Qing conquest of Ming
113-658: Qing invasion of Joseon Revolt of the Three Feudatories Ten Great Campaigns First Opium War Second Opium War Taiping Rebellion Boxer Rebellion The Eight Banners (in Manchu : ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ jakūn gūsa , Chinese : 八旗 ; pinyin : bāqí ; Wade–Giles : pa-ch'i , Mongolian : ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠨ ᠬᠣᠰᠢᠭᠤ ) were administrative and military divisions under
226-503: A gūsa (banner, Chinese : 旗 ; pinyin : qí , Mongolian : Хошуу ), with a total of 60 companies, or 18,000 men. The actual sizes often varied substantially from these standards. Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal ethnic components :
339-574: A 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree
452-573: A Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor . The transfer of families from Han Banners or Bondservant status ( Booi Aha ) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called Taiqi ( 抬旗 ) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into
565-586: A few weeks. Despite working on tight rations by January 1637, the Joseon defenders were able to effectively counter Manchu siegeworks with sorties and even managed to blow up the powder magazine of an artillery battery that was assailing the East Gate of the fortress, killing its commander and many soldiers. Some walls crumbled under repeated bombardment, but were repaired overnight. Despite their successes, Dorgon occupied Ganghwa Island on 27 January, and captured
678-470: A fundamental change in the Ming world order of which Joseon had been part. It was only after the rise of Japan during the 19th century and the following invasion and annexation of Korea that the 16th-century Japanese invasions by Toyotomi Hideyoshi became more significant. Zu Dashou Zu Dashou ( Chinese : 祖大壽 ; d. 1656), courtesy name Fuyu (復宇), was a Chinese military general who served on
791-450: A large number of people. Hong Taiji's main division, 70,000 strong, laid siege to the fortress. Provincial forces from around the country began moving in to relieve King Injo and his small retinue of defenders. Joseon forces under Hong Myeong-gu and Yu Lim , 5,000 strong, engaged 6,000 Manchus on 28 January. The Manchu cavalry attempted frontal assaults several times but was turned back by heavy musket fire. Eventually they circumnavigated
904-538: A major role in the Qing conquest of the Central Plain . Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing were often given women from the imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of ethnic Han who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined
1017-470: A minority, which conquered the Central Plain for the Qing. Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Qing in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently. The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Qing valued military skills to get them to defect to
1130-548: A more important event than the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598, which, while devastating, had not ended in complete defeat for Joseon. The defeat at the hands of the "barbarian" Manchus, the humiliation of the Joseon kings and Yi family , as well as the destruction of the Ming dynasty, had a deeper psychological impact on contemporary Korean society than the Japanese invasions. The Japanese invasions had not created
1243-518: A mountain and ambushed Hong's troops from the rear, defeating them. Protected by the mountainous terrain, Yu's forces fared better and successfully decimated the Manchu forces after defeating their attacks several times throughout the day. The Joseon troops within the fortress, which consisted of both capital and prefectural armies, also successfully defended the fortress against Manchu assaults, forcing their actions to be relegated to small-scale clashes for
SECTION 10
#17327719092321356-579: A myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in
1469-578: A raid against Ming first. At one point the Qing forces under Ajige got as close to Beijing as the Marco Polo Bridge . Although they were ultimately repelled, the raid made it clear that Ming defenses were no longer fully capable of securing their borders. After this successful operation, Hong Taiji turned towards Joseon and launched an attack in December 1636. Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent Abatai , Jirgalang , and Ajige to secure
1582-419: A result were not welcomed by their families even if they were released by the Qing after being ransomed. Divorce demands rose, causing social unrest, but the government rejected the divorce requests and said the repatriated women should not be regarded as having been disgraced. In 1648 Joseon was forced to provide several royal princesses as concubines to the Qing regent Prince Dorgon . In 1650 Dorgon married
1695-593: A three pronged attack on Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents. Im Gyeong-eop with 3,000 men at the Baengma Fortress in Uiju successfully held off attacks by the 30,000 strong western division led by Dodo . Dodo decided not to take the fortress and passed it instead. Similarly elsewhere Manchu forces of the main division under Hong Taiji bypassed northern Joseon fortresses as well. Dorgon and Hooge led
1808-558: A vanguard Mongol force straight to Hanseong to prevent King Injo from evacuating to Ganghwa Island like in the previous war. On 14 December, Hanseong's garrisons were defeated and the city was taken. Fifteen thousand troops were mobilized from the south to relieve the city, but they were defeated by Dorgon's army. King Injo, along with 13,800 soldiers, took refuge at the Namhan Mountain Fortress (Namhansanseong) which did not have enough provisions stockpiled for such
1921-503: Is a ' Byeongja ' year in the sexagenary cycle and ' Horan ' means a disturbance caused by northern or western foreigners, from 胡 ( ho ; northern or western, often nomadic barbarians ) + 亂 ( ran ; chaos, disorder, disturbance, turmoil, unrest, uprising, revolt, rebellion). The Kingdom of Joseon continued to show ambivalence toward the Qing dynasty after the invasion in 1627 . Later Jin accused Joseon of harboring fugitives and supplying
2034-675: The Ever Victorious Army of Frederick Townsend Ward , it was these warlord armies (known as yongying ) who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period. John Ross , a Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in
2147-528: The Later Jin and Qing dynasties of China into which all Manchu households were placed. In war, the Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by Nurhaci , the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented Jurchen people (who would later be renamed
2260-455: The Manchu script . Shin's adapted textbooks, completed in 1639, were used for the yeokgwa (special examinations for foreign languages) until 1684. The Manchu examination replaced the Jurchen examination, and the examination's official title was not changed from "Jurchen" to "Manchu" until 1667. For much of Joseon's historical discourse following the invasion, the Qing invasion was seen as
2373-792: The Manchus , the Han , and the Mongols , and various smaller ethnic groups, such as the Xibe , the Daur , and the Evenks . When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). There were stories of Han migrating to
SECTION 20
#17327719092322486-639: The Ming army with grain. In addition, Joseon did not recognize Hong Taiji 's newly declared dynasty. The Manchu delegates Inggūldai and Mafuta received a cold reception in Hanseong , and King Injo refused to meet with them or even send a letter, which shocked the delegates. A warlike message to Pyongan Province was also carelessly allowed to be seized by Inggūldai. The beile (Qing princes) were furious with Joseon's response to Qing overtures and proposed an immediate invasion, but Hong Taiji chose to conduct
2599-479: The Plain White Banner ) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing, the left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones. The smallest unit in a banner army
2712-630: The "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Han). Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Han Banners. After Hong Taiji's death, Dorgon , commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in
2825-509: The "Manchu" under Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji ) and in the Qing dynasty's conquest of the Ming dynasty . As Mongol and Han forces were incorporated into the growing Qing military establishment, the Mongol Eight Banners and Han Eight Banners were created alongside the original Manchu banners. The banner armies were considered the elite forces of the Qing military, while the remainder of imperial troops were incorporated into
2938-463: The 17th century, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been lost, as the well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption. Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response
3051-464: The 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy. These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa. Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to
3164-471: The Banners which previously were reserved for Jurchen Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were
3277-558: The Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The pro-Boxer Bannermen sustained heavy casualties and subsequently were driven into desperate poverty. Zhao Erfeng and Zhao Erxun were two important Han Bannermen in the late Qing. By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began training and creating New Army units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until
3390-448: The Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Qing, so the Qing established an artillery corps made out of Han soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created. It was defected Han armies which conquered southern China for the Qing. When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to
3503-515: The Eight Banners system. That year, rebels led by Li Zicheng captured Beijing and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, Chongzhen , committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young Shunzhi Emperor was then enthroned in the Forbidden City . Ming defectors played
Eight Banners - Misplaced Pages Continue
3616-415: The Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only
3729-671: The Eight Banners. His rattan shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the Russian Cossacks at Albazin . Under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated Ten Great Campaigns , the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding
3842-569: The Han Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ nikan cooha or ᡠᠵᡝᠨ ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠ ujen cooha ; Chinese : 八旗漢軍 ; pinyin : bāqí hànjūn ; Mongolian : Хятад найман хошуу ). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , manju gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗滿洲 ; pinyin : bāqí mǎnzhōu ; Mongolian : Манжийн Найман хошуу ). Although still called
3955-581: The Joseon Princess Uisun (義順公主), the daughter of Prince Geumnim, who had to be adopted by King Hyojong beforehand. Dorgon married another Joseon princess at Lianshan . Koreans continued to harbor a defiant attitude towards the Qing dynasty in private while they officially yielded obedience and sentiments of Manchu "barbarity" continued to pervade Korean discourse. Joseon scholars secretly used Ming era names even after that dynasty's collapse and some people thought that Joseon should have been
4068-570: The Joseon throne, though the plan died with his death on the eve of the expedition. From 1639 until 1894, the Joseon court trained a corps of professional Korean-Manchu translators. They replaced earlier interpreters of Jurchen , who had been trained using textbooks in the Jurchen script . Joseon's first textbooks of Manchu were drawn up by Shin Gye-am , who had previously been an interpreter of Jurchen, and he transliterated old Jurchen textbooks into
4181-575: The Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this. The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan. The Tohoro 托和啰 ( Duanfang 's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to
4294-600: The Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen. In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as
4407-632: The Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳. The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢，但問旗民 or 但問旗民，不問滿漢. Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into
4520-718: The Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor . It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans . Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant Booi Aha (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and
4633-535: The Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles. Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in Mukden during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he
Eight Banners - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-459: The Manchu side. On November 5, Yuzizhang (于子章), the largest of the forts surrounding Dalinghe, surrendered after being pounded for several days by the "red barbarian" Portuguese cannons of Tong Yangxing. The remaining forts soon surrendered one by one. By mid-November, supplies were low in the Manchu camp, but the situation was far worse inside the walls of Dalinghe, where the population had resorted to cannibalism . Messages were exchanged between
4859-440: The Manchus outside the city. In October, a larger Ming army of 40,000 men arrived near Jinzhou under the command of Zu's brother-in-law, Wu Xiang. Hong Taiji mobilized his troops and engaged in a field battle with the Ming forces, emerging victorious. On October 13, Hong Taiji wrote Zu Dashou again to solicit his surrender, but received no response. On the 14th, Hong Taiji lured Zu's men to sally forth in an attempt to recapture one of
4972-447: The Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in
5085-459: The Ming defectors gave Later Jin leaders confidence that they could easily strike Joseon leadership even if they evacuated to a nearby island such as Ganghwa . This provided Later Jin with military background in maintaining a strong position against Joseon. First, a Ming envoy, Lu Weining , visited Joseon in June 1634 to preside over the installation ceremony of the crown prince of Joseon. However,
5198-528: The Ming, King Injo now attempted to relocate the memorial tablet of his late father into the Jongmyo Shrine . As Prince Jeongwon had never ruled as the king, this attempt was met with severe opposition from government officials, which lasted until early 1635. Adding to this, the mausoleum of King Seonjo was accidentally damaged in March 1635 and the political debate about its responsibility continued for
5311-521: The Qing Empire, as well as cut ties with the declining Ming. The crown prince of Joseon along with his younger brother were taken as hostages, but they came back to Joseon after a few years. One of the two later became the King Hyojong . He is best known for his plan for an expedition to the Qing Empire. In Korean, the Qing invasion (1636–1637) is called ' Byeongja Horan ' ( 병자호란 ), where 1636
5424-726: The Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russians , Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s, after the Jahriyya revolt in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶)
5537-456: The Qing conquest of the Ming. The Han transfrontismen abandoned their Han names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them. There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer the Central Plain, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han to the Eight Banners. The Qing had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the massive number of Han soldiers who were absorbed into
5650-462: The Qing dynasty. He opened the gates of Shanhai Pass to the Qing army under Dorgon in order to mount a joint campaign to oust the rebels from the capital. With this act, the Qing captured Beijing. Although the war between Ming and Qing would last several decades longer, the Ming would never recover from this loss, and the Qing would ultimately destroy the Ming. Zu Dashou died in Beijing in 1656. He
5763-457: The Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on the Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the Burma campaign , often as the result of tropical diseases, to which they had little resistance. Although the banners were instrumental in the transition from Ming to Qing in
SECTION 50
#17327719092325876-591: The Qing foremost used defected Han troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of the Central Plain. The Liaodong Han military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen. The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. The Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who defected. Liaodong Han transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Han-style agriculture before
5989-603: The Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death. In the 19th century, the Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the Taiping Rebellion and Nian Rebellion on their own. Regional officials like Zeng Guofan were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army , among others. Along with
6102-464: The Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves. The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu
6215-657: The Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers. Koxinga's rattan shield troops became famous for fighting and defeating the Dutch in Taiwan . After the surrender of Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan , Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang and his troops were incorporated into
6328-494: The Qing side during the war. 213 Han Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so
6441-471: The Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while
6554-643: The Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from Jurchen Manchus in terms of military skills. Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from
6667-656: The accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of the bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year." During the Boxer Rebellion , 1899–1901, the European powers recruited 10,000 Bannermen from the Metropolitan Banners into Wuwei Corps and gave them modernized training and weapons. One of these was the Hushenying . However, many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported
6780-504: The banner armies participated in two invasions of Joseon in the Korean Peninsula first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Joseon was forced to end its relationship with the Ming and become a Qing tributary instead. Initially, Han troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into
6893-726: The capital at Beijing . Yuan Chonghuan , commander of the Ningyuan garrison, sent 20,000 troops under Zu Dashou to relieve Beijing. Zu crossed the Great Wall through Shanhai Pass and marched to Beijing, defeating the Manchus outside the city walls. Although forced to retreat, Hong Taiji's forces had nevertheless captured the cities of Luanzhou , Qian'an , Zunhua , and Yongping (present-day Lulong County ) during his 1629 expedition. In 1630, he left his cousin Amin in Yongping to defend
SECTION 60
#17327719092327006-863: The care of the khan, Zu Dashou had returned to the Ming to once again command the Jinzhou garrison. In the following years, his sons would become important officers of the Manchu Qing military. Zu Zerun joined the Plain Yellow Banner as a general, while Zu Kefa become a leading architect of the conquest of the Ming. In 1636, Hong Taiji declared himself Emperor Taizong of the Qing dynasty. After subjugating Korea and Inner Mongolia , he turned his sights upon Jinzhou once again. The Qing attacked Jinzhou in 1639 and again in 1640. Both times they were defeated by Zu Dashou. In 1641, Taizong sent an army to besiege Jinzhou and Songshan. The commander of Songshan
7119-421: The city on September 1. At Dalinghe, Zu commanded an army of 14,000 men, half infantry and half cavalry, many of whom were veterans of his previous battles with Manchu forces. The presence of Zu's men was made known to Hong Taiji when his patrols captured a Ming resident outside the city. Instead of attacking the city directly, the Manchu forces prepared for a long siege, building a moat around the city, and guarding
7232-456: The city, he would turn it over to the khan. With the plan decided, Zu's forces finally surrendered Dalinghe on November 21. Shortly after surrendering to Hong Taiji, Zu was dispatched to Jinzhou along with 26 retainers to execute his plan to capture the city. On November 26, he sent a letter from Jinzhou explaining that he needed more time to plan the coup. Hong Taiji's reply to this letter went unanswered. Despite leaving his sons and nephews in
7345-430: The coastal approaches to Korea , so that Ming could not send reinforcements. The defector Ming mutineer Kong Youde , ennobled as the Qing dynasty's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks at Ganghwa Island and Ka Island . The defectors Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi also played prominent roles in the Korean invasion. After the 1627 invasion, Joseon maintained a nominal but reluctant friendship with Later Jin. However,
7458-451: The condition that the khan immediately send a force to attack Jinzhou, where Zu's family and those of many of his officers lived. This would enable the soldiers to be reunited with their kin. Knowing that his army was in no condition to mount another major attack, Hong Taiji agreed to a plan in which Zu himself would return to Jinzhou, of which he was still the commanding officer, under the pretense of having escaped from Dalinghe. After entering
7571-482: The deteriorating relations between the two nations. Now, preparation for war was all that remained for Joseon. Contrary to those who supported a war, officials who suggested viable plans and strategies were not taken seriously. Instead, King Injo, afraid of head-on clash with the mighty Qing army, listened to the advice of Choe Myeong-gil and Huang Sunwu , a Ming military advisor, and decided to dispatch peace seeking messengers to Shenyang in September 1636. Although
7684-402: The envoy requested an excessive bribe in return for the ceremony. In addition, quite a few Ming merchants who accompanied the envoy sought to make a huge fortune by forcing unfair trades upon their Joseon counterparts. This envoy visit eventually cost Joseon more than 100,000 taels of silver. Having accomplished the installations of both his father Prince Jeongwon and his son with help from
7797-421: The envoys was to boast the recent expansion of the Later Jin sphere of influence and examine the opinion of Joseon about the upcoming ascension of Hong Taiji as the "Emperor". The envoys informed King Injo about their ever-growing strength and requested celebration of Hong Taiji's ascension from Joseon. This greatly shocked Joseon, as the Ming Emperor was the only legitimate emperor from their perspective. It
7910-503: The fall of the Qing in 1912, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until 1924. At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by the Republic of China to be Manchu. Han Bannermen became an elite political class in Fengtian province in the late Qing period and into the Republican era. In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there,
8023-401: The fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen. In the Revolt of the Three Feudatories Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Green Standard Army , who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by
8136-406: The forts outside the city. The failure of Zu's attack led him to withdraw behind the walls, never attacking again for the duration of the siege. On October 19, another Ming army arrived under the command of Zhang Chun. Making use of Tong Yangxing's gunners, Hong Taiji broke the Ming lines. The Manchus defeated Zhang's army, taking heavy casualties in the process. Zhang Chun was captured and defected to
8249-428: The intention of invading Joseon unless Joseon showed willingness to alter its policy by providing one of Joseon's princes as hostage. After confirming the message, hardliners against Qing gained voice in Joseon. They even requested execution of the envoys for failing to immediately destroy the message in front of Hong Taiji himself. In June 1636, Joseon eventually transmitted their message to Qing, which blamed Qing for
8362-531: The late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year the Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners ( Manchu : ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ ᡤᡡᠰᠠ , monggo gūsa ; Chinese : 八旗蒙古 ; pinyin : bāqí ménggǔ ; Mongolian : Монгол найман хошуу ). Under Hong Taiji ,
8475-432: The legitimate successor of the Ming dynasty and Chinese civilization instead of the "barbaric" Manchu's Qing. Despite the peace treaty forbidding construction of fortresses, fortresses were erected around Hanseong and in the northern region. The future Hyojong of Joseon lived as a hostage for seven years in Mukden (Shenyang) . He planned an invasion of Qing called Bukbeol (북벌, 北伐, Northern expedition) during his ten years on
8588-530: The messengers gathered some intelligence about the situation in Shenyang, they were denied a meeting with Hong Taiji. This further enraged hardliners in Joseon and led to the dismissal of Choe Myeong-gil from office. Although King Injo dispatched another team of messengers to Shenyang in early December, this was after the execution of the Qing plan to invade Joseon on November 25. On 9 December 1636, Hong Taiji led Manchu , Mongol , and Han Chinese Banners in
8701-432: The mid-19th century ruined their reputation. By the late 19th century the task of defending the empire had largely fallen upon regional armies such as the Xiang Army . Over time, the Eight Banners became synonymous with Manchu identity even as their military strength vanished. Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as
8814-600: The mouth of the Yalu River . Ming officer Shen Shikui was well ensconced in Ka Island 's fortifications and hammered his attackers with heavy cannon for over a month. In the end, Ming and Joseon defectors including Kong Youde landed 70 boats on the eastern side of the island and drew out his garrison in that direction. On the next morning, however, he found that the Qing—"who seem to have flown"—had landed to his rear in
8927-415: The mutiny. An official letter of installation of King Injo 's late father ( Prince Jeongwon ) from the Ming government resulted in Joseon siding with Ming and supplying their soldiers only. This gave Later Jin the impression that Joseon would side with Ming when in decisive engagements and suppressing Joseon became a prerequisite for a future successful campaign against Ming. In addition, the naval strength of
9040-457: The newly conquered territory. Zu Dashou embarked on a counterattack and recovered Luanzhou. In response, Amin ordered a massacre of the civilian populations of Qian'an and Yongping, plundering the cities and abandoning them to the Ming. News of the slaughter enraged Hong Taiji, who had been cultivating relations with the Han Chinese population to pacify captured cities and encourage defection by Ming officers. He had Amin arrested and imprisoned, using
9153-405: The next few months. These political gridlocks prohibited Joseon from taking sufficient measures to prepare for a possible invasion from Later Jin. In February 1636, Later Jin envoys led by Inggūldai visited Joseon to participate in the funeral of Joseon's late queen. However, as the envoys included 77 high-ranking officials from the recently conquered Mongolian tribes, the real purpose of
9266-576: The northern border of the Ming dynasty during the Ming–Qing transition period of Chinese history. He fought against the Qing dynasty in several major engagements before ultimately surrendering to them in 1642. An alleged descendant of the Eastern Jin dynasty general Zu Ti , he was a son of Zu Chengxun , who had been dispatched to Korea as one of the Ming commanders during Imjin War (1592-1598). And he
9379-464: The northwest corner of the island in the middle of the night. Shen refused to surrender, but was overrun and beheaded by Ajige . Official reports put the casualties as at least 10,000 , with few survivors. The Ming general Yang Sichang then withdrew the remaining Ming forces in Korea to Denglai in northern Shandong . Many Korean women were kidnapped and raped at the hands of the Qing forces, and as
9492-462: The opportunity to appropriate Amin's Bordered Blue Banner army by giving it to Amin's younger brother Jirgalang , who was close to Hong Taiji. In 1631, Zu Dashou was serving as commander of the Jinzhou garrison. He was leading his troops on an inspection of Dalinghe (present-day Linghai city) when Hong Taiji, commanding a force of 20,000 Manchu, Mongol, and Han Chinese troops, arrived to attack
9605-684: The outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs. The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Ming military forces who joined the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was Green Standard Han troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only brought into emergency situations where there
9718-486: The primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Han Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on
9831-647: The provinces, where some eighteen garrisons were established. The largest banner garrisons throughout most of the Qing dynasty were at Beijing , followed by Xi'an and Hangzhou . Sizable banner populations were also placed in Manchuria and at strategic points along the Great Wall , the Yangtze River and Grand Canal . Qing invasion of Joseon The Qing invasion of Joseon ( Korean : 병자호란 ; Hanja : 丙子胡亂 ) occurred in
9944-796: The remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many Jurchen Manchus being deprived of their traditional positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the Han Manchus supplanting Jurchen Manchus economic and social status.These Han Manchus were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that
10057-401: The roads with newly formed artillery units armed with Portuguese cannons under the command of the Chinese general Tong Yangxing. The Manchu forces focused their efforts on capturing the castles surrounding Dalinghe, sending messengers to each inviting their surrender. They also sent repeated appeals to Zu himself requesting his submission. Meanwhile, several Ming relief forces were defeated by
10170-463: The rumour was not confirmed until 90 years later, when researchers concluded that the tomb belonged to Zu Dashou and his three wives. The tomb is on the museum's list of "iconic objects". In 2013, 25 fragments of Zu Dashou's tombstone were found in his hometown Xingcheng. The largest fragment weighs more than 200 kilograms (440 lb). Altogether the fragments comprise the upper half of his tombstone, inscribed with 81 Chinese characters. The tombstone
10283-626: The second son and consorts of King Injo. King Injo surrendered the day after. The surrendering delegation was received at the Han River , where King Injo turned over his Ming seals of investiture and three pro-war officers to Qing, as well as agreeing to the following terms of peace, which required Joseon to: Hong Taiji set up a platform in Samjeondo in the upper reach of the Han River. Injo of Joseon kneeled thrice and bowed nine times, as
10396-718: The series of events involving three countries ( Joseon , Later Jin , and Ming ) caused the deterioration of the relationship between Later Jin and Joseon. Having previously defected to the Later Jin by the end of the Wuqiao mutiny , Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming assisted the Qing with sizable forces numbering 14,000 soldiers and 185 warships under their command. Appreciating the usefulness of their navy in future war effort, Later Jin offered highly favorable terms of service to Kong and Geng and their forces. Joseon received conflicting requests for aid from both Later Jin and Ming during
10509-478: The so-called Old Han Army under the Han commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou 's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed the creation of the Qing dynasty. Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into
10622-413: The two armies regarding the possibility of surrender. Zu Dashou's adopted son Zu Kefa was sent to the Manchu camp. When asked why the Ming continued to pointlessly defend a now-empty city, Zu Kefa responded that the officers all remembered what had happened at Yongping, where Amin had slaughtered the population the previous year. After more messages were exchanged, Zu stated his willingness to surrender on
10735-573: The upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman Empress Xiaoyichun and her entire family were transferred to
10848-473: The vast Green Standard Army . Membership in the banners became hereditary, and bannermen were granted land and income. After the defeat of the Ming dynasty, Qing emperors continued to rely on the Eight Banners in their subsequent military campaigns. After the Ten Great Campaigns of the mid-18th century the quality of the banner armies declined. Their failure to suppress the Taiping Rebellion of
10961-567: The winter of 1636 when the newly established Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon dynasty , establishing the former's status as the hegemon in the Imperial Chinese Tributary System and formally severing Joseon's relationship with the Ming dynasty . The invasion was preceded by the Later Jin invasion of Joseon in 1627. The invasion resulted in a Qing victory. Joseon was forced to establish a tributary relationship with
11074-596: Was Hong Chengchou , commander-in-chief of frontier defenses. Songshan was captured on March 18, 1642, along with several brothers of Zu Dashou: Zu Dale, Zu Daming, and Zu Dacheng. Zu Dale was Zu Dashou's younger brother, and, along with Dashou's sons, were sent to speak with Zu Dashou during the siege of Jinzhou to convince him to surrender, which he did on April 8, 1642, after a long siege in which, just as at Dalinghe previously, his troops had resorted to cannibalism. Hong Taiji, now Emperor Taizong, chided Zu for his treachery after his first surrender at Dalinghe. Nevertheless, Zu
11187-473: Was Fuyu ( 復宇 ). In November 1629, the Qing army under Hong Taiji invaded the Ming dynasty, bypassing the heavily defended Ming fortress at Ningyuan north of the Great Wall , where Hong Taiji's father Nurhaci had been defeated three years earlier at the Battle of Ningyuan . Slipping through friendly Mongol territory, the Manchus attacked to the west through Xifengkou Pass in Hebei province, aiming towards
11300-619: Was buried with full honors as a member of the Plain Yellow Banner. In 1921, Charles Trick Currelly , the archaeological director of the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto , Canada, purchased a set of Chinese artifacts from the fur trader George Crofts. Among the artifacts, the most spectacular was the so-called "Ming Tomb", which came from a village north of Beijing. It was rumoured to be the tomb of Zu Dashou, but
11413-555: Was customary with the other subjects of the Qing court. Then he was called to eat with the others, sitting the closest to the left of Hong Taiji, higher than even the Hošo-i Cin Wang . A monument in honor of the so-called excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor was erected at Samjeondo, where the ceremony of submission had been conducted. In accordance with the terms of surrender, Joseon sent troops to attack Ka Island at
11526-540: Was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. At the highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and
11639-479: Was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead. The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in
11752-466: Was followed by extremely hostile opinions growing towards Later Jin in both government and non-government sectors. Envoys themselves had to go through life-threatening experiences as Sungkyunkwan students called for their execution and fully armed soldiers loitered around the places in the itinerary of the envoys. Finally, the envoys were forced to evacuate from Joseon and return to Later Jin territory. The diplomatic relationship between Later Jin and Joseon
11865-492: Was forgiven and permitted to serve the Qing alongside the other members of his clan, many of whom had already served with distinction. After surrendering to the Qing, Zu wrote several letters to the commander of Ningyuan, his nephew Wu Sangui , to solicit his defection to the Qing. When the rebels of Li Zicheng captured Beijing in 1644, prompting the suicide of Zhu Youjian (the Chongzhen Emperor ), Wu allied with
11978-469: Was formulated by Dorgon. The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Bannermen led by Han generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao . The Qing sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in Fujian. The Qing carried out massive depopulation policy clearances forcing people to evacuated the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to
12091-464: Was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus. These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in
12204-431: Was not executed. In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status. From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once
12317-421: Was sustained military resistance. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han official's sons. The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language. To promote ethnic harmony,
12430-446: Was the company, or niru ( Chinese : 佐領 ; pinyin : zuǒlǐng , Mongolian : Сум ), composed nominally of 300 soldiers and their families. The term niru means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a hunting party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one jalan ( Chinese : 參領 ; pinyin : cānlǐng ; Mongolian : Заланг ). 4 jalan constituted
12543-428: Was the maternal uncle of the Ming general Wu Sangui , who surrendered Shanhai Pass to Qing forces and defected to the Qing side. Zu's tomb was acquired by the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto , Canada , and is considered one of the "iconic objects" of the museum. Zu Dashou was born in Ningyuan, present-day Xingcheng , Liaoning province, during the Ming dynasty. His year of birth is unknown. His courtesy name
12656-417: Was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners
12769-526: Was virtually severed. Hong Taiji became the Emperor in April 1636 and changed the name of his country from Later Jin to Qing. Envoys from Joseon who were at the ceremony refused to bow to the emperor. Although the emperor spared them, the Joseon envoys had to carry his message home. The message included denunciation of the past Joseon activities that were against the interest of Later Jin/Qing and also declared
#231768