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70-579: Chhaang or chhyang ( Tibetan : ཆང་ , Wylie : chang , Nepali : छ्याङ , Newar : थो: ) is a Nepalese and Tibetan alcoholic beverage popular in parts of the eastern Himalayas among the Yakkha , Limbu , Dura , Newar , Sunuwar , Rai , Bhutia , Gurung , Magar , Sherpa , Tamang , Tharus and Lepcha communities. Among the Lepcha , it is called Chi. It is also known as jaarh in Nepal. Chhaang
140-447: A British scientific base on Adelaide Island after seventeen weeks of isolation was thought to have been caused by transmission from a contaminated object or an asymptomatic human carrier, rather than from the husky dogs which were also present at the base. Transmission is common in daycare and schools due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of
210-452: A cold include cough , runny nose , sneezing , nasal congestion , and a sore throat , sometimes accompanied by muscle ache , fatigue , headache , and loss of appetite . A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases, a cough in about 50%, and muscle aches in about 50%. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza . While
280-445: A cold. Treatments of the common cold primarily involve medications and other therapies for symptomatic relief . Getting plenty of rest, drinking fluids to maintain hydration, and gargling with warm salt water are reasonable conservative measures. Much of the benefit from symptomatic treatment is, however, attributed to the placebo effect . As of 2010, no medications or herbal remedies had been conclusively demonstrated to shorten
350-504: A cold. In the developed world breast feeding may not be protective against the common cold in and of itself. The symptoms of the common cold are believed to be primarily related to the immune response to the virus. The mechanism of this immune response is virus-specific. For example, the rhinovirus is typically acquired by direct contact; it binds to humans via ICAM-1 receptors and the CDHR3 receptor through unknown mechanisms to trigger
420-497: A conservative cost estimate of $ 7.7 billion per year. Americans spend $ 2.9 billion on over-the-counter drugs and another $ 400 million on prescription medicines for symptom relief. More than one-third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription, which has implications for antibiotic resistance . An estimated 22–189 million school days are missed annually due to a cold. As a result, parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children. When added to
490-424: A cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections . The color of the mucus or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection. A cold usually begins with fatigue,
560-426: A feeling of being chilled , sneezing, and a headache, followed in a couple of days by a runny nose and cough. Symptoms may begin within sixteen hours of exposure and typically peak two to four days after onset. They usually resolve in seven to ten days, but some can last for up to three weeks. The average duration of cough is eighteen days and in some cases people develop a post-viral cough which can linger after
630-470: A greater risk for the common cold: although controversial, the majority of evidence suggests that it may increase susceptibility to infection. While the cause of the common cold was identified in the 1950s, the disease appears to have been with humanity since its early history. Its symptoms and treatment are described in the Egyptian Ebers papyrus , the oldest existing medical text, written before
700-486: A lack of evidence supporting effectiveness and the potential for harm. In 2009, Canada restricted the use of over-the-counter cough and cold medication in children six years and under due to concerns regarding risks and unproven benefits. The misuse of dextromethorphan (an over-the-counter cough medicine) has led to its ban in a number of countries. Intranasal corticosteroids have not been found to be useful. In adults, short term use of nasal decongestants may have
770-502: A result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa , there is a great divergence between current spelling, which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan, and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform , to write Tibetan as it is pronounced ; for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka'-rgyud . The nomadic Amdo Tibetan and
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#1732772691403840-402: A small benefit. Antihistamines may improve symptoms in the first day or two; however, there is no longer-term benefit and they have adverse effects such as drowsiness. Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine appear effective in adults. Combined oral analgesics, antihistaminics, and decongestants are generally effective for older children and adults. Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce
910-589: A traditional Chhaang recipe. Although individual Aconitum species vary somewhat in the degree of their toxicity, all are poisonous and, when used in traditional herbal medicine, are invariably pre-treated in various ways intended to minimise their toxicity, while retaining their assumed therapeutic properties. Nevertheless, numerous fatalities have occurred resulting from such medicinal use e.g. in certain Chinese medicinal soups consumed for their supposed tonic effects, which include augmenting physical strength, boosting
980-430: A year (and up to twelve colds a year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity. A common misconception is that one can "catch a cold" merely through prolonged exposure to cold weather. Although it is now known that colds are viral infections, the prevalence of many such viruses are indeed seasonal, occurring more frequently during cold weather. The reason for
1050-431: Is a risk factor for disease. Insufficient sleep and malnutrition have been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure; this is believed to be due to their effects on immune function. Breast feeding decreases the risk of acute otitis media and lower respiratory tract infections among other diseases, and it is recommended that breast feeding be continued when an infant has
1120-564: Is a segmental writing system, or abugida , derived from Brahmic scripts and Gupta script , and used to write certain Tibetic languages , including Tibetan , Dzongkha , Sikkimese , Ladakhi , Jirel and Balti . It was originally developed c. 620 by Tibetan minister Thonmi Sambhota for King Songtsen Gampo . The Tibetan script has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as Thakali , Nepali and Old Turkic . The printed form
1190-589: Is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script . This writing system is used across the Himalayas and Tibet . The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in India , Nepal , Bhutan and Tibet. The Tibetan script is of Brahmic origin from the Gupta script and is ancestral to scripts such as Lepcha , Marchen and
1260-414: Is complete, water is added to the brew and it is then ready for consumption. In Lahaul the glum is pressed out by hand instead of by filtering, yielding a rather cloudy drink. The residue of malt can be pressed through a strainer and then mixed with water or milk and used in baking bread or cakes. Near Mount Everest of Nepal , chhaang is made by passing hot water through fermenting barley, and
1330-468: Is consumed by the ethnically Tibetan , Ladakhi and Nepalese , and to a lesser degree, by the people of the neighboring nations of Pakistan and Bhutan . It is usually drunk at room temperature in summer, but is often served piping-hot in brass bowls or wooden mugs when the weather is colder. The Limbu people of eastern Nepal call the drink Tongba . Chhaang is a relative of beer . Barley , millet ( finger-millet ) or rice grains are used to brew
1400-666: Is designed as a simple means for inputting Dzongkha text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) and the Department of Information Technology (DIT) of the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2000. It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the Unicode & ISO 10646 standards since the initial version. Since
1470-622: Is frequent. Isolation of the viral agent involved is rarely performed, and it is generally not possible to identify the virus type through symptoms. The only useful ways to reduce the spread of cold viruses are physical and engineering measures such as using correct hand washing technique , respirators , and improvement of indoor air. In the healthcare environment, gowns and disposable gloves are also used. Droplet precautions cannot reliably protect against inhalation of common-cold-laden aerosols. Instead, airborne precautions such as respirators , ventilation , and HEPA / high MERV filters, are
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#17327726914031540-399: Is highly likely to be carried by the aerosols generated during routine breathing, talking, and singing. The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment (over 18 hours for rhinoviruses) and can be picked up by people's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or noses where infection occurs. Transmission from animals is considered highly unlikely; an outbreak documented at
1610-633: Is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the ར /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript. ར /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus རྐ rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster རྙ /ɲa/. Similarly, the consonants ར /ra/, and ཡ /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus ཀྲ /ʈ ~ ʈʂa/; ཀྱ /ca/. Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance,
1680-404: Is no good evidence that cough medicines are effective. The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. Under normal circumstances, the average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight colds a year. Infections occur more commonly during the winter . These infections have existed throughout human history. The typical symptoms of
1750-467: Is prepared by using yeast and mold flora of wild herbs in cereal flours . The plant name Aconite may refer to two plant genera in the family Ranunculaceae , namely Aconitum and Eranthis , although Eranthis is known more usually as Winter Aconite . The plants used in the brewing of Chhaang in Baltistan and Ladakh are, however, almost certainly referable to Aconitum species - notably
1820-456: Is present. In total, more than 200 viral types are associated with colds. The viral cause of some common colds (20–30%) is unknown. The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets, direct contact with infected nasal secretions, or fomites (contaminated objects). Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined. As with all respiratory pathogens once presumed to transmit via respiratory droplets, it
1890-505: Is regarded as safe to perform moderate exercise if the symptoms are confined to the head , including runny nose , nasal congestion , sneezing , or a minor sore throat . There is a popular belief that having a hot drink can help with cold symptoms, but evidence to support this is very limited. Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections, including the common cold. Due to their side effects, antibiotics cause overall harm but nevertheless are still frequently prescribed. Some of
1960-528: Is simply read as it usually is and has no effect on the pronunciation of the consonant to which it is subjoined, for example ཀ་ཝ་ཟུར་ཀྭ (IPA: /ka.wa.suː.ka/). The vowels used in the alphabet are ཨ /a/, ཨི /i/, ཨུ /u/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus ཀ /ka/, ཀི /ki/, ཀུ /ku/, ཀེ /ke/, ཀོ /ko/. The vowels ཨི /i/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while
2030-615: Is solely for the consonants ད /tʰa/ and ས /sa/. The head ( མགོ in Tibetan, Wylie: mgo ) letter, or superscript, position above a radical is reserved for the consonants ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/. The subscript position under a radical can only be occupied by the consonants ཡ /ja/, ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ཝ /wa/. In this position they are described as བཏགས (Wylie: btags , IPA: /taʔ/), in Tibetan meaning "hung on/affixed/appended", for example བ་ཡ་བཏགས་བྱ (IPA: /pʰa.ja.taʔ.t͡ʃʰa/), except for ཝ , which
2100-501: Is then served in a large pot and drunk through a wooden straw . This beverage is similar to the traditional drink of the Limbus , mandokpenaa thee . Nepalese jand refers to the turbid liquor which is obtained by leaching out the extract with water from the fermented mash. Unlike chhang or tongba , jand is served in large mugs . These alcoholic beverages are generated using a traditional starter called murcha . Murcha itself
2170-898: The Latin script . Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound. While the Wylie transliteration system is widely used to Romanize Standard Tibetan , others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012). Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are: Wylie transliteration (W), Tibetan pinyin (TP), Dzongkha phonetic (DP), ALA-LC Romanization (A) and THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription (THL). The first version of Microsoft Windows to support
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2240-527: The Pabonka Hermitage . This occurred c. 620 , towards the beginning of the king's reign. There were 21 Sutra texts held by the King which were afterward translated. In the first half of the 7th century, the Tibetan script was used for the codification of these sacred Buddhist texts, for written civil laws, and for a Tibetan Constitution. A contemporary academic suggests that the script
2310-586: The cold is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the respiratory mucosa of the nose , throat , sinuses , and larynx . Signs and symptoms may appear in as little as two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing , sore throat , runny nose , sneezing , headache , and fever . People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally, those with other health problems may develop pneumonia . Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in causing
2380-721: The 16th century BCE. The name "cold" came into use in the 16th century, due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather. In the United Kingdom, the Common Cold Unit (CCU) was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946 and it was where the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956. In the 1970s, the CCU demonstrated that treatment with interferon during the incubation phase of rhinovirus infection protects somewhat against
2450-519: The Indian subcontinent state that the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages wishing to modernize or to introduce a written tradition. Amdo Tibetan was one of a few examples where Buddhist practitioners initiated a spelling reform. A spelling reform of the Ladakhi language was controversial in part because it
2520-732: The Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista . The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007. In Ubuntu 12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows. Mac OS -X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani. The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme
2590-410: The Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as subscript and superscript forming consonant clusters . To understand how this works, one can look at the radical ཀ /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes ཀྲ /kra/ or རྐ /rka/ (pronounced /ka/). In both cases, the symbol for ཀ /ka/ is used, but when the ར /ra/
2660-401: The Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter ཨ is also the base for dependent vowel marks. Although some Tibetan dialects are tonal , the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words. One aspect of
2730-508: The anti-viral drug pleconaril which shows promise against picornaviruses as well as trials of BTA-798. The oral form of pleconaril had safety issues and an aerosol form is being studied. The genomes of all known human rhinovirus strains have been sequenced. The economic impact of the common cold is not well understood in much of the world. In the United States, the common cold leads to 75–100 million physician visits annually at
2800-509: The arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key. The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of XFree86 . Tibetan was originally one of
2870-407: The basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds. In addition to the use of supplementary graphemes, the rules for constructing consonant clusters are amended, allowing any character to occupy the superscript or subscript position, negating the need for the prescript and postscript positions. Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in
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2940-415: The c. 620 date of development of the original Tibetan script. Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not been altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters . As
3010-416: The common cold, with rhinoviruses , coronaviruses , adenoviruses and enteroviruses being the most common. They spread through the air or indirectly through contact with objects in the environment, followed by transfer to the mouth or nose. Risk factors include going to child care facilities, not sleeping well , and psychological stress . The symptoms are mostly due to the body's immune response to
3080-418: The consonants ག /kʰa/, ད /tʰa/, བ /pʰa/, མ /ma/ and འ /a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants ག /kʰa/, ན /na/, བ /pʰa/, ད /tʰa/, མ /ma/, འ /a/, ར /ra/, ང /ŋa/, ས /sa/, and ལ /la/. The third position, the post-postscript position
3150-428: The disease, but no practical treatment could be developed. The unit was closed in 1989, two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prevention and treatment of rhinovirus colds, the only successful treatment in the history of the unit. Antivirals have been tested for effectiveness in the common cold; as of 2009, none had been both found effective and licensed for use. There are trials of
3220-547: The drink. Semi- fermented seeds of millet are served, stuffed in a barrel of bamboo called a dhungro . Boiling water is then poured in and sipped through a narrow-bore bamboo tube called a pipsing . When the boiled barley has cooled, some yeast or dried barm is added and it is left to stand for two or three days after fermentation begins. This concoction is called glum . The barm consists of flour and, in Balti , often has ginger and aconite added to it. After fermentation
3290-414: The duration of infection. Treatments that may help with symptoms include pain medication and medications for fevers such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen (paracetamol) . However, it is not clear whether acetaminophen helps with symptoms. It is not known if over-the-counter cough medications are effective for treating an acute cough. Cough medicines are not recommended for use in children due to
3360-548: The eyes, nose or mouth with unwashed hands; and staying away from sick people . People are considered contagious as long as the symptoms are still present. Some evidence supports the use of face masks . There is also no cure , but the symptoms can be treated. Zinc may reduce the duration and severity of symptoms if started shortly after the onset of symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen may help with pain. Antibiotics , however, should not be used, as all colds are caused by viruses. There
3430-414: The family. There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission. People sitting close to each other appear to be at greater risk of infection. Herd immunity , generated from previous exposure to cold viruses, plays an important role in limiting viral spread, as seen with younger populations that have greater rates of respiratory infections. Poor immune function
3500-692: The immune system, and dispelling 'wind' and 'dampness'. Chhaang is said to be the best remedy to ward off the severe cold of the mountains. It reputedly has many healing properties for conditions like the common cold , fevers , allergic rhinitis , and alcoholism among others. According to legend, chhaang is also popular with the Yeti , or Himalayan Snowmen, who often raid isolated mountain villages to drink it. Drinking and making offerings of chhaang are part of many pan-Tibetan social and religious occasions, including settling disputes, welcoming guests, and wooing . Tibetan script The Tibetan script
3570-470: The incidence of the common cold, but may reduce its duration if taken on a regular basis. There is no conclusive evidence that vitamin D supplementation is efficacious in the prevention or treatment of respiratory tract infections. The common cold is generally mild and self-limiting with most symptoms generally improving in a week. In children, half of cases resolve in 10 days and 90% in 15 days. Severe complications, if they occur, are usually in
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#17327726914033640-514: The infection is gone. In children, the cough lasts for more than ten days in 35–40% of cases and continues for more than 25 days in 10%. The common cold is an infection of the upper respiratory tract which can be caused by many different viruses. The most commonly implicated is a rhinovirus (30–80%), a type of picornavirus with 99 known serotypes . Other commonly implicated viruses include coronaviruses , adenoviruses , enteroviruses , parainfluenza and RSV . Frequently more than one virus
3710-417: The infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves. The symptoms of influenza are similar to those of a cold, although usually more severe and less likely to include a runny nose . There is no vaccine for the common cold. This is due to the rapid mutation and wide variation of viruses that cause the common cold. The primary methods of prevention are hand washing ; not touching
3780-480: The local Aconitum ferox - which have a long history of use in the folk medicinal systems of Asia. Aconitum species are amongst the most virulently poisonous plants known, containing a variety of extremely toxic alkaloids , including aconitine and pseudaconitine . The use of Aconitum as an additive in beer-brewing is therefore a practice fraught with the danger of fatal poisoning and should on no account be undertaken by any individual attempting to replicate
3850-402: The multilingual ʼPhags-pa script , and is also closely related to Meitei . According to Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script was developed during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo by his minister Thonmi Sambhota , who was sent to India with 16 other students to study Buddhism along with Sanskrit and written languages. They developed the Tibetan script from the Gupta script while at
3920-478: The nose, throat, and bronchi . In young children, when it affects the trachea , it may produce the symptoms of croup , due to the small size of their airways. The distinction between viral upper respiratory tract infections is loosely based on the location of symptoms, with the common cold affecting primarily the nose (rhinitis), throat (pharyngitis), and lungs (bronchitis). There can be significant overlap, and more than one area can be affected. Self-diagnosis
3990-460: The only reliable protection against cold-laden aerosols. Isolation or quarantine is not used as the disease is so widespread and symptoms are non-specific. There is no vaccine to protect against the common cold. Vaccination has proven difficult as there are so many viruses involved and because they mutate rapidly. Creation of a broadly effective vaccine is, therefore, highly improbable. Regular hand washing appears to be effective in reducing
4060-407: The reasons that antibiotics are so commonly prescribed include people's expectations for them, physicians' desire to help, and the difficulty in excluding complications that may be amenable to antibiotics. There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold even though some preliminary research has shown benefits. Zinc supplements may shorten the duration of colds by up to 33% and reduce
4130-470: The release of inflammatory mediators . These inflammatory mediators then produce the symptoms. It does not generally cause damage to the nasal epithelium . The respiratory syncytial virus ( RSV ), on the other hand, is contracted by direct contact and airborne droplets. It then replicates in the nose and throat before spreading to the lower respiratory tract . RSV does cause epithelium damage. Human parainfluenza virus typically results in inflammation of
4200-759: The scripts in the first version of the Unicode Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the Burmese script in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0. The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts: Common cold The common cold or
4270-685: The seasonality has not been conclusively determined. Possible explanations may include cold temperature-induced changes in the respiratory system, decreased immune response, and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates, perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer. The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors near infected people, and especially children at school. Although normal exposure to cold does not increase one's risk of infection, severe exposure leading to significant reduction of body temperature ( hypothermia ) may put one at
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#17327726914034340-406: The severity of symptoms if supplementation begins within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms. Some zinc remedies directly applied to the inside of the nose have led to the loss of the sense of smell . A 2017 review did not recommend the use of zinc for the common cold for various reasons; whereas a 2017 and 2018 review both recommended the use of zinc, but also advocated further research on
4410-657: The symptoms of a runny nose but has little effect on stuffiness. Ipratropium may also help with coughs in adults. The safety and effectiveness of nasal decongestant use in children is unclear. Due to lack of studies, it is not known whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illness. As of 2017, heated and humidified air, such as via RhinoTherm, is of unclear benefit. One study has found chest vapor rub to provide some relief of nocturnal cough, congestion, and sleep difficulty. Some experts advise against physical exercise if there are symptoms such as fever, widespread muscle aches or fatigue . It
4480-452: The topic. While there are many alternative medicines and Chinese herbal medicines supposed to treat the common cold, there is insufficient scientific evidence to support their use. As of 2015, there is weak evidence to support nasal irrigation with saline . There is no firm evidence that Echinacea products or garlic provide any meaningful benefit in treating or preventing colds. Vitamin C supplementation does not affect
4550-419: The transmission of cold viruses, especially among children. Whether the addition of antivirals or antibacterials to normal hand washing provides greater benefit is unknown. Wearing face masks when around people who are infected may be beneficial; however, there is insufficient evidence for maintaining a greater social distance . It is unclear whether zinc supplements affect the likelihood of contracting
4620-441: The very old, the very young, or those who are immunosuppressed . Secondary bacterial infections may occur resulting in sinusitis , pharyngitis , or an ear infection . It is estimated that sinusitis occurs in 8% and ear infection in 30% of cases. The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe. Adults typically have two to three infections annually, and children may have six to ten colds
4690-512: The vowel ཨུ /u/ is placed underneath consonants. Old Tibetan included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in loanwords , especially transcribed from the Sanskrit . The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as Balti , Chinese and Sanskrit , often has additional and/or modified graphemes taken from
4760-531: The western dialects of the Ladakhi language , as well as the Balti language , come very close to the Old Tibetan spellings. Despite that, the grammar of these dialectical varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the orthography and grammar of Classical Tibetan would be similar to writing Italian according to Latin orthography, or to writing Hindi according to Sanskrit orthogrophy. However, modern Buddhist practitioners in
4830-467: Was first initiated by Christian missionaries. In the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words. The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants. As in other Indic scripts , each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel ; in
4900-428: Was instead developed in the second half of the 11th century. New research and writings also suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the script by Songtsen Gampo and Thonmi Sambhota . The incomplete Dunhuang manuscripts are their key evidence for their hypothesis, while the few discovered and recorded Old Tibetan Annals manuscripts date from 650 and therefore post-date
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