110-497: Chicot (c. 1540–1591), real name Jean-Antoine d'Anglerais , was the jester of King Henry III of France and later Henry IV . He was sharp-tongued and very cunning, and spoke with the king without formalities. Chicot was born in Gascony in 1540. He had a strong military background, he served as a soldier under Honorat II of Savoy . He then served as a jester under King Henry III of France and then later Henry IV of France . He
220-416: A balatro ( / ˈ b ɑː l ɑː t r oʊ / BAH -lah-troh ) was a professional jester or buffoon. Balatrones were paid for their jests, and the tables of the wealthy were generally open to them for the sake of the amusement they afforded. There are various theories about the origin of the term. In Horace , Balatro is used as a proper name: Servilius Balatro . An old scholiast derives
330-510: A Christian Horace, adapting Horatian meters to his own poetry and giving Horatian motifs a Christian tone. On the other hand, St Jerome , modelled an uncompromising response to the pagan Horace, observing: " What harmony can there be between Christ and the Devil? What has Horace to do with the Psalter? " By the early sixth century, Horace and Prudentius were both part of a classical heritage that
440-620: A Dwarf . During the Renaissance Papacy , the Papal court in Rome had a court jester, similar to the secular courts of the time. Pope Pius V dismissed the court Jester, and no later Pope employed one. In Japan from the 13th to 18th centuries, the taikomochi , a kind of male geisha , attended the feudal lords ( daimyōs ). They entertained mostly through dancing and storytelling, and were at times counted on for strategic advice. By
550-525: A Scottish jester called Tom Durie . Charles I later employed a jester called Jeffrey Hudson who was very popular and loyal. Jeffrey Hudson had the title of "Royal Dwarf " because he was short of stature. One of his jests was to be presented hidden in a giant pie from which he would leap out. Hudson fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War . A third jester associated with Charles I
660-488: A bigger share of the spoils. One modern scholar has counted a dozen civil wars in the hundred years leading up to 31 BC, including the Third Servile War under Spartacus , eight years before Horace's birth. As the heirs to Hellenistic culture, Horace and his fellow Romans were not well prepared to deal with these problems: At bottom, all the problems that the times were stirring up were of a social nature, which
770-527: A ceremonial ode for the Centennial Games in 17 BC and also encouraged the publication of Odes 4, after which Horace's reputation as Rome's premier lyricist was assured. His Odes were to become the best received of all his poems in ancient times, acquiring a classic status that discouraged imitation: no other poet produced a comparable body of lyrics in the four centuries that followed (though that might also be attributed to social causes, particularly
880-404: A civil service position at the aerarium or Treasury, profitable enough to be purchased even by members of the ordo equester and not very demanding in its work-load, since tasks could be delegated to scribae or permanent clerks. It was about this time that he began writing his Satires and Epodes . He describes in glowing terms the country villa which his patron, Maecenas, had given him in
990-459: A derivation from barathrum , because they, so to speak, carried their jesting to market, even into the very depth ( barathrum ) of the shambles ( barathrum macelli ) Balatro may be connected with balare , "to bleat like a sheep", and hence, to speak sillily. Others have suggested a connection with blatero , a busy-body. In ancient times, other cultures, such as the Aztecs and
1100-435: A difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax . Despite these traditional metres, he presented himself as a partisan in the development of a new and sophisticated style. He was influenced in particular by Hellenistic aesthetics of brevity, elegance and polish, as modelled in the work of Callimachus . As soon as Horace, stirred by his own genius and encouraged by the example of Virgil, Varius, and perhaps some other poets of
1210-443: A focus on philosophical problems. The sophisticated and flexible style that he had developed in his Satires was adapted to the more serious needs of this new genre. Such refinement of style was not unusual for Horace. His craftsmanship as a wordsmith is apparent even in his earliest attempts at this or that kind of poetry, but his handling of each genre tended to improve over time as he adapted it to his own needs. Thus for example it
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#17327940973081320-577: A historical symbol for Poles. In 2004 English Heritage appointed Nigel Roder ("Kester the Jester") as the State Jester for England, the first since Muckle John 355 years previously. However, following an objection by the National Guild of Jesters, English Heritage accepted they were not authorised to grant such a title. Roder was succeeded as "Heritage Jester" by Pete Cooper ("Peterkin
1430-540: A hymn to John the Baptist, Ut queant laxis , composed in Sapphic stanzas . This hymn later became the basis of the solfege system ( Do, re, mi... )—an association with western music quite appropriate for a lyric poet like Horace, though the language of the hymn is mainly Prudentian. Lyons argues that the melody in question was linked with Horace's Ode well before Guido d'Arezzo fitted Ut queant laxis to it. However,
1540-580: A jester called Archibald Armstrong . During his lifetime Armstrong was given great honours at court. He was eventually thrown out of the King's employment when he over-reached and insulted too many influential people. Even after his disgrace, books telling of his jests were sold in London streets. He held some influence at court still in the reign of Charles I and estates of land in Ireland . Anne of Denmark had
1650-399: A lesson to. Horace modelled these poems on the poetry of Archilochus . Social bonds in Rome had been decaying since the destruction of Carthage a little more than a hundred years earlier, due to the vast wealth that could be gained by plunder and corruption. These social ills were magnified by rivalry between Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and confederates like Sextus Pompey , all jockeying for
1760-472: A letter to his friend Quintius: "It lies on a range of hills, broken by a shady valley which is so placed that the sun when rising strikes the right side, and when descending in his flying chariot, warms the left. You would like the climate; and if you were to see my fruit trees, bearing ruddy cornils and plums, my oaks and ilex supplying food to my herds, and abundant shade to the master, you would say, Tarentum in its beauty has been brought near to Rome! There
1870-496: A model for their own verse letters and it also shaped Ovid's exile poetry. His influence had a perverse aspect. As mentioned before, the brilliance of his Odes may have discouraged imitation. Conversely, they may have created a vogue for the lyrics of the archaic Greek poet Pindar , due to the fact that Horace had neglected that style of lyric (see Influence and Legacy of Pindar ). The iambic genre seems almost to have disappeared after publication of Horace's Epodes . Ovid's Ibis
1980-434: A moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son. Satires 1.6.65–92 He never mentioned his mother in his verses and he might not have known much about her. Perhaps she also had been
2090-420: A monument more durable than bronze ("Exegi monumentum aere perennius", Carmina 3.30.1). For one modern scholar, however, Horace's personal qualities are more notable than the monumental quality of his achievement: ... when we hear his name we don't really think of a monument. We think rather of a voice which varies in tone and resonance but is always recognizable, and which by its unsentimental humanity evokes
2200-458: A natural affinity with the moralising and diatribes of Cynicism . This often takes the form of allusions to the work and philosophy of Bion of Borysthenes but it is as much a literary game as a philosophical alignment. By the time he composed his Epistles , he was a critic of Cynicism along with all impractical and "high-falutin" philosophy in general. The Satires also include a strong element of Epicureanism , with frequent allusions to
2310-420: A poem that one modern scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father. The poem includes this passage: If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of prurience, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for
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#17327940973082420-629: A sentimental image of the clown; writers reproduce that sentimentality in the jester, and academics in the Trickster", but it "falters as analysis". Jesters could also give bad news to the King that no one else would dare deliver. In 1340, when the French fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Sluys by the English, Phillippe VI 's jester told him the English sailors "don't even have the guts to jump into
2530-458: A serious and vigorous opponent of wrong-doers, Horace aimed for comic effects and adopted the persona of a weak and ineffectual critic of his times (as symbolized for example in his surrender to the witch Canidia in the final epode). He also claimed to be the first to introduce into Latin the lyrical methods of Alcaeus ( Epistles 1.19.32–33) and he actually was the first Latin poet to make consistent use of Alcaic meters and themes: love, politics and
2640-549: A slave. Horace left Rome, possibly after his father's death, and continued his formal education in Athens, a great centre of learning in the ancient world, where he arrived at nineteen years of age, enrolling in The Academy . Founded by Plato , The Academy was now dominated by Epicureans and Stoics , whose theories and practices made a deep impression on the young man from Venusia. Meanwhile, he mixed and lounged about with
2750-507: A strong measure of independence (he was "a master of the graceful sidestep") but for others he was, in John Dryden 's phrase, "a well-mannered court slave". Horace can be regarded as the world's first autobiographer. In his writings, he tells far more about himself, his character, his development, and his way of life, than any other great poet of antiquity. Some of the biographical material contained in his work can be supplemented from
2860-418: A very special blend of liking and respect. Yet for men like Wilfred Owen , scarred by experiences of World War I, his poetry stood for discredited values: My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The Old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori. The same motto, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori , had been adapted to the ethos of martyrdom in
2970-619: A young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium . One of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus , taught by teachers like the ' Orbilius ' mentioned in one of his poems. Army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War (91–88 BC) . Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more linguistic variety to
3080-591: Is a card of the Major Arcana . The tarot depiction of the Fool often shows a man (or less often, a woman) dressed in bright clothes and holding a white rose in one hand and a small bundle of possessions in the other, with a dog or cat at their heels. The fool is in the act of unknowingly walking off the edge of a cliff, precipice, or other high place. In a similar vein, a buffoon is someone who provides amusement through inappropriate appearance or behaviour. Originally
3190-450: Is a fountain too, large enough to give a name to the river which it feeds; and the Ebro itself does not flow through Thrace with cooler or purer stream. Its waters also are good for the head and useful for digestion. This sweet, and, if you will believe me, charming retreat keeps me in good health during the autumnal days." The remains of Horace's Villa are situated on a wooded hillside above
3300-475: Is actually in or on a barrel. In Limburg they are named "buuttereedner" or "buutteredner" and in Zeeland they are called an "ouwoer". They all perform a cabaret speech in dialect, during which many current issues are reviewed. Often there are local situations and celebrities from local and regional politics who are mocked, ridiculed and insulted. The "Tonpraoter" or "Buuttereedner" may be considered successors of
3410-445: Is also full of charm and grace, versatile in his figures, and felicitously daring in his choice of words." Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses ( Satires and Epistles ) and caustic iambic poetry ( Epodes ). The hexameters are amusing yet serious works, friendly in tone, leading the ancient satirist Persius to comment: "as his friend laughs, Horace slyly puts his finger on his every fault; once let in, he plays about
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3520-415: Is clear in his Satires, even though the genre was unique to Latin literature. He brought to it a style and outlook suited to the social and ethical issues confronting Rome but he changed its role from public, social engagement to private meditation. Meanwhile, he was beginning to interest Octavian's supporters, a gradual process described by him in one of his satires. The way was opened for him by his friend,
3630-513: Is first attested in Odes 3.3 and 3.5. In the period 27–24 BC, political allusions in the Odes concentrated on foreign wars in Britain (1.35), Arabia (1.29) Hispania (3.8) and Parthia (2.2). He greeted Augustus on his return to Rome in 24 BC as a beloved ruler upon whose good health he depended for his own happiness (3.14). The public reception of Odes 1–3 disappointed him, however. He attributed
3740-510: Is generally agreed that his second book of Satires , where human folly is revealed through dialogue between characters, is superior to the first, where he propounds his ethics in monologues. Nevertheless, the first book includes some of his most popular poems. Horace developed a number of inter-related themes throughout his poetic career, including politics, love, philosophy and ethics, his own social role, as well as poetry itself. His Epodes and Satires are forms of 'blame poetry' and both have
3850-724: Is intended to be ambiguous. Ambiguity is the hallmark of the Epistles . It is uncertain if those being addressed by the self-mocking poet-philosopher are being honoured or criticised. Though he emerges as an Epicurean , it is on the understanding that philosophical preferences, like political and social choices, are a matter of personal taste. Thus he depicts the ups and downs of the philosophical life more realistically than do most philosophers. The reception of Horace's work has varied from one epoch to another and varied markedly even in his own lifetime. Odes 1–3 were not well received when first 'published' in Rome, yet Augustus later commissioned
3960-832: The Greek world had enabled his literary heroes to express themselves freely and his semi-retirement from the Treasury in Rome to his own estate in the Sabine hills perhaps empowered him to some extent also yet even when his lyrics touched on public affairs they reinforced the importance of private life. Nevertheless, his work in the period 30–27 BC began to show his closeness to the regime and his sensitivity to its developing ideology. In Odes 1.2, for example, he eulogized Octavian in hyperboles that echo Hellenistic court poetry. The name Augustus , which Octavian assumed in January of 27 BC,
4070-612: The Lord Chamberlain's Men (later called the King's Men ). Clowns and jesters were featured in Shakespeare's plays, and the company's expert on jesting was Robert Armin , author of the book Foole upon Foole . In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night , Feste the jester is described as "wise enough to play the fool". In Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots , had a jester called Nichola . Her son, King James VI of Scotland , employed
4180-479: The genre . The Odes display a wide range of topics. Over time, he becomes more confident about his political voice. Although he is often thought of as an overly intellectual lover, he is ingenious in representing passion. The "Odes" weave various philosophical strands together, with allusions and statements of doctrine present in about a third of the Odes Books 1–3, ranging from the flippant (1.22, 3.28) to
4290-796: The symposium . He imitated other Greek lyric poets as well, employing a 'motto' technique, beginning each ode with some reference to a Greek original and then diverging from it. The satirical poet Lucilius was a senator's son who could castigate his peers with impunity. Horace was a mere freedman's son who had to tread carefully. Lucilius was a rugged patriot and a significant voice in Roman self-awareness, endearing himself to his countrymen by his blunt frankness and explicit politics. His work expressed genuine freedom or libertas . His style included 'metrical vandalism' and looseness of structure. Horace instead adopted an oblique and ironic style of satire, ridiculing stock characters and anonymous targets. His libertas
4400-524: The 'ground' in the front by the stage) that frequented the Globe Theatre were more likely to be drawn to these Shakespearean fools. However they were also favoured by the nobility. Most notably, Queen Elizabeth I was a great admirer of the popular actor who portrayed fools, Richard Tarlton . For Shakespeare himself, however, actor Robert Armin may have proved vital to the cultivation of the fool character in his many plays. In tarot , " The Fool "
4510-474: The 15 BC military victories of his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, yet it and the following letter were largely devoted to literary theory and criticism. The literary theme was explored still further in Ars Poetica , published separately but written in the form of an epistle and sometimes referred to as Epistles 2.3 (possibly the last poem he ever wrote). He was also commissioned to write odes commemorating
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4620-656: The 16th century they fought alongside their lord in battle in addition to their other duties. Tonga was the first royal court to appoint a court jester in the 20th century; Taufa'ahau Tupou IV , the King of Tonga, appointed JD Bogdanoff to that role in 1999. Bogdanoff was later embroiled in a financial scandal. The root of the word "fool" is from the Latin follis , which means "bag of wind" or bellows or that which contains air or breath. The jester can be symbolic of common sense and of honesty, notably in King Lear , where
4730-615: The Catholic Church. In the introduction to his To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation , he calls himself a court jester, and, later in the text, he explicitly invokes the jester's privilege when saying that monks should break their chastity vows. Scholar David Carlyon has cast doubt on the "daring political jester", calling historical tales "apocryphal", and concluding that "popular culture embraces
4840-571: The Chinese, also employed cultural equivalents to the jester. Many royal courts throughout English royal history employed entertainers and most had professional fools, sometimes called "licensed fools". Entertainment included music , storytelling , and physical comedy . Fool Societies, or groups of nomadic entertainers, were often hired to perform acrobatics and juggling . Jesters were also occasionally used as psychological warfare . Jesters would ride in front of their troops, provoke or mock
4950-532: The Epicurean poet Lucretius . So for example the Epicurean sentiment carpe diem is the inspiration behind Horace's repeated punning on his own name ( Horatius ~ hora ) in Satires 2.6. The Satires also feature some Stoic , Peripatetic and Platonic ( Dialogues ) elements. In short, the Satires present a medley of philosophical programmes, dished up in no particular order—a style of argument typical of
5060-512: The Fool"). In Germany , Till Eulenspiegel is a folkloric hero dating back to medieval times and ruling each year over Fasching or Carnival time, mocking politicians and public figures of power and authority with political satire like a modern-day court jester. He holds a mirror to make us aware of our times ( Zeitgeist ), and his sceptre , his "bauble", or marotte , is the symbol of his power. In 17th century Spain , dwarves , often with deformities, were employed as buffoons to entertain
5170-502: The Hellenistic thinkers were ill qualified to grapple with. Some of them censured oppression of the poor by the rich, but they gave no practical lead, though they may have hoped to see well-meaning rulers doing so. Philosophy was drifting into absorption in self, a quest for private contentedness, to be achieved by self-control and restraint, without much regard for the fate of a disintegrating community. Horace's Hellenistic background
5280-515: The Octavian regime yet, in the second book of Satires that soon followed, he continued the apolitical stance of the first book. By this time, he had attained the status of eques Romanus (Roman 'cavalryman', 'knight'), perhaps as a result of his work at the Treasury. Odes 1–3 were the next focus for his artistic creativity. He adapted their forms and themes from Greek lyric poetry of the seventh and sixth centuries BC. The fragmented nature of
5390-670: The acerbity of Lucillius and the gentler touch of Horace. Juvenal 's caustic satire was influenced mainly by Lucilius but Horace by then was a school classic and Juvenal could refer to him respectfully and in a round-about way as " the Venusine lamp ". Statius paid homage to Horace by composing one poem in Sapphic and one in Alcaic meter (the verse forms most often associated with Odes ), which he included in his collection of occasional poems, Silvae . Ancient scholars wrote commentaries on
5500-519: The air and produce a noise which amused the spectators. Today, the jester is portrayed in different formats of medieval reenactment , Renaissance fairs , and entertainment , including film , stage performance, and carnivals . During the Burgundian and the Rhenish carnival , cabaret performances in local dialect are held. In Brabant this person is called a "tonpraoter" or "sauwelaar", and
5610-569: The area. According to a local tradition reported by Horace, a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman though there are also indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth. Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their home towns, even after success in
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#17327940973085720-401: The assassination of Julius Caesar were soon to catch up with him. Marcus Junius Brutus came to Athens seeking support for the republican cause. Brutus was fêted around town in grand receptions and he made a point of attending academic lectures, all the while recruiting supporters among the young men studying there, including Horace. An educated young Roman could begin military service high in
5830-489: The blend of Greek and Roman elements adds a sense of detachment and universality. Horace proudly claimed to introduce into Latin the spirit and iambic poetry of Archilochus but (unlike Archilochus) without persecuting anyone ( Epistles 1.19.23–25). It was no idle boast. His Epodes were modelled on the verses of the Greek poet, as 'blame poetry', yet he avoided targeting real scapegoats . Whereas Archilochus presented himself as
5940-421: The civil wars to be the result of contentio dignitatis , or rivalry between the foremost families of the city, and he too seems to have accepted the principate as Rome's last hope for much needed peace. In 37 BC, Horace accompanied Maecenas on a journey to Brundisium , described in one of his poems as a series of amusing incidents and charming encounters with other friends along the way, such as Virgil. In fact
6050-451: The collection demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory, it reveals no sustained thinking about ethics. Maecenas was still the dominant confidante but Horace had now begun to assert his own independence, suavely declining constant invitations to attend his patron. In the final poem of the first book of Epistles , he revealed himself to be forty-four years old in the consulship of Lollius and Lepidus i.e. 21 BC, and "of small stature, fond of
6160-415: The common word balatro from the proper name, suggesting that buffoons were called balatrones because Servilius Balatro was a buffoon, though others have since objected to this account. Festus derives the word from blatea , and supposes buffoons to have been called balatrones because they were dirty fellows, covered with spots of mud ( blateae ) from walking. Another writer suggests
6270-477: The count and taking him prisoner. It was the fortune of war, and, but a few days before, might have been the fate of the great Henry himself. But Chaligny's mortification at his captivity became intense when he discovered that the knight to whom he had surrendered was no other than the king's jester! That he, a chieftain of the Holy League, the long-descended scion of the illustrious house of Lorraine, brother of
6380-405: The court jester is a character used for insight and advice on the part of the monarch, taking advantage of his licence to mock and speak freely to dispense frank observations and highlight the folly of his monarch. This presents a clashing irony as a greater man could dispense the same advice and find himself being detained in the dungeons or even executed. Only as the lowliest member of the court can
6490-579: The discipline continues into the modern day, where jesters perform at historical-themed events. During the post-classical and Renaissance eras, jesters are often thought to have worn brightly coloured clothes and eccentric hats in a motley pattern. Their modern counterparts usually mimic this costume. Jesters entertained with a wide variety of skills: principal among them were song, music, and storytelling , but many also employed acrobatics , juggling , telling jokes (such as puns , stereotypes , and imitation ), and performing magic tricks . Much of
6600-535: The elite of Roman youth, such as Marcus, the idle son of Cicero , and the Pompeius to whom he later addressed a poem. It was in Athens too that he probably acquired deep familiarity with the ancient tradition of Greek lyric poetry, at that time largely the preserve of grammarians and academic specialists (access to such material was easier in Athens than in Rome, where the public libraries had yet to be built by Asinius Pollio and Augustus). Rome's troubles following
6710-407: The enemy, and even serve as messengers. They played an important part in raising their own army's spirits by singing songs and reciting stories. Henry VIII of England employed a jester named Will Sommers . His daughter Mary was entertained by Jane Foole . During the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I of England , William Shakespeare wrote his plays and performed with his theatre company
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#17327940973086820-676: The entertainment was performed in a comic style. Many jesters made contemporary jokes in word or song about people or events well known to their audiences. The modern use of the English word jester did not come into use until the mid-16th century, during Tudor times. This modern term derives from the older form gestour , or jestour , originally from French meaning 'storyteller' or ' minstrel '. Other earlier terms included fol , disour , buffoon , and bourder . These terms described entertainers who differed in their skills and performances but who all shared many similarities in their role as comedic performers for their audiences. In ancient Rome ,
6930-423: The epic poet and the lyric poet are aligned with Stoicism and Epicureanism respectively, in a mood of bitter-sweet pathos. The first poem of the Epistles sets the philosophical tone for the rest of the collection: "So now I put aside both verses and all those other games: What is true and what befits is my care, this my question, this my whole concern." His poetic renunciation of poetry in favour of philosophy
7040-546: The free-born son of a prosperous 'coactor'. The term 'coactor' could denote various roles, such as tax collector, but its use by Horace was explained by scholia as a reference to 'coactor argentarius' i.e. an auctioneer with some of the functions of a banker, paying the seller out of his own funds and later recovering the sum with interest from the buyer. The father spent a small fortune on his son's education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling and moral development. The poet later paid tribute to him in
7150-414: The great Duke of Mercœur, should become the captive of a Huguenot buffoon, seemed the most stinging jest yet perpetrated since fools had come in fashion. The famous Chicot, who was as fond of a battle as of a gibe, and who was almost as reckless a rider as his master, proved on this occasion that the cap and bells could cover as much magnanimity as did the most chivalrous crest. Although desperately wounded in
7260-532: The head of his cavalry, and lively skirmishes were of frequent occurrence. In a military point of view none of these affairs were of consequence, but there was one which partook at once of the comic and the pathetic. For it chanced that in a cavalry action of more than common vivacity the Count Chaligny found himself engaged in a hand-to-hand conflict with a very dashing swordsman, who, after dealing and receiving many severe blows, at last succeeded in disarming
7370-403: The heartstrings". His career coincided with Rome's momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavian's right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas , and became a spokesman for the new regime. For some commentators, his association with the regime was a delicate balance in which he maintained
7480-510: The jester be the monarch's most useful adviser. The Shakespearean fool is a recurring character type in the works of William Shakespeare . Shakespearean fools are usually clever peasants or commoners that use their wits to outdo people of higher social standing. In this sense, they are very similar to the real fools , and jesters of the time, but their characteristics are greatly heightened for theatrical effect. The "groundlings" (theatre-goers who were too poor to pay for seats and thus stood on
7590-536: The jesters. Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus ( Classical Latin : [ˈkʷiːntʊs (h)ɔˈraːtiʊs ˈfɫakːʊs] ; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace ( / ˈ h ɒr ɪ s / ), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his Odes as the only Latin lyrics worth reading: "He can be lofty sometimes, yet he
7700-574: The journey was political in its motivation, with Maecenas en route to negotiate the Treaty of Tarentum with Antony, a fact Horace artfully keeps from the reader (political issues are largely avoided in the first book of satires). Horace was probably also with Maecenas on one of Octavian's naval expeditions against the piratical Sextus Pompeius, which ended in a disastrous storm off Palinurus in 36 BC, briefly alluded to by Horace in terms of near-drowning. There are also some indications in his verses that he
7810-460: The king and his family, especially the children. In Velázquez 's painting Las Meninas two dwarfs are included: Maria Bárbola , a female dwarf from Germany with hydrocephalus , and Nicolasito Portusato from Italy . Mari Bárbola can also be seen in a later portrait of princess Margarita Teresa in mourning by Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo . There are other paintings by Velázquez that include court dwarves such as Prince Balthasar Charles With
7920-441: The lack of success to jealousy among imperial courtiers and to his isolation from literary cliques. Perhaps it was disappointment that led him to put aside the genre in favour of verse letters. He addressed his first book of Epistles to a variety of friends and acquaintances in an urbane style reflecting his new social status as a knight. In the opening poem, he professed a deeper interest in moral philosophy than poetry but, though
8030-484: The last half of the ninth century, it was not uncommon for literate people to have direct experience of Horace's poetry. His influence on the Carolingian Renaissance can be found in the poems of Heiric of Auxerre and in some manuscripts marked with neumes , mysterious notations that may have been an aid to the memorization and discussion of his lyric meters. Ode 4.11 is neumed with the melody of
8140-446: The latter poet is uncanny: Archilochus lost his shield in a part of Thrace near Philippi, and he was deeply involved in the Greek colonization of Thasos , where Horace's die-hard comrades finally surrendered. Octavian offered an early amnesty to his opponents and Horace quickly accepted it. On returning to Italy, he was confronted with yet another loss: his father's estate in Venusia was one of many throughout Italy to be confiscated for
8250-465: The lyric meters of the Odes , including the scholarly poet Caesius Bassus . By a process called derivatio , he varied established meters through the addition or omission of syllables, a technique borrowed by Seneca the Younger when adapting Horatian meters to the stage. Horace's poems continued to be school texts into late antiquity. Works attributed to Helenius Acro and Pomponius Porphyrio are
8360-539: The lyrics of early Christian poets like Prudentius . These preliminary comments touch on a small sample of developments in the reception of Horace's work. More developments are covered epoch by epoch in the following sections. Horace's influence can be observed in the work of his near contemporaries, Ovid and Propertius . Ovid followed his example in creating a completely natural style of expression in hexameter verse, and Propertius cheekily mimicked him in his third book of elegies. His Epistles provided them both with
8470-470: The most prominent without penalty" (12 February 1668). In the 18th century, jesters had died out except in Russia , Spain , and Germany . In France and Italy , travelling groups of jesters performed plays featuring stylised characters in a form of theatre called the commedia dell'arte . A version of this passed into British folk tradition in the form of a puppet show, Punch and Judy . In France
8580-531: The parasitism that Italy was sinking into). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ode-writing became highly fashionable in England and a large number of aspiring poets imitated Horace both in English and in Latin. In a verse epistle to Augustus (Epistle 2.1), in 12 BC, Horace argued for classic status to be awarded to contemporary poets, including Virgil and apparently himself. In the final poem of his third book of Odes he claimed to have created for himself
8690-569: The period between the mid sixth century and the Carolingian revival . Horace's work probably survived in just two or three books imported into northern Europe from Italy. These became the ancestors of six extant manuscripts dated to the ninth century. Two of those six manuscripts are French in origin, one was produced in Alsace , and the other three show Irish influence but were probably written in continental monasteries ( Lombardy for example). By
8800-411: The poet Virgil, who had gained admission into the privileged circle around Maecenas, Octavian's lieutenant, following the success of his Eclogues . An introduction soon followed and, after a discreet interval, Horace too was accepted. He depicted the process as an honourable one, based on merit and mutual respect, eventually leading to true friendship, and there is reason to believe that his relationship
8910-408: The public performance of his "Carmen saeculare" or "Century hymn" at a public festival orchestrated by Augustus. In it, Horace addresses the emperor Augustus directly with more confidence and proclaims his power to grant poetic immortality to those he praises. It is the least philosophical collection of his verses, excepting the twelfth ode, addressed to the dead Virgil as if he were living. In that ode,
9020-417: The ranks and Horace was made tribunus militum (one of six senior officers of a typical legion), a post usually reserved for men of senatorial or equestrian rank and which seems to have inspired jealousy among his well-born confederates. He learned the basics of military life while on the march, particularly in the wilds of northern Greece, whose rugged scenery became a backdrop to some of his later poems. It
9130-400: The realities confronting him. Archilochus and Alcaeus were aristocratic Greeks whose poetry had a social and religious function that was immediately intelligible to their audiences but which became a mere artifice or literary motif when transposed to Rome. However, the artifice of the Odes is also integral to their success, since they could now accommodate a wide range of emotional effects, and
9240-457: The remnants of a much larger body of Horatian scholarship. Porphyrio arranged the poems in non-chronological order, beginning with the Odes , because of their general popularity and their appeal to scholars (the Odes were to retain this privileged position in the medieval manuscript tradition and thus in modern editions also). Horace was often evoked by poets of the fourth century, such as Ausonius and Claudian . Prudentius presented himself as
9350-479: The river at Licenza , which joins the Aniene as it flows on to Tivoli. The Epodes belong to iambic poetry . Iambic poetry features insulting and obscene language; sometimes, it is referred to as blame poetry . Blame poetry , or shame poetry , is poetry written to blame and shame fellow citizens into a sense of their social obligations. Each poem normally has a archetype person Horace decides to shame, or teach
9460-511: The same generation, had determined to make his fame as a poet, being by temperament a fighter, he wanted to fight against all kinds of prejudice, amateurish slovenliness, philistinism, reactionary tendencies, in short to fight for the new and noble type of poetry which he and his friends were endeavouring to bring about. In modern literary theory, a distinction is often made between immediate personal experience ( Urerlebnis ) and experience mediated by cultural vectors such as literature, philosophy and
9570-409: The satiric poet, and in Odes 2.10 even proposes Aristotle's golden mean as a remedy for Rome's political troubles. Many of Horace's poems also contain much reflection on genre, the lyric tradition, and the function of poetry. Odes 4, thought to be composed at the emperor's request, takes the themes of the first three books of "Odes" to a new level. This book shows greater poetic confidence after
9680-409: The settlement of veterans ( Virgil lost his estate in the north about the same time). Horace later claimed that he was reduced to poverty and this led him to try his hand at poetry. In reality, there was no money to be had from versifying. At best, it offered future prospects through contacts with other poets and their patrons among the rich. Meanwhile, he obtained the sinecure of scriba quaestorius ,
9790-532: The short but valuable "Life of Horace" by Suetonius (in his Lives of the Poets ). He was born on 8 December 65 BC in Apulia , in southern Italy . His home town, Venusia , lay on a trade route in the region of Apulia at the border with Lucania ( Basilicata ). Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language. He could have been familiar with Greek words even as
9900-415: The solemn (2.10, 3.2, 3.3). Epicureanism is the dominant influence, characterising about twice as many of these odes as Stoicism. A group of odes combines these two influences in tense relationships, such as Odes 1.7, praising Stoic virility and devotion to public duty while also advocating private pleasures among friends. While generally favouring the Epicurean lifestyle, the lyric poet is as eclectic as
10010-494: The struggle which had resulted in his triumph, he generously granted to the count his freedom without ransom. The proud Lorrainer returned to his Leaguers, and the poor fool died afterward of his wounds.' Jester A jester , also known as joker , court jester , or fool , was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch employed to entertain guests during royal court . Jesters were also traveling performers who entertained common folk at fairs and town markets, and
10120-532: The sun, prematurely grey, quick-tempered but easily placated". According to Suetonius, the second book of Epistles was prompted by Augustus, who desired a verse epistle to be addressed to himself. Augustus was in fact a prolific letter-writer and he once asked Horace to be his personal secretary. Horace refused the secretarial role but complied with the emperor's request for a verse letter. The letter to Augustus may have been slow in coming, being published possibly as late as 11 BC. It celebrated, among other things,
10230-451: The term was used to describe a ridiculous but amusing person. The term is now frequently used in a derogatory sense to describe someone considered foolish, or someone displaying inappropriately vulgar, bumbling or ridiculous behaviour which is a source of general amusement. The term originates from the old Italian "buffare", meaning to puff out one's cheeks that also applies to bouffon . Having swelled their cheeks they would slap them to expel
10340-568: The tradition of the court jester ended with the abolition of the monarchy in the French Revolution . In 2015, the town of Conwy in North Wales appointed Russel Erwood (aka Erwyd le Fol) as the official resident jester of the town and its people, a post that had been vacant since 1295. Poland 's most famous court jester was Stańczyk ( c . 1480–1560), whose jokes were usually related to political matters, and who later became
10450-598: The victories of Drusus and Tiberius and one to be sung in a temple of Apollo for the Secular Games , a long-abandoned festival that Augustus revived in accordance with his policy of recreating ancient customs ( Carmen Saeculare ). Suetonius recorded some gossip about Horace's sexual activities late in life, claiming that the walls of his bedchamber were covered with obscene pictures and mirrors, so that he saw erotica wherever he looked. The poet died at 56 years of age, not long after his friend Maecenas, near whose tomb he
10560-419: The visual arts ( Bildungserlebnis ). The distinction has little relevance for Horace however since his personal and literary experiences are implicated in each other. Satires 1.5, for example, recounts in detail a real trip Horace made with Virgil and some of his other literary friends, and which parallels a Satire by Lucilius , his predecessor. Unlike much Hellenistic-inspired literature, however, his poetry
10670-488: The water like our brave French". After the Restoration , Charles II did not reinstate the tradition of the court jester, but he did greatly patronise the theatre and proto- music hall entertainments, especially favouring the work of Thomas Killigrew . Though Killigrew was not officially a jester, Samuel Pepys in his famous diary does call Killigrew "The King's fool and jester, with the power to mock and revile even
10780-612: The wider world, and Horace was no different. Images of his childhood setting and references to it are found throughout his poems. Horace's father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, or possibly he was descended from a Sabine captured in the Samnite Wars . Either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom and improve his social position. Thus Horace claimed to be
10890-468: Was a rare attempt at the form but it was inspired mainly by Callimachus , and there are some iambic elements in Martial but the main influence there was Catullus . A revival of popular interest in the satires of Lucilius may have been inspired by Horace's criticism of his unpolished style. Both Horace and Lucilius were considered good role-models by Persius , who critiqued his own satires as lacking both
11000-476: Was called Muckle John. Jester's privilege is the ability and right of a jester to talk and mock freely without being punished. As an acknowledgement of this right, the court jester had symbols denoting their status and protection under the law. The crown ( cap and bells ) and sceptre ( marotte ) mirrored the royal crown and sceptre wielded by a monarch. Martin Luther used jest in many of his criticisms against
11110-525: Was genuinely friendly, not just with Maecenas but afterwards with Augustus as well. On the other hand, the poet has been unsympathetically described by one scholar as "a sharp and rising young man, with an eye to the main chance." There were advantages on both sides: Horace gained encouragement and material support, the politicians gained a hold on a potential dissident. His republican sympathies, and his role at Philippi, may have caused him some pangs of remorse over his new status. However, most Romans considered
11220-635: Was laid to rest. Both men bequeathed their property to Augustus, an honour that the emperor expected of his friends. The dating of Horace's works isn't known precisely and scholars often debate the exact order in which they were first 'published'. There are persuasive arguments for the following chronology: Horace composed in traditional metres borrowed from Archaic Greece , employing hexameters in his Satires and Epistles , and iambs in his Epodes , all of which were relatively easy to adapt into Latin forms . His Odes featured more complex measures, including alcaics and sapphics , which were sometimes
11330-443: Was not composed for a small coterie of admirers and fellow poets, nor does it rely on abstruse allusions for many of its effects. Though elitist in its literary standards, it was written for a wide audience, as a public form of art. Ambivalence also characterizes his literary persona, since his presentation of himself as part of a small community of philosophically aware people, seeking true peace of mind while shunning vices like greed,
11440-455: Was nothing like it in Greek or Roman literature. Occasionally poems had had some resemblance to letters, including an elegiac poem from Solon to Mimnermus and some lyrical poems from Pindar to Hieron of Syracuse . Lucilius had composed a satire in the form of a letter, and some epistolary poems were composed by Catullus and Propertius . But nobody before Horace had ever composed an entire collection of verse letters, let alone letters with
11550-431: Was struggling to survive the disorder of the times. Boethius , the last major author of classical Latin literature, could still take inspiration from Horace, sometimes mediated by Senecan tragedy. It can be argued that Horace's influence extended beyond poetry to dignify core themes and values of the early Christian era, such as self-sufficiency, inner contentment and courage. Classical texts almost ceased being copied in
11660-700: Was the only known jester who led an active political and military life; he was allowed to carry a rapier, and he was also known for his skill with the blade. This is how John L. Motley in his work History of the United Netherlands From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years' Truce, 1609 describes his death during the campaign of 1591 of Henry IV against the army of Catholic League, 'They [i.e. Leaguers] were closely followed by Henry at
11770-418: Was the private freedom of a philosophical outlook, not a political or social privilege. His Satires are relatively easy-going in their use of meter (relative to the tight lyric meters of the Odes ) but formal and highly controlled relative to the poems of Lucilius, whom Horace mocked for his sloppy standards ( Satires 1.10.56–61) The Epistles may be considered among Horace's most innovative works. There
11880-502: Was there in 42 BC that Octavian (later Augustus ) and his associate Mark Antony crushed the republican forces at the Battle of Philippi . Horace later recorded it as a day of embarrassment for himself, when he fled without his shield, but allowance should be made for his self-deprecating humour. Moreover, the incident allowed him to identify himself with some famous poets who had long ago abandoned their shields in battle, notably his heroes Alcaeus and Archilochus . The comparison with
11990-515: Was well adapted to Augustus's plans to reform public morality, corrupted by greed—his personal plea for moderation was part of the emperor's grand message to the nation. Horace generally followed the examples of poets established as classics in different genres, such as Archilochus in the Epodes , Lucilius in the Satires and Alcaeus in the Odes , later broadening his scope for the sake of variation and because his models weren't actually suited to
12100-453: Was with Maecenas at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated his great rival, Antony. By then Horace had already received from Maecenas the famous gift of his Sabine farm , probably not long after the publication of the first book of Satires . The gift, which included income from five tenants, may have ended his career at the Treasury, or at least allowed him to give it less time and energy. It signalled his identification with
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