1400 used for

7632-582: The limitations of the process, which are overcome by plating extra thickness then grinding down and lapping to meet requirements, or to improve the overall aesthetics of the chromed piece. Increasing plating thickness amplifies surface defects and roughness in proportional severity, because hard chrome does not have a leveling effect. Pieces that are not ideally shaped in reference to electric field geometries (nearly every piece sent in for plating, except spheres and egg shaped objects) require even thicker plating to compensate for non-uniform deposition, and much of it

7738-415: The load floor. The manual lower tailgate was counterbalanced by a torque rod similar to the torque rods used in holding a trunk lid open, requiring a 35 lb push to fully lower the gate. Raising the manual gate required a 5 lb pull via a handhold integral to the top edge of the retractable gate. The power operation of both upper glass and lower tailgate became standard equipment in later model years. Wagons with

7844-629: The loss of natural fresh water flow. South Bay is nearly as large as Central Bay, and is defined as extending from the Featherbed Bank to the Arsenicker Keys , or to Cutter Bank, which is to the east of the Arsenicker Keys. (Brown et al. define South Bay as consisting of Card Sound and Barnes Sound.) It is separated from the ocean by the northernmost of the Florida Keys , from Boca Chita Key to Old Rhodes Key . Fresh water sources for South Bay include Black Creek, Goulds Canal, North Canal, Florida City Canal, and Model Land Canal. Tidal exchange with

7950-433: The main ingredient. Hexavalent chromium plating solution is used for both decorative and hard plating, as well as bright dipping of copper alloys, chromic acid anodizing , and chromate conversion coating . A typical hexavalent chromium plating process is: The activation bath is typically a tank of chromic acid with a reverse current run through it. This etches the work-piece surface and removes any scale . In some cases,

8056-425: The main ingredient. Trivalent chromium plating is an alternative to hexavalent chromium in certain applications and thicknesses (e.g. decorative plating). A trivalent chromium plating process is similar to the hexavalent chromium plating process, except for the bath chemistry and anode composition. There are three main types of trivalent chromium bath configurations: The trivalent chromium-plating process can plate

8162-530: The microcracking associated with decorative chrome, making it ideal for industrial applications where durability and friction reduction are necessary. Thin dense chrome is commonly used in precision tools, aerospace, medical, and food processing equipment. Hard chrome , also known as industrial chrome or engineered chrome , is used to reduce friction, improve durability through abrasion tolerance and wear resistance in general, minimize galling or seizing of parts, expand chemical inertness to include

8268-500: The middle third of the island on the eastern side of Central Bay. Fresh water sources for Central Bay include the Coral Gables Waterway and Snapper Creek . Tidal flow between Central Bay and the ocean is through Bear Cut between Virginia Key and Key Biscayne and across the Safety Valve. The development that has so transformed North Bay has spread over much of the northern shores of Central Bay. Miami Seaquarium and

8374-410: The mouth of the Miami River, has been proposed to be post holes for a structure. The site was abandoned in about 1200, when the town site north of the river was occupied. Juan Ponce de León visited Biscayne Bay in 1513, and Pedro Menéndez de Avilés did so in 1565. Early accounts by Spanish explorers indicated the existence of one or more inlets somewhere on the long barrier spit then separating

8480-422: The new Big-Block 427 ci V8, available in a high-powered, high-revving 425 hp (317 kW) version with solid lifters. Although not available for the big Chevrolets in 1967, it returned in 1968 for two more model years. For 1969 Chevrolet reverted to separate series names for station wagons and what had been the Biscayne wagon became the Brookwood . Power steering and power brakes were made standard for

8586-553: The north to the Featherbed Bank, which runs across the bay from Black Point to Boca Chita Key . It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by Key Biscayne , the Safety Valve , and the Ragged Keys , the northernmost of the Florida Keys . It is bordered on the western shore by the municipalities of Miami , Coral Gables , Palmetto Bay , Cutler Bay , and a portion of unincorporated Miami-Dade County. Key Biscayne occupies

8692-526: The northern edge of Central Bay. Matheson Hammock Park , the Charles Deering Estate , and Chapman Field Park are on the mainland along the western shore of Central Bay. Black Point Park and Marina and Homestead Bayfront Park are on the mainland on the western shore of South Bay. Black Point, Crandon, Haulover, Homestead Bayfront and Matheson Hammock parks have public marinas . The county also operates Pelican Harbor Marina, which includes

8798-602: The northern end of Biscayne Bay from the ocean (one called "Boca Rattones" appears on the 1770s map by Bernard Romans), but such inlets open and close over time. At the beginning of the 19th century, there was no inlet through the barrier spit between the New River inlet in Fort Lauderdale and Bear Cut, at the south end of what is now Virginia Key . Hurricanes in 1835 and 1838 opened a new inlet, Narrows Cut (now known as Norris Cut), separating Virginia Key from what

8904-591: The ocean is through Baker's Haulover Inlet , Government Cut , and Norris Cut. Northeast 163rd Street , or Sunny Isles Boulevard, connects North Miami Beach and Sunny Isles Beach across the section of the Intracoastal Waterway running between Dumfoundling Bay and Biscayne Bay proper. Five causeways cross North Bay between Northeast 163rd Street and the Rickenbacker Causeway, including: More than 20 islands in North Bay north from

9010-417: The ocean occurs through Sands Cut, Caesar's Creek and Broad Creek. Boca Chita Key, Elliott Key , and Old Rhodes Key were all enlarged by dredging in the first half of the 20th century. Boca Chita Key was the site of some construction in the early 20th century. Mark C. Honeywell bought the key in 1937, and built a large retreat on the island, including a 65-foot (20 m) tall faux lighthouse. South Bay

9116-593: The opening of Government Cut and the Baker's Haulover Inlet during the 20th century increased the salinity of the lagoon. Dredging of the ship channel and turning basin for the Port of Miami and other navigation channels, including the Intracoastal Waterway , has resulted in the build up of artificial islands in the Northern Bay. As of 1981 more than 40% of the area of North Bay had either been dredged or filled to form artificial islands. Seawalls line almost all of

9222-428: The part may be over-plated and ground to size, or auxiliary anodes may be used around the hard-to-plate areas. Hexavalent chromium is also considerably more toxic than trivalent chromium, rendering it a major health risk both in manufacturing and disposal if not handled with care. Trivalent chromium plating , also known as tri-chrome , Cr , and chrome(III) plating, uses chromium sulfate or chromium chloride as

9328-527: The remaining lagoon bottom is barren. Coastal wetlands have been almost eliminated in North Bay. Turbidity is high in North Bay due to erosion from spoil islands and banks, and the lack of vegetation on the lagoon bottom. The spoil islands host large quantities of invasive plant species . North Bay is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by barrier islands . Freshwater sources flowing into North Bay include Oleta River , Arch Creek , Biscayne Canal, Little River and Miami River. Tidal flow between North Bay and

9434-412: The shore and on the bottom of the bay. Ralph Munroe noted in the late 19th century that potable water could be pumped from one of those bay bottom springs. Springs can still be found in the bay, but the water from them is now brackish. People lived in the area that is now Biscayne Bay long before the bay was formed. Human bones, teeth, and artifacts that are almost 11,000 years old have been found at

9540-445: The shoreline of North Bay. The bay has been severely affected over the last century by raw sewage releases, urban runoff , shoreline bulkheading , dredging , the creation of artificial islands and the loss of natural fresh water flow into the bay. However, water quality has steadily improved since regular monitoring began in 1979. North Bay accounts for only 10% of the water area of the bay. The first bridge across Biscayne Bay

9646-410: The six- and eight-cylinder Fleetmaster. For 1963, the short-stroke Turbo-Thrift inline-six replaced the earlier "Stovebolt" 235, meaning lower weight and a slight gain in power. In 1962, a four-door station wagon version appeared, replacing the earlier Brookwood model. As usual, the full range of GM's full-size engine and transmission options were available to the low priced Biscayne. A very few of

9752-480: The south of Key Biscayne on the east, and just to the south of Chicken Key, part of the Charles Deering Estate, on the west. The southern part of the preserve includes Card Sound. The preserve includes about 69,000 acres (280 km ) of submerged land owned by the state. The Biscayne Bay-Cape Florida to Monroe County Line Aquatic Preserve was created in 1975. That preserve ran from Cape Florida to

9858-506: The south of Little Card Sound. Manatee Bay is to the west of Barnes Sound. Card Sound and Barnes Sound are bounded on the east by Key Largo . South Biscayne Bay is sometimes defined as including Card Sound and Barnes Sound. Barnes Sound is connected to Florida Bay through a few small channels. Manatee Bay is partially separated from Barnes Sound by Short Key and Main Key. In 1994, it was described as having particularly undisturbed habitat for

9964-486: The standard Biscayne and deleted routine convenience items such as a cigarette lighter , door armrests, and passenger-side sun visor. In addition, many parts were painted rather than chrome plated . Both two- and four-door sedans were available. A number of economy-minded options were available exclusive to the Fleetmaster model, although the performance-oriented engines and transmissions were also available (for police applications or performance-oriented customers who wanted

10070-469: The waterways have saltwater intrusion control structures, which restrict the flow of saltwater inland, and regulate the flow of fresh water into the lagoon. Some fresh water enters the lagoon as groundwater flow from the Biscayne Aquifer . All of the bedrock under the lagoon west of the ancient reef, and the adjacent mainland, consists of Miami Limestone , an oolitic limestone that formed in

10176-723: The wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts. Hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency regulates it heavily. The EPA lists hexavalent chromium as a hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen , a "priority pollutant" under the Clean Water Act , and a "hazardous constituent" under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . Due to its low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity ,

10282-586: The wider sense) that is not in Biscayne National Park. The preserve was created by the Florida Legislature in 1974, and then included all of Biscayne Bay from the Oleta River to the southern end of Card Sound. The preserve was split into two parts when the Biscayne National Monument became Biscayne National Park. The northern part extends from the headwaters of the Oleta River to the northern boundary of Biscayne National Park, just to

10388-412: The workpieces at a similar temperature, rate and hardness, as compared to hexavalent chromium. Plating thickness ranges from 5 to 50 μin (0.13 to 1.27 μm). The functional advantages of trivalent chromium are higher cathode efficiency and better throwing power. Better throwing power means better production rates. Less energy is required because of the lower current densities required. The process

10494-579: Was available between 1962 and 1968 (and again after 1973 in Canada only). A low-priced, full-size Biscayne station wagon equivalent was available as the Chevrolet Brookwood both before and after this period. The two-door sedan was dropped after 1969, and consequently, from 1970 to 1972 the only Biscayne model available was a four-door sedan. In 1958, the Delray was priced below the Biscayne but

10600-506: Was built in 1959. Other causeways are the John F. Kennedy (79th Street) and Broad causeways (connecting the Miami mainland), and the Rickenbacker Causeway (connecting Miami to Key Biscayne). The Card Sound Bridge connects the mainland in the Homestead, Florida area to the northern part of Key Largo . Most of Central Bay and almost all of South Bay, as well as the Safety Valve and

10706-687: Was discontinued the following year. Many of the luxury convenience options available on the more expensive full-sized Chevrolet models, such as power windows , were not available on the Biscayne. However, customers could purchase a Biscayne with any of Chevrolet's high-output big-block V8 engines and performance-oriented transmissions, including the floor-mounted four-speed manual transmission with Hurst shifter and low-ratio final drive. Original production numbers of cars built this way were very low, and examples of these high-performance cars are highly sought after by collectors today. Notably, Baldwin Chevrolet of Long Island, New York, became famous for offering

10812-418: Was largely devoid of exterior chrome trim and was normally fitted with small hubcaps, though several exterior trim pieces and upgraded wheel covers were available at extra cost. Interior trim was spartan, with lower-grade cloth and vinyl or all-vinyl upholstery trim, a standard steering wheel with centre horn button, and rubber floor mats. Slight upgrades were made throughout the life of the series — for instance,

10918-493: Was moved there from the mainland north of Bayfront Park. The Miami Marine Stadium was built on the north side of the Rickenbacker Causeway extending from the east side of Virginia Key in the early 1960s. There are also many undeveloped spoil islands in North Bay, such as Sandspur Island and the Picnic Islands . Central Bay is the largest part of the bay. It extends from the Rickenbacker Causeway and Virginia Key on

11024-473: Was partially completed in 1913. The bridge was "hailed as the longest wooden vehicle bridge in the world, and opened up the area as a luxury winter resort and playground." The bridge terminated at the Dixie Highway, built by Carl G. Fisher . The bridge was a toll bridge ; in 1920, the toll was reduced from 20 cents each way (for two-seat cars) to 15 cents one way (and 25 cents round-trip). The bridge

11130-576: Was sold to the Biscayne Bay Improvement Association, which developed five artificial islands that became known as the Venetian Islands : Biscayne and San Marco in Miami, San Marino , Di Lido , and Rivo Alto in Miami Beach. The bridge was torn down in 1925 and replaced with the "more substantial" Venetian Causeway the next year. The Lummus brothers lobbied for the county commission's support for

11236-543: Was the 2.5-mile (4.0 km) wooden Collins Bridge built in 1912 by John S. Collins and his son-in-law Thomas Pancoast, who formed the Miami Beach Improvement Corporation; financing was provided by Carl G. Fisher and the Miami banker brothers John N. Lummus and James E. Lummus. Construction began on July 22, 1912. Although the cost of the project was initially $ 75,000, the construction project faced delays and cost overruns. The bridge

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