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57-608: Chimalman or Chīmalmā /t͡ʃiːmalmaː/ is a goddess in Aztec mythology , and was considered by the Aztecs to be the mother of the Toltec gods Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl . Her name means " shield -hand." Several oral traditions say that Chimalman is a spirit which accompanied the Azteca from the homeland of Aztlán . Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl were spiritual entities adopted from

114-409: A child. After praying on the altar of Quetzalcoatl, the priest told Chimalman to swallow a small precious stone, after which she became pregnant. This angered Quetzalcoatl's brother, Tezcatlipoca, such that he persuaded others to kill Mixcoatl. Chimalman fled to her hometown of Tepoztlan and died giving birth to her son Topiltzin . Topiltzin would later discover his identity as Quetzalcoatl and that he

171-406: A few. In Irish mythology in particular, tutelary goddesses are often associated with sovereignty and various features of the land, notably mountains, rivers, forests and holy wells . Surviving accounts of Germanic mythology and Norse mythology contain numerous tales of female goddesses, giantesses , and divine female figures in their scriptures. The Germanic peoples had altars erected to

228-426: A goal in and of itself. On the other hand, a reconstructionist neopagan views historical accuracy as a means to the end of establishing a harmonious relationship between a belief-community and the gods. In short, the guiding principles of the reconstructionist approach to the practice of pre-Christian religion can be broken down as follows: The term "reconstructionist paganism" was likely coined by Isaac Bonewits in

285-540: A goddess, I forswore not thee"), and Bertram to Diana in All's Well That Ends Well . Pisanio also compares Imogen to a goddess to describe her composure under duress in Cymbeline . Polytheistic reconstructionism While the emphasis on historical accuracy may imply historical reenactment , the difference between these two movements can be summarized as one of intent. Historical reenactment seeks historical accuracy as

342-643: A mantra is seen as a feminine power) and dharanis . In some cases, such as with Prajñāpāramitā Devi , these goddesses were even called "mother of Buddhas" (Sanskrit: buddhamatr) and bhagavati, indicating they were seen as fully awakened Buddhas themselves. In the Mahayana traditions, some are considered to be bodhisattvas (beings advancing on the path to Buddhahood) or full Buddhas , while others are just devas (worldly deities). The most important Buddhist female deities in East Asian Buddhism are

399-584: A pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities. The noun goddess is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic god with the Latinate -ess suffix. It first appeared in Middle English , from about 1350. The English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including Egyptian , Classical Greek , and several Semitic languages —that add a feminine ending to

456-430: A process that has been called Sanskritisation . Others attribute it to the influence of monism or Advaita , which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorisation. While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus,

513-521: A sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, Shaktism (one of the three major Hindu sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all reality, is Mahadevi (Supreme Goddess) and in some forms of Tantric Shaivism , the pair of Shiva and Shakti are the ultimate principle (with the goddess representing the active, creative power of God). Meanwhile, in Vajrayana Buddhism , ultimate reality

570-682: A single Goddess is found among the Southern Nuba of Sudan. The Nuba conceive of the creator Goddess as the "Great Mother" who gave birth to earth and to mankind. Goddess Amaterasu is the chief among the Shinto gods ( kami ), while there are important female deities Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto , Inari and Konohanasakuya-hime . In the Dharmic religions (mainly Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism ), there are many goddesses that are widely venerated. The earliest source for several of these goddesses

627-537: A tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman's life, separated by menarche and menopause . Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking),

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684-433: A traditionalist or a historical reenactment approach, and not specifically a reconstructionist neopagan. The goal of these methods is to create a set of rituals, rites and practices which facilitate a harmonious relationship between the gods (and other good spirits like landwights or others ) and the belief-community. Reconstructionist neopagans hope that this harmony both within the belief-community itself and between

741-590: A woman named Lilith . Outside of Jewish tradition, Lilith was associated with the Mother Goddess , Inanna – later known as both Ishtar and Asherah . In The Epic of Gilgamesh , Gilgamesh was said to have destroyed a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the goddess Ishtar/Inanna/ Asherah . Lilith ran into the wilderness in despair. She then is depicted in the Talmud and Kabbalah as first wife to God's first creation of man, Adam . In time, as stated in

798-441: Is also Buk, a Sudanese and Ethiopian goddess still worshipped in the southern regions. She represents the fertile aspect of women. She is related to the deity of a similar name, Abuk. Another Ethiopian goddess is Atete , the goddess of spring and fertility. Farmers traditionally leave some of their products at the end of each harvesting season as an offering while women sing traditional songs. A rare example of henotheism focused on

855-497: Is an important source for the goddess idea in Vedic religion . Important Hindu goddesses today include Lakshmi , Saraswati , Durga , Kali , Tripurasundari , Parvati , and Radha . There is much diversity in the theology of the various traditions of Hinduism. Some theologies (e.g. Advaita ) see all gods and goddesses as emanations of a single formless impersonal source called Brahman . Other theologies are more personal regarding

912-409: Is often seen as being composed of two principles depicted as two deities in union ( yab yum , "father-mother") symbolising the non-duality of the two principles of perfect wisdom (female) and skillful compassion (male). Polytheist religions , including Polytheistic reconstructionists , honour multiple goddesses and gods, and usually view them as discrete, separate beings. These deities may be part of

969-521: Is the Vedas . However, goddesses can also be found in the art of the even more ancient Indus Valley civilisation . Hinduism is a diverse complex of many belief systems which includes numerous gods and goddesses. The earliest Hindu source, the Rigveda , contains many goddesses such as Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction) and Saraswati . The Devīsūktam

1026-674: Is the Great Goddess ( Mahadevi ), called by different names such as Shakti or Adi Parashakti (Primordial Supreme Power). Shaktas consider the Goddess to be the ultimate source of all things and the mother of all gods and goddesses. She is considered to have ten main avatars called the ten mahavidyas in some traditions. Another important concept is the Shakta trinity, the tridevi , which sees Mahadevi as manifesting in three main goddesses: Mahasaraswati , Mahalakshmi , and Mahakali . In

1083-579: Is the name of Adam 's first wife, who was created at the same time as Adam. She left Adam and refused to return to the Garden of Eden after she mated with archangel Samael . Her story was greatly developed during the Middle Ages in the tradition of Aggadic midrashim , the Zohar and Jewish mysticism . The Zohar tradition has influenced Jewish folklore , which postulates God created Adam to marry

1140-643: Is the personification of either divine wisdom (or of an archangel) that takes female form. She is mentioned in the first chapter of the Book of Proverbs . Sophia is identified by some as the wisdom imparting Holy Spirit of the Christian Trinity , whose names in Hebrew— Ruach and Shekhinah —are both feminine, and whose symbol of the dove was commonly associated in the Ancient Near East with

1197-555: Is the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities such as Diana , Hecate , and Isis , and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularised by Robert Graves (see Triple Goddess below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on Celtic goddesses. Some Wiccans, or Witches, believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably Dianic Wicca ,

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1254-584: The "Mothers and Matrons" and held celebrations specific to these goddesses (such as the Anglo-Saxon "Mothers-night" ). Various other female deities are attested among the Germanic peoples, such as Nerthus attested in an early account of the Germanic peoples, Ēostre attested among the pagan Anglo-Saxons , and Sinthgunt attested among the pagan continental Germanic peoples. Examples of goddesses attested in Norse mythology include Frigg (wife of Odin , and

1311-881: The Catholic faith . Mary is venerated as the Mother of God , Queen of Heaven , Mother of the Church , the Blessed Virgin Mary, Star of the Sea , and other lofty titles. Marian devotion similar to this kind is also found in Eastern Orthodoxy and sometimes in Anglicanism , although not in the majority of denominations of Protestantism . In some Christian traditions (like the Orthodox tradition), Sophia

1368-642: The Fellowship of Isis attest to the continuing growth of the religion of the Goddess throughout the world. While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity (Judaism never recognised any gender for God) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderising language used to name and describe the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996,"Goddess Christians Yahoo Group"). The term "sacred feminine"

1425-509: The Horned God . Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the Charge of the Goddess , a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the "Queen of Heaven", similar to Isis . She also encompasses and conceives (creates) all life, much like Gaia . Similarly to Isis and certain late Classical conceptions of Selene , she

1482-485: The Satanic Verses ( q.v. ), these verses had previously endorsed them as intercessors for Muslims , but were abrogated. Most Muslim scholars have regarded the story as historically implausible, while opinion is divided among western scholars such as Leone Caetani and John Burton, who argue against, and William Muir and William Montgomery Watt , who argue for its plausibility. The Quran ( Q53:19-31 ) warns of

1539-576: The 17th-century mystic universalist and founder of the Philadelphian Society Jane Leade wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the "Virgin Sophia" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the universe. Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of 16th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Böhme , who also speaks of Sophia in works such as The Way to Christ . Jakob Böhme

1596-412: The Anglo-Saxon version of whom is namesake of the modern English weekday Friday ), Skaði (one time wife of Njörðr ), Njerda (Scandinavian name of Nerthus ), that also was married to Njörðr during Bronze Age, Freyja (wife of Óðr ), Sif (wife of Thor ), Gerðr (wife of Freyr ), and personifications such as Jörð (earth), Sól (the sun), and Nótt (night). Female deities also play heavily into

1653-695: The Buddha). Some of these figures remain important in Theravada Buddhism today, including Maya and Prthivi (known as Phra Mae Thorani in Southeast Asia ). Indian Mahayana Buddhism revered several female deities, including Prajñāpāramitā Devi , Cunda , Marici , Sitātapatra , Tārā , Uṣṇīṣavijayā and Vasudhārā . In the Mahayana, female deities grew in importance, becoming powerful bodhisattva savior figures, liberators associated with powerful mantras (which are also termed vidyās when

1710-468: The Goddess alone is worshipped, and the God plays very little (or no) part in their worship and ritual. The first history of Wiccans or Witches (nature based religion) appear on cave paintings that show early humans worshipping a feminine nature deity for luck and harvest (BCE). Later Celtics form a more formal form of Witches (Wiccans) with the triquetra (maiden mother crone),pentagram etc. They have evolved into

1767-685: The Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic, remote, unknowable) — and all three erotic and wise. At least since first-wave feminism in the United States, there has been interest in analysing religion to see if and how doctrines and practices treat women unfairly, as in Elizabeth Cady Stanton 's The Woman's Bible . Again in second-wave feminism in

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1824-806: The Norse concept of death, where half of those slain in battle enter Freyja's field Fólkvangr , Hel 's realm of the same name , and Rán who receives those who die at sea. Other female deities such as the valkyries , the norns , and the dísir are associated with a Germanic concept of fate (Old Norse Ørlög , Old English Wyrd ), and celebrations were held in their honour, such as the Dísablót and Disting . Goddesses of various Native North American peoples include: In African and African diasporic religions, goddesses are often syncretised with Marian devotion , as in Ezili Dantor ( Black Madonna of Częstochowa ) and Erzulie Freda ( Mater Dolorosa ). There

1881-629: The Old Testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship "False Idols", like Asherah , as being as powerful as God. Jeremiah speaks of his (and God's) displeasure at this behaviour to the Hebrew people about the worship of the goddess in the Old Testament. Lilith is banished from Adam and God's presence when she is discovered to be a "demon" and Eve becomes Adam's wife. The following female deities are mentioned in prominent Hebrew texts: More commonly, modern Judaism acknowledges Shekhinah as

1938-830: The Toltec legacy when the Azteca lived among the Chichimeca . As with many Aztec myths, there are multiple versions of the Chīmalmā story depending on which tribe and time period is examined. According to the Manuscript of 1558 , section 7, the begetting of Quetzalcoatl happened in this way: "And then when Mixcoatl went to... Huitznahuac, the woman Chimalman came out to confront him... She stood naked, without skirt or shift." While she stood thus, Mixcoatl shot an arrow "between her legs"—on two occasions. "And when this had occurred, he took

1995-600: The U.S., as well as in many European and other countries, religion became the focus of some feminist analysis in Judaism, Christianity, and other religions, and some women turned to ancient goddess religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions ( Womanspirit Rising 1979; Weaving the Visions 1989). Today both women and men continue to be involved in the Goddess movement (Christ 1997). The popularity of organisations such as

2052-469: The ancient mother goddess cult). Many major goddesses are also associated with magic, war, strategy, hunting, farming, wisdom, fate , earth, sky, power , laws, justice, and more. Some themes, such as discord or disease, which are considered negative within their cultural contexts also are found associated with some goddesses. There are as many differently described and understood goddesses as there are male, shapeshifting , or neuter gods. In some faiths,

2109-514: The autumn, also referred as Sharada Navratri. There are numerous female deities in the various Buddhist traditions. Buddhist goddesses are widely depicted in Buddhist art . Early Buddhism in India venerated various female goddesses. These were mostly considered to be devas or spirits (such as yakshinis ). They include Prthivi (earth goddess), Hariti , Lakshmi and Mayadevi (the mother of

2166-907: The bodhisattva Guanyin and the "mother of Buddhas" Cundi . In Tibetan Buddhism , Tara is the most important female deity (often considered to be a full Buddha). The tantric dakini Vajrayogini is an important tantric meditation deity ( yidam ) in Tibetan Vajrayana , and is also considered to be a female Buddha in her own right. Tantric Buddhist goddesses were often considered to be fully awakened Buddhas and sometimes are depicted with unique tantric elements, such as skullcups and flaying knives. These tantric deities include Simhamukha , Mahamaya , Vajrayogini , Chinnamunda and Kurukulla . Mahayana goddesses are often termed "devis" (Sanskrit: devi, "female deity", "goddess", Tibetan: lhamo) or even bhagavani (the female version of bhagavan , indicating Buddhahood). According to Zohar , Lilith

2223-515: The date of the earliest attestation of such figurative use, in Lauretta the diuine Petrarches Goddesse . Shakespeare had several of his male characters address female characters as goddesses, including Demetrius to Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream ("O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine!"), Berowne to Rosaline in Love's Labour's Lost ("A woman I forswore; but I will prove, Thou being

2280-464: The feminine aspect of God. Shekhinah is considered to be the presence of God on Earth and/or the spirit of the Jewish people, forever trying to reunite with the other elements of God through tikkun olam . She is also associated with the moon , the earth, David , and Rachel . The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus , as an especially privileged saint has continued since the beginning of

2337-511: The figure of the Mother Goddess . In mysticism , Gnosticism , as well as some Hellenistic religions , there is a female spirit or goddess named Sophia who is said to embody wisdom and who is sometimes described as a virgin . In Roman Catholic mysticism , Saint Hildegard celebrated Sophia as a cosmic figure both in her writing and art. Within the Protestant tradition in England ,

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2394-407: The former, not found in the latter, are as follows: Emphasis has been added to show that the recreation of pre-Christian social conditions are done so with the intent of understanding the religious practices and beliefs, not in order to recreate or revive a pre-Christian society either to replace modern society or to exist in parallel to modern society. The latter intention would be more indicative of

2451-510: The gods and the community brings some kind of tangible or intangible good. As in Germanic Heathenry, proper offerings ( blót ) to the gods are thought to bring about "peace and plenty" ( árs ok friðar ). The use of the terms "pagan" and "neopagan" to refer to polytheistic reconstructionists is controversial. Some reconstructionist religious groups take great issue with being referred to as "pagan" or "neopagan," viewing "pagan" as

2508-637: The great Shakta scripture known as the Devi Mahatmya (Glory of the Goddess), all the goddesses are aspects of one presiding female force—one in truth and many in expression, which also is the creative power of the cosmos. It expresses through philosophical tracts and metaphor, that the potentiality of masculine being is actuated by the feminine divine. Local deities of different village regions in India were often identified with "mainstream" Hindu deities,

2565-399: The immensely popular goddess Durga was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana (10th century), Durgabhaktitarangini ( Vidyapati 15th century), Chandimangal (16th century) etc. Widely celebrated Hindu festival Navaratri is in the honour of the divine feminine Devi ( Durga ) and spans nine nights of prayer in

2622-550: The language's word for god . Inanna was the most worshipped goddess in ancient Sumer . She was later syncretised with the East Semitic goddess Ishtar . Other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag , Ninlil , Antu and Gaga . Goddesses of the Canaanite religion : Ba`alat Gebal , Astarte , Anat . In pre-Islamic Mecca the goddesses Uzza , Manāt and al-Lāt were known as "the daughters of god". Uzzā

2679-658: The late 1970s. Bonewits has said that he is not sure whether he "got this use of the term from one or more of the other culturally focused Neopagan movements of the time, or if [he] just applied it in a novel fashion". Margot Adler later used the term "Pagan Reconstructionists" in the 1979 edition of Drawing Down the Moon to refer to neopagans who endeavour to revive or "reconstruct" an authentic pre-Christian religious practice through use of historically verifiable research in fields such as: archeology, folklore studies and anthropology. This emphasis on reconstruction contrasts with

2736-463: The more syncretic , eclectic or occult approaches to neopaganism, as seen for example in Thelema or Wicca . Linzie (2004) enumerates the difference between modern reconstructionist polytheism, such as modern Hellenismos or Nova Roma , and "classical" paganism as found in eighteenth to mid-twentieth century movements, including Germanic mysticism , early Neodruidism and Wicca . Aspects of

2793-430: The potential to become gods through a process known as exaltation . Most Modern Pagan traditions honour one or more goddesses. While some who follow Wicca believe in a duotheistic belief system, consisting of a single goddess and a single god, who in hieros gamos represent a united whole, others recognise only one or more goddesses. In Wicca "the Goddess" is the deity of prime importance, along with her consort

2850-664: The strong, nature based, animal rights loving and women rights religion of today. Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek Erinyes (Furies) and Moirai (Fates); the Norse Norns ; Brighid and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Celtic mythology . Robert Graves popularised the triad of "Maiden" (or "Virgin"), "Mother" and "Crone", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained

2907-411: The ultimate deity. Some traditions posit a dual deity in the form of Lakshmi - Vishnu , Radha - Krishna , Brahma - Saraswati , or Shiva - Parvati . These are presented as a pair with a male god ( Shaktiman , "possessor of power") and his consort, a female "power" (Shakti), and their relationship is interpreted in different ways depending on the tradition's theology. In Shaktism , the supreme deity

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2964-824: The vanity of trusting to the intercession of female deities, in particular "the daughters of god". Pre-Christian and pre-Islamic goddesses in cultures that spoke Indo-European languages. Goddesses and Otherworldly Women in Celtic polytheism include: The Celts honoured goddesses of nature and natural forces, as well as those connected with skills and professions such as healing, warfare and poetry. The Celtic goddesses have diverse qualities such as abundance, creation and beauty, as well as harshness, slaughter and vengeance. They have been depicted as beautiful or hideous, old hags or young women, and at times may transform their appearance from one state to another, or into their associated creatures such as crows, cows, wolves or eels, to name but

3021-489: The woman of Huitznauac, the one who is Chimalman, and lay with her and so she became pregnant ." Another version indicates that Mixcoatl saw Chimalman while hunting in the Morelos valley and fell in love with her. When his efforts to approach her failed, he became angry and shot five arrows at her, all of which she caught in her bare hand. She was given the name "shield-hand" and they were later married, but unable to conceive

3078-576: Was first coined in the 1970s, in New Age popularisations of the Hindu Shakti . Hinduism also worships multitude of goddesses that have their important role and thus in all came to interest for the New Age, feminist, and lesbian feminist movements. The term "goddess" has also been adapted to poetic and secular use as a complimentary description of a non-mythological woman. The OED notes 1579 as

3135-648: Was sent to help the Toltec civilization. This version is similar to the Codex Chimalpopoca , that indicated, "...Quetzalcoatl was placed in her belly when she swallowed a piece of jade ." Goddess A goddess is a female deity . In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave. This includes themes of spinning , weaving , beauty, love, sexuality, motherhood, domesticity , creativity, and fertility (exemplified by

3192-639: Was very influential to a number of Christian mystics and religious leaders, including George Rapp and the Harmony Society . The members of most denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement believe in, although they do not directly worship, a Heavenly Mother who is the female counterpart of the Heavenly Father . Together they are referred to as Heavenly Parents . Adherents also believe that all humans, both women and men, have

3249-621: Was worshipped by the Nabataeans , who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddesses Aphrodite , Urania , Venus and Caelestis. Each of the three goddesses had a separate shrine near Mecca . Uzzā, was called upon for protection by the pre-Islamic Quraysh . "In 624 at the battle called " Uhud ", the war cry of the Qurayshites was, "O people of Uzzā, people of Hubal !" (Tawil 1993). According to Ibn Ishaq 's controversial account of

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