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115-524: Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of the Americas Art of Oceania Chinese art is visual art that originated in or is practiced in China, Greater China or by Chinese artists. Art created by Chinese residing outside of China can also be considered a part of Chinese art when it

230-608: A nomadic people who lived in Central Asia , the Caucasus , and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. The nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record. Archaeological finds have produced a large number of cauldrons that have since the work of Paul Reinecke in 1896 been identified as having been produced by the Huns. Although typically described as "bronze cauldrons",

345-526: A 5–6 meter tall statue (which had to be seated to fit within the height of the columns supporting the Temple). Since the sandal of the foot fragment bears the symbolic depiction of Zeus ' thunderbolt , the statue is thought to have been a smaller version of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia . Due to the lack of proper stones for sculptural work in the area of Ai-Khanoum, unbaked clay and stucco modeled on

460-577: A brick wall of a tomb located near modern Nanjing and now found in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum. Each of the figures are labeled and shown either drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument. Other tomb paintings also depict scenes of daily life, such as men plowing fields with teams of oxen. Following a transition under the Sui dynasty , Buddhist sculpture of the Tang evolved towards

575-501: A characteristic appearance, with belted jackets with a unique lapel of their tunic being folded on the right side, a style which became popular under the Hephthalites, the cropped hair, the hair accessories, their distinctive physionomy and their round beardless faces. The figures at Bamiyan must represent the donors and potentates who supported the building of the monumental giant Buddha. These remarkable paintings participate "to

690-526: A citadel, a Classical theater, a huge palace in Greco-Bactrian architecture, somehow reminiscent of formal Persian palatial architecture, a gymnasium (100 × 100m), one of the largest of Antiquity, various temples, a mosaic representing the Macedonian sun, acanthus leaves and various animals (crabs, dolphins etc...), numerous remains of Classical Corinthian columns. Many artifacts are dated to

805-790: A complex of peoples known collectively in India as the Huna , and in Europe as the Chionites (from the Iranian names Xwn / Xyon ), and may even be considered as identical to the Chionites. The 5th century Byzantine historian Priscus called them Kidarites Huns, or "Huns who are Kidarites". The Huna/ Xionite tribes are often linked, albeit controversially, to the Huns who invaded Eastern Europe during

920-599: A crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called Silk Road – that complex system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the Bronze Age (3rd and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt. The arts of recent centuries are mainly influenced by Islamic art , but

1035-424: A grave. Archaeological finds indicate that the Huns wore gold plaques as ornaments on their clothing, as well as imported glass beads. Ammianus reports that they wore clothes made of linen or the furs of marmots and leggings of goatskin. The Kidarites , or "Kidara Huns", were a dynasty that ruled Bactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to

1150-463: A long period by the various Imperial factories or workshops, which as well as being used by the court was distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. In contrast, the tradition of ink wash painting , practiced mainly by scholar-officials and court painters especially of landscapes , flowers, and birds, developed aesthetic values depending on

1265-750: A markedly lifelike expression. As a consequence of the dynasty's openness to foreign trade and influences through the Silk Road , Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired by the Greco-Buddhist art of Central Asia. However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wuzong outlawed all "foreign" religions (including Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support indigenous Taoism . He confiscated Buddhist possessions and forced

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1380-501: A media to convey or present a reflection of the past events. The bronze mirrors made in the Han dynasty always have complex decorations on their non-reflective side; some of them consist narratives that tell stories. The narratives themselves always reflect the common but essential theories to the Han people's lives. Terracotta statuettes had been known for a long time in China, but there are no known examples of monumental stone statuary before

1495-590: A miniature house from Shaoxing (紹興) in Zhejiang ; a 4th-century human-shaped lamp stand from Pingshan (平山) county royal tomb, Hebei . The Taerpo horserider is a Zhou-era Warrior-State Qin terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery (塔兒坡墓) near Xianyang in Shaanxi , dated to the 4th–3rd century BCE. Another nearly-identical statuette is known, from the same tomb. Small holes in his hands suggest that he

1610-482: A mythological being presented frontally as though squashed onto a horizontal plane to form a symmetrical design. The early significance of taotie is not clear, but myths about it existed around the late Zhou dynasty . It was considered to be variously a covetous man banished to guard a corner of heaven against evil monsters; or a monster equipped with only a head which tries to devour men but hurts only itself. The function and appearance of bronzes changed gradually from

1725-560: A narrower date range of 1750–1530 BC. The culture is named after Erlitou, an archaeological site in Yanshi , Henan. It was widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi and later appeared in Shaanxi and Hubei . Most archaeologists consider Erlitou the first state-level society in China. Chinese archaeologists generally identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia dynasty , but there

1840-427: A pair of hollow-tile door panels from a Western Han dynasty tomb near Zhengzhou , dated 60 BCE. A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill. This artistic landscape scene was made by the repeated impression of standard stamps on the clay while it was still soft and not yet fired. However,

1955-611: A parody of this painting with a long, horizontal photograph of people in modern clothing making similar facial expressions, poses, and hand gestures as the original painting. With the fall of the Song dynasty in 1279, and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the Yuan dynasty by the Mongol conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life, and returned to nature, through landscape paintings, and by renewing

2070-489: A round medallion plate describing the goddess Cybele on a chariot, in front of a fire altar, and under a depiction of Helios , a fully preserved bronze statue of Herakles , various golden serpentine arm jewellery and earrings, a toilet tray representing a seated Aphrodite , a mold representing a bearded and diademed middle-aged man. Various artefacts of daily life are also clearly Hellenistic: sundials , ink wells, tableware. An almost life-sized dark green glass phallus with

2185-483: A similar period. They are entirely different from the Hephthalites , who replaced them about a century later. The Hephthalites ( Bactrian : ηβοδαλο , romanized:  Ebodalo ), sometimes called the "White Huns", were a people who lived in Central Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries. They existed as an Empire, the "Imperial Hephthalites", and were militarily important from 450 AD, when they defeated

2300-851: A small owl on the back side and other treasures are said to have been discovered at Ai-Khanoum, possibly along with a stone with an inscription, which was not recovered. The artefacts have now been returned to the Kabul Museum after several years in Switzerland by Paul Bucherer-Dietschi, Director of the Swiss Afghanistan Institute. Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the areas of Bactria and Sogdiana . Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin , Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in

2415-430: A total of six known Hunnish diadems. Hunnic women seem to have worn necklaces and bracelets of mostly imported beads of various materials as well. The later common early medieval practice of decorating jewelry and weapons with gemstones appears to have originated with the Huns. They are also known to have made small mirrors of an originally Chinese type, which often appear to have been intentionally broken when placed into

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2530-462: A typical and royal instrument found in ancient China, emphasizes the development of complex music systems in the Han dynasty. The set of Bianzhong can vary in many cases; for example, a specific excavation of Bianzhong from Jiangsu Province include different sets of bells, like Niuzhong and Yongzhong bells, and many of them appear in animal forms like the dragon, a traditional Chinese spiritual animal. Shang bronzes became appreciated as works of art from

2645-604: A wooden frame were often used, a technique which would become widespread in Central Asia and the East, especially in Buddhist art . In some cases, only the hands and feet would be made in marble. In India, only a few Hellenistic sculptural remains have been found, mainly small items in the excavations of Sirkap. A variety of artefacts of Hellenistic style, often with Persian influence, were also excavated at Ai-Khanoum, such as

2760-673: Is based on or draws on Chinese culture , heritage, and history. Early " Stone Age art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simple pottery and sculptures. After that period, Chinese art, like Chinese history, was typically classified by the succession of ruling dynasties of Chinese emperors , most of which lasted several hundred years. The Palace Museum in Beijing and the National Palace Museum in Taipei contains extensive collections of Chinese art. Chinese art

2875-636: Is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of Western classical styles of art . Decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in Chinese ceramics . Much of the best work in ceramics, textiles , carved lacquer were produced over

2990-599: Is no firm evidence, such as writing, to substantiate such a linkage, as the earliest evidence of Chinese writing dates to the Late Shang period. The Erlitou culture may have evolved from the matrix of Longshan culture . Originally centered around Henan and Shanxi province, the culture spread to Shaanxi and Hubei provinces. After the rise of the Erligang culture , the site at Erlitou diminished in size but remained inhabited. Discovered in 1959 by Xu Xusheng , Erlitou

3105-542: Is often bilingual, combining Greek with the Indian Brahmi script or Kharoshthi . Apart from Ai-Khanoum, Indo-Greek ruins have been positively identified in few cities such as Barikot or Taxila , with generally much fewer known artistic remains. Numerous artefacts and structures were found, particularly in Ai-Khanoum, pointing to a high Hellenistic culture, combined with Eastern influences, starting from

3220-468: Is often considered as a delivery of peace and harmony. During the Qin dynasty, Chinese font, measurement systems, currency were all standardized in order to bring further unification. The Great Wall of China was expanded as a defensive construction against the northern intruders. The Han dynasty was known for jade burial suits . One of the earliest known depictions of a landscape in Chinese art comes from

3335-634: Is shortly before the rise of the Erlitou culture in the middle Yellow River valley and the Yueshi culture in Shandong, following the decline of the Longshan culture in the North China Plain . The authors suggest that this flood may have been the basis for the later myth, and contributed to the transition of cultures. They further argue that the timing is further evidence for the identification of

3450-539: Is that of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior . The Mausoleum of Huo Qubing (located in Maoling , the Mausoleum of Han Wudi) has 15 more stone sculptures. These are less naturalistic than the "Horse trampling a Xiongnu", and tend to follow the natural shape of the stone, with details of the figures only emerging in high-relief. Following these early attempts, the usage of monumental stone statues would only develop from

3565-785: Is the largest site associated with the culture, with palace buildings and bronze smelting workshops. Erlitou monopolized the production of ritual bronze vessels , including the earliest recovered dings . The city is on the Yi River , a tributary of the Luo River , which flows into the Yellow River. The city was 2.4 by 1.9 kilometres (1.5 by 1.2 mi); however, because of flood damage only 3 km (1.2 sq mi) are left. The Erlitou Relic Museum , located in Luoyang , Henan province, which has more than 2,000 items excavated from

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3680-508: The Caspian Sea to central China and from southern Russia to northern India – have been home to migrating herders who practised mixed economies on the margins of sedentary societies. The prehistoric 'animal style' art of these pastoral nomads not only demonstrates their zoomorphic mythologies and shamanic traditions but also their fluidity in incorporating the symbols of sedentary society into their own artworks. Central Asia has always been

3795-468: The Gravettian . Most of these statuettes show stylized clothes. Quite often the face is depicted. The tradition of Upper Paleolithic portable statuettes being almost exclusively European, it has been suggested that Mal'ta had some kind of cultural and cultic connection with Europe during that time period, but this remains unsettled. The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as

3910-562: The Kidarites , to 560 AD, date of their defeat to combined First Turkic Khaganate and Sasanian Empire forces. The Hepthalites appears in several mural paintings in the area of Tokharistan , especially in banquet scenes at Balalyk tepe and as donors to the Buddha in the ceiling painting of the 35-meter Buddha at the Buddhas of Bamiyan . Several of the figures in these paintings have

4025-881: The Mal'ta culture and slightly later the Afontova Gora-Oshurkovo culture . The Mal'ta culture culture, centered around at Mal'ta , at the Angara River , near Lake Baikal in Irkutsk Oblast , Southern Siberia , and located at the northeastern periphery of Central Asia, created some of the first works of art in the Upper Paleolithic period, with objects such as the Venus figurines of Mal'ta . These figures consist most often of mammoth ivory. The figures are about 23,000 years old and stem from

4140-808: The Siberian permafrost , in the Altay Mountains , Kazakhstan and nearby Mongolia . The mummies are buried in long barrows (or kurgans ) similar to the tomb mounds of Scythian culture in Ukraine . The type site are the Pazyryk burials of the Ukok Plateau . Many artifacts and human remains have been found at this location, including the Siberian Ice Princess , indicating a flourishing culture at this location that benefited from

4255-508: The Song dynasty , when they were collected and prized not only for their shape and design but also for the various green, blue green, and even reddish patinas created by chemical action as they lay buried in the ground. The study of early Chinese bronze casting is a specialized field of art history. During the Zhou period, few sculptures, especially sculptures of human or animal form, are recorded in

4370-474: The Southern Tang artist Gu Hongzhong in the 10th century, while the well-known version of his painting is a 12th-century remake of the Song dynasty. This is a large horizontal handscroll of a domestic scene showing men of the gentry class being entertained by musicians and dancers while enjoying food, beverage, and wash basins provided by maidservants. In 2000, the modern artist Wang Qingsong created

4485-643: The Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for Old Persian Bāxtriš (from native * Bāxçiš ) (named for its capital Bactra, modern Balkh ), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu , the capital of which was Merv , in today's Turkmenistan. Fertility goddesses, named "Bactrian princesses", made from limestone, chlorite and clay reflect agrarian Bronze Age society, while

4600-786: The ancient Middle East . Roundels containing a dot serve the same purpose on the stag and other animal renderings executed by contemporary Śaka metalworkers. Animal processions of the Assyro-Achaemenian type also appealed to many Central Asian tribesmen and are featured in their arts. Certain geometric designs and sun symbols , such as the circle and rosette , recur at Pazyryk but are completely outnumbered by animal motifs. The stag and its relatives figure as prominently as in Altai-Sayan. Combat scenes between carnivores and herbivores are exceedingly numerous in Pazyryk work;

4715-549: The regular script . Her well-known works include Famous Concubine Inscription (名姬帖 Ming Ji Tie) and The Inscription of Wei-shi He'nan (衛氏和南帖 Wei-shi He'nan Tie). Gu Kaizhi is a celebrated painter of ancient China born in Wuxi . He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting (畫論), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (魏晉名畫記) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (畫雲臺山記). He wrote, "In figure paintings

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4830-485: The "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age archaeological culture of Central Asia , dated to c. 2200–1700 BC, located in present-day eastern Turkmenistan , northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan , centred on the upper Amu Darya (known to the ancient Greeks as the Oxus River), an area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by

4945-500: The "blue and green" style of the Tang era. Wang Meng was one such painter, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto . Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan dynasty . His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There

5060-728: The 11th century. He was famous for ink paintings of bamboo . He could hold two brushes in one hand and paint two different distanced bamboos simultaneously. He did not need to see the bamboo while he painted them because he had seen a lot of them. Zhang Zeduan was a notable painter for his horizontal Along the River During the Qingming Festival landscape and cityscape painting. It is considered one of China's most renowned paintings and has had many well-known remakes throughout Chinese history. Other famous paintings include The Night Revels of Han Xizai , originally painted by

5175-726: The 280–250 BC period. Overall, Aï-Khanoum was an extremely important Greek city (1.5 sq kilometer), characteristic of the Seleucid Empire and then the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , remaining one of the major cities at the time when the Greek kings started to occupy parts of India, from 200 to 145 BC. It seems the city was destroyed, never to be rebuilt, about the time of the death of king Eucratides around 145 BC. Archaeological missions unearthed various structures, some of them perfectly Hellenistic, some other integrating elements of Persian architecture , including

5290-405: The 2nd century BC, which corresponds to the early Indo-Greek period. Various sculptural fragments were also found at Ai-Khanoum , in a rather conventional, classical style, rather impervious to the Hellenizing innovations occurring at the same time in the Mediterranean world. Of special notice, a huge foot fragment in excellent Hellenistic style was recovered, which is estimated to have belonged to

5405-473: The 6th millennium BC. Archeological findings such as those at the Banpo have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early ceramics were unpainted and most often cord-marked. The first decorations were fish and human faces, but these eventually evolved into symmetrical-geometric abstract designs, some painted. The most distinctive feature of Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, especially human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike

5520-432: The 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions in jade and steatite . Following their expulsion by the Yuezhi , some Saka may also have migrated to the area of Yunnan in southern China. Saka warriors could also have served as mercenaries for

5635-447: The Americas Art of Oceania Central Asian art is visual art created in Central Asia , in areas corresponding to modern Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan , Tajikistan , Afghanistan , and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia. The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of

5750-450: The Erlitou site in its collection, opened in October 2019. The site's growth is divided into four phases. During Phase I, covering 100 ha (250 acres), Erlitou was a rapidly growing regional center with an estimated population of several thousand people, but not yet an urban civilization. Urbanization began in Phase II, expanding to 300 ha (740 acres) with a population of around 11,000. A palace area of 12 ha (30 acres)

5865-470: The Han dynasty as well. People used them for funerary purposes which reflect the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the Han dynasty. Many bronze vessels excavated from tombs in Jiangsu Province, China, have various shapes like Ding, Hu, and Xun which represent traditional Chinese aesthete. These vessels are classical representations of Chinese celestial art forms which play a great role in ancient Chinese's communication with spirits of their ancestors. Other than

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5980-410: The Lower Phase of the Erligang culture (1600–1450 BC). Around 1600 BC, a walled city was built at Yanshi , about 6 km (3.7 mi) northeast of Erlitou. Production of bronzes and other elite goods ceased at the end of Phase IV, at the same time as the Erligang city of Zhengzhou was established 85 km (53 mi) to the east. There is no evidence of destruction by fire or war, but, during

6095-449: The Pazyryk beasts are locked in such bitter fights that the victim's hindquarters become inverted. Tribes of Europoid type appear to have been active in Mongolia and Southern Siberia from ancient times. They were in contact with China and were often described for their foreign features. The art of the Saka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively as Scythian art . In 2001,

6210-532: The Pazyryk burials include the oldest woollen knotted-pile carpet known, the oldest embroidered Chinese silk, and two pieces of woven Persian fabric (State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg). Red and ochre predominate in the carpet, the main design of which is of riders, stags, and griffins. Many of the Pazyryk felt hangings, saddlecloths, and cushions were covered with elaborate designs executed in appliqué feltwork, dyed furs, and embroidery. Of exceptional interest are those with animal and human figural compositions,

6325-400: The Qin dynasty. It is without precedent in the historical record of art in East Asia. A music instrument called Qin zither was developed during the Qin dynasty. The aesthetic components have always been as important as the functional parts on a musical instrument in Chinese history. The Qin zither has seven strings. Although Qin zither can sometimes remind people of corruptive history times, it

6440-427: The Shang to the Zhou. They shifted from being used in religious rites to more practical purposes. By the Warring States period , bronze vessels had become objects of aesthetic enjoyment. Some were decorated with social scenes, such as from a banquet or hunt; whilst others displayed abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones. Bronze artifacts also have significant meaning and roles in

6555-417: The Tokharistan school such as Balalyk tepe , in the depiction of clothes, and especially in the treatment of the faces. Erlitou culture The Erlitou culture ( Chinese : 二里頭 ; pinyin : Èrlǐtóu ) was an early Bronze Age society and archaeological culture . It existed in the Yellow River valley from approximately 1900 to 1500 BC. A 2007 study using radiocarbon dating proposed

6670-683: The Upper Erligang phase (1450–1300 BC), all the palaces were abandoned, and Erlitou was reduced to a village of 30 ha (74 acres). The Erlitou culture is the earliest large-scale bronze producing culture in China, with the new-fashioned section-mold process there to produce ritual vessels and other bronzes. Although the remains of bronze have been found in the Qijia and Siba Cultures , Erlitou bronzes are significantly more advanced and prolific. The Erlitou culture not only has bronze tools and bell musical instruments, but also bronze weapons and unique animal-faced plaques, especially more than ten kinds of bronze vessels have been unearthed. This shows that

6785-410: The Xia, is an area of debate for the Doubting Antiquity School of Chinese history. The discovery of writing in the form of oracle bones at Yinxu in Anyang definitively established the site as the last capital of the Shang, but such evidence is unavailable for earlier sites. When Xu Xusheng first discovered Erlitou, he suggested that it was Bo, the first capital of the Shang under King Tang in

6900-436: The Yanshi walled city as the founding of the Shang. Other scholars, particularly outside China, point to the lack of any firm evidence for such an identification, and argue that the historiographical focus of Chinese archaeology is unduly limiting. Archaeological evidence of a large outburst flood at Jishi Gorge that destroyed the Lajia site on the upper reaches of the Yellow River has been dated to about 1920 BC. This date

7015-467: The art of Gandhara, thanks to the patronage of the Kushans . The Kushans apparently favoured royal portraiture, as can be seen in their coins and their dynastic sculptures. A monumental sculpture of King Kanishka I has been found in Mathura in northern India, which is characterized by its frontality and martial stance, as he holds firmly his sword and a mace. His heavy coat and riding boots are typically nomadic Central Asian, and are way too heavy for

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7130-457: The art of the cities of Ai-Khanoum and Nysa . At Khalchayan, rows of in-the-round terracotta statues showed Kushan princes in dignified attitudes, while some of the sculptural scenes are thought to depict the Kushans fighting against the Sakas . The Yuezis are shown with a majestic demeanour, whereas the Sakas are typically represented with side- wiskers , displaying expressive and sometimes grotesque features. According to Benjamin Rowland,

7245-400: The artistic tradition of the Hephthalite ruling classes of Tukharistan ". The paintings related to the Hephthalites have often been grouped under the appellation of "Tokharistan school of art", or the "Hephthalite stage in the History of Central Asia Art". The paintings of Tavka Kurgan , of very high quality, also belong to this school of art, and are closely related to other paintings of

7360-447: The bronze casting of Erlitou is diverse and systematic. Erlitou bronzes have obvious features imitating pottery, with plain surfaces or simple geometric patterns. In the third phase of the Erlitou culture, the perforated decoration that was very popular throughout the Erlitou culture appeared on the bronze jue . Many archetypal Chinese artifacts were first found in Erlitou culture sites. The earliest bronze ding in China were found in

7475-406: The burial. The reflective side is usually made by a composition of bronze, copper, tin, and lead. The word "mirror" means "to reflect" or "to look into" in Chinese, so bronze mirrors have been used as a trope for reflecting the reality. The ancient Chinese believe that mirror can act as a representation of the reality, which could make them more aware of the current situation; also, mirrors are used as

7590-464: The cauldrons are often made of copper, which is generally of poor quality. Maenchen-Helfen lists 19 known finds of Hunnish cauldrons from all over Central and Eastern Europe and Western Siberia. They come in various shapes, and are sometimes found together with vessels of various other origins. Both ancient sources and archaeological finds from graves confirm that the Huns wore elaborately decorated golden or gold-plated diadems . Maenchen-Helfen lists

7705-401: The clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Three of Gu's paintings still survive today: Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies , Nymph of the Luo River (洛神賦), and Wise and Benevolent Women . There are other examples of Jin dynasty painting from tombs. This includes the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, painted on

7820-410: The continent, can also be found in Kofun era Japan. Margiana and Bactria belonged to the Medes for a time, and were then annexed to the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great in sixth century BC , forming the twelfth satrapy of Persia. Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During the reign of Darius I ,

7935-498: The development of Buddhist art, particularly in the area of statuary. Receiving this distant religion, China soon incorporated strong Chinese traits in its artistic expression. In the fifth to sixth century the Northern dynasties , rather removed from the original sources of inspiration, tended to develop rather symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its distance from

8050-462: The discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near Kyzyl , capital of the Siberian republic of Tuva . Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from

8165-406: The end of the Western Han to the Eastern Han. Monumental stone statuary would become a major art form from the 4–6th centuries CE with the onset of monumental Buddhist sculpture in China. Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka 's reign), and through to the 8th century it became very active and creative in

8280-557: The expense of the declining Kushans . They captured the provinces of Sogdiana , Bactria and Gandhara from the Kushans in 225 AD. The Kushano-Sassanids traded goods such as silverware and textiles depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice. The example of Sassanid art was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in northwest South Asia. The Huns were

8395-615: The extant archaeology, and there does not appear to have been much of a sculptural tradition. Among the very few such depictions known in China before that date: four wooden figurines from Liangdaicun (梁帶村) in Hancheng (韓城), Shaanxi , possibly dating to the 9th century BCE; two wooden human figurines of foreigners possibly representing sedan chair bearers from a Qin state tomb in Longxian (隴縣), Shaanxi, from about 700 BCE; and more numerous statuettes from around 5th century bronze musicians in

8510-520: The extensive corpus of metal objects point to a sophisticated tradition of metalworking. Wearing large stylised dresses, as well as headdresses that merge with the hair, "Bactrian princesses" embody the ranking goddess, character of the central Asian mythology that plays a regulatory role, pacifying the untamed forces. The Pazyryk culture is a Scythian nomadic Iron Age archaeological culture (of Iranian origin; c. 6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in

8625-490: The faith to go underground, therefore affecting the ulterior development of the religion and its arts in China. Glazed or painted earthenware Tang dynasty tomb figures are famous, and well-represented in museums around the world. Most wooden Tang sculptures have not survived, though representations of the Tang international style can still be seen in Nara , Japan. The longevity of stone sculpture has proved much greater. Some of

8740-723: The famous head of a Yuezhi prince from Khalchayan, and the head of Gandharan Bodhisattvas , giving the example of the Gandharan head of a Bodhisattva in the Philadelphia Museum of Art . The similarity of the Gandhara Bodhisattva with the portrait of the Kushan ruler Heraios is also striking. According to Rowland the Bactrian art of Khalchayan thus survived for several centuries through its influence in

8855-552: The finest examples can be seen at Longmen , near Luoyang , Yungang near Datong , and Bingling Temple in Gansu . One of the most famous Buddhist Chinese pagodas is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , built in 652 AD. Beginning in the Tang dynasty (618–907), the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape, known as shanshui (mountain water) painting. In these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse,

8970-419: The following Shang dynasty more elaborate objects, including many ritual vessels, were crafted. The Shang are remembered for their bronze casting, noted for its clarity of detail. Shang bronzesmiths usually worked in foundries outside the cities to make ritual vessels, and sometimes weapons and chariot fittings as well. The bronze vessels were receptacles for storing or serving various solids and liquids used in

9085-564: The form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. The Liangzhu Jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its tremolite rock origin and influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites. The Bronze Age in China began with the Xia dynasty . Examples from this period have been recovered from ruins of the Erlitou culture , in Shanxi, and include complex but unadorned utilitarian objects. In

9200-494: The fourth stage of the Erlitou culture, decorated with striped grid patterns. The earliest metal bells, with one found in the Taosi site, and four in the Erlitou site, dated to about 2000 BC, may have been derived from the earlier pottery prototype. The first bronze dagger-axe or ge appeared at the Erlitou site, where two were found among over 200 bronze artifacts (as of 2002) at the site. Three jade ge were also discovered from

9315-560: The individual imagination of and objective observation by the artist that are similar to those of the West, but long pre-dated their development there. After contacts with Western art became increasingly important from the 19th century onwards, in recent decades China has participated with increasing success in worldwide contemporary art . Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic Yangshao culture , which dates back to

9430-709: The inhabitants of the Greek city of Barca , in Cyrenaica , were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins. In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived near Didyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him. Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of the revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria. Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later. The Greco-Bactrians ruled

9545-456: The inner harmony of man and nature, as perceived according to Taoist and Buddhist concepts. Liang Kai was a Chinese painter who lived in the 13th century (Song dynasty). He called himself "Madman Liang", and he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a Zen monk. Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. Wen Tong was a painter who lived in

9660-603: The later Longshan culture , the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery making. Excavations have found that children were buried in painted pottery jars. The Liangzhu culture was the last Neolithic Jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta and was spaced over a period of about 1,300 years. The Jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as Cong cylinders, Bi discs, Yue axes and also pendants and decorations in

9775-559: The leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush, made of animal hair, and black ink made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing as well as painting was done on silk. But after the invention of paper in the 1st century, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in

9890-408: The many trade routes and caravans of merchants passing through the area. The Pazyryk are considered to have had a war-like life. Other kurgan cemeteries associated with the culture include those of Bashadar, Tuekta, Ulandryk, Polosmak and Berel . There are so far no known sites of settlements associated with the burials, suggesting a purely nomadic lifestyle. The remarkable textiles recovered from

10005-688: The most notable of which are the repeat design of an investiture scene on a felt hanging and that of a semi-human, semi-bird creature on another (both in the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg ). Clothing, whether of felt, leather, or fur, was also lavishly ornamented. Horse reins either had animal designs cut out on them or were studded with wooden ones covered in gold foil. Their tail sheaths were ornamented, as were their headpieces and breast pieces. Some horses were provided with leather or felt masks made to resemble animals, with stag antlers or rams' horns often incorporated in them. Many of

10120-454: The number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. Zhan Ziqian was a painter during the Sui dynasty. His only painting in existence is Strolling About In Spring arranged mountains perspectively. Because pure landscape paintings are hardly seen in Europe until the 17th century, Strolling About In Spring may well be

10235-419: The oldest known landscape art scene tradition in the classical sense of painting is a work by Zhan Ziqian of the Sui dynasty (581–618). Other than jade artifacts, bronze is another favorite medium for artists since it is hard and durable. Bronze mirrors have been mass-produced in the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), and almost every tomb excavated that has been dated as Han dynasty has mirror in

10350-584: The oldest paintings on silk discovered to date. The Terracotta Army , inside the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terracotta figures of warriors and horses buried with the self-proclaimed first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang in 210–209 BC. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault. The original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed. However, exposure to air caused

10465-430: The original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible, realistic manner, progressively led to a research towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art. In ancient China, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholar-officials who alone had

10580-454: The palace of Khalchayan . Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers, and, significantly, men with artificially deformed skulls , such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia). The art of Khalchayan of the end of the 2nd–1st century BC is probably one of the first known manifestations of Kushan art. It is ultimately derived from Hellenistic art , and possibly from

10695-404: The performance of sacred ceremonies. Some forms such as the ku and jue can be very graceful, but the most powerful pieces are the ding , sometimes described as having an "air of ferocious majesty". It is typical of the developed Shang style that all available space is decorated, most often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the taotie , which shows

10810-417: The pigments to fade, so today the unearthed figures appear terracotta in color. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. Each figure's head appears to be unique, showing a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles. The spectacular realism displayed by the sculptures is an evidence of the advancement of art during

10925-521: The purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature. Painting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and was done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils were not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings were made were paper and silk. The finished works were then mounted on scrolls, which could be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting

11040-401: The region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society. The Silk Road transmission of art , Scythian art , Greco-Buddhist art , Serindian art and more recently Persianate culture, are all part of this complicated history. From the late second millennium BC until very recently, the grasslands of Central Asia – stretching from

11155-460: The same site. Like other contemporaneous cultures in China, jade was worked into ritual objects at Erlitou sites. These included ceremonial blades ( zhang ) as well as ritual dagger-axes ( ge ). Symbols on ceramic pieces have been found at Erlitou culture sites, leading to speculation about possible connections with early Chinese characters , which appear several centuries later in the same region. However, no clear linkage has been proven yet, thus

11270-553: The same way that paintings are. Wang Xizhi was a famous Chinese calligrapher who lived in the 4th century AD. His most famous work is the Lanting Xu , the preface to a collection of poems. The script was often celebrated as the high point of the semi-cursive "Running Style" in the history of Chinese calligraphy. Wei Shuo was a well-known calligrapher of the Eastern Jin dynasty who established consequential rules about

11385-470: The southern part of Central Asia from the 3rd to the 2nd century BC, with their capital at Ai-Khanoum . The main known remains from this period are the ruins and artifacts of their city of Ai-Khanoum , a Greco-Bactrian city founded circa 280 BC which continued to flourish during the first 55 years of the Indo-Greek period until its destruction by nomadic invaders in 145 BC, and their coinage, which

11500-578: The stone sculptures at the Mausoleum of Huo Qubing (140–117 BCE), a general of Emperor Han Wudi who went to the western regions to fight the Xiongnu . In literary sources, there is only a single 3rd–4th century CE record of a possible earlier example: two alleged monumental stone statues of qilin (Chinese unicorns) said have been set up on top of the tomb of the First Emperor Qin Shihuang . The most famous of Huo Qubing's statues

11615-459: The styles and ethnic type visible in Kalchayan already anticipate the characteristics of the later Art of Gandhara and may even have been at the origin of its development. Rowland particularly draws attention to the similarity of the ethnic types represented at Khalchayan and in the art of Gandhara, and also in the style of portraiture itself. For example, Rowland find a great proximity between

11730-721: The symbols are currently considered markings or proto-writing . A major goal of archaeology in China has been the search for the capitals of the Xia and Shang dynasties described in traditional accounts as inhabiting the Yellow River valley. These originally oral traditions were recorded much later in histories such as the Bamboo Annals ( c.  300 BC ) and the Records of the Grand Historian (1st century BC), and their historicity, particularly regarding

11845-518: The traditional account. Since the late 1970s, archaeologists in China have tended to identify the site with Zhenxun , the last Xia capital. The traditional account of the overthrow of the Xia by the Shang has been identified with the ends of each of the four phases of the site by different authors. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project identified all four phases of Erlitou as Xia, and the construction of

11960-481: The trappings took the form of iron, bronze, and gilt wood animal motifs either applied or suspended from them; and bits had animal-shaped terminal ornaments. Altai-Sayan animals frequently display muscles delineated with dot and comma markings, a formal convention that may have derived from appliqué needlework. Such markings are sometimes included in Assyrian , Achaemenian , and even Urartian animal representations of

12075-580: The trousers and boots, the heavy tunics, and heavy belts. The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called "Kushanshas" KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ Koshano Shao in Bactrian ) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians who established their rule in Bactria and in northwestern Indian subcontinent (present day Pakistan ) during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD at

12190-473: The varied earlier cultures were influenced by the art of China, Persia and Greece, as well as the Animal style that developed among the nomadic peoples of the steppes . The first modern human occupation in the difficult climates of North and Central Asia is dated to circa 40,000 ago, with the early Yana culture of northern Siberia dated to circa 31,000 BCE. By around 21,000 BCE, two main cultures developed:

12305-532: The various kingdoms of ancient China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the Dian civilisation of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing. Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom of Silla , are said to be of "Scythian" design. Similar crowns, brought through contacts with

12420-523: The vessels, bronze weapons, daily items, and musical instruments are also found in royal Han families' tomb in Jiangsu. Being able to put a full set of Bianzhong in ones tomb signifies his or her status and class in the Han dynasty since this particular type of instrument is only acquired and owned by royal and wealth families. Apparently, Bianzhong and music are also used as a path for the Han rulers to communication with their Gods. The excavation of Bianzhong,

12535-511: The warm climate of India. His coat is decorated by hundreds of pearls, which probably symbolize his wealth. His grandiose regnal title is inscribed in the Brahmi script : "The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka". As the Kushans progressively adapted to life in India, their dress progressively became lighter, and representation less frontal and more natural, although they retained characteristic elements of their nomadic dress, such as

12650-402: The world's first landscape painting. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal

12765-527: Was also done in albums, on walls, lacquer work, and in other media. Dong Yuan was an active painter in the Southern Tang Kingdom. He was known for both figure and landscape paintings, and exemplified the elegant style which would become the standard for brush painting in China over the next 900 years. As with many artists in China, his profession was as an official where he studied the existing styles of Li Sixun and Wang Wei. However, he added to

12880-518: Was also the vivid and detailed works of art by Qian Xuan (1235–1305), who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols, instead turning to painting. He was also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang dynasty style of painting. Central Asian art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of

12995-469: Was demarcated by four roads. It contained the 150 m × 50 m (490 ft × 160 ft) Palace 3, composed of three courtyards along a 150-metre axis, and Palace 5. A bronze foundry was established to the south of the palatial complex and was controlled by the elite. The city reached its peak in Phase III, and may have had a population of around 24,000. The palatial complex

13110-643: Was originally holding reins in one hand, and a weapon in the other. This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China. A rich source of art in early China was the state of Chu , which developed in the Yangtze River valley. Excavations of Chu tombs have found painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments, and an assortment of lacquerware . Many of the lacquer objects are finely painted, red on black or black on red. A site in Changsha , Hunan province, has revealed some of

13225-485: Was surrounded by a two-meter-thick rammed-earth wall, and Palaces 1, 7, 8 and 9 were built. Palace 1, the largest, had an area of 9,600 m (103,000 sq ft). Palaces 3 and 5 were abandoned and replaced by Palace 2, measuring 4,200 m (45,000 sq ft), and Palace 4. In Phase IV, the population decreased to around 20,000, but building continued. Palace 6 was built as an extension of Palace 2, and Palaces 10 and 11 were built. Phase IV overlaps with

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