New branches:
100-586: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Chinese Esoteric Buddhism refers to traditions of Tantra and Esoteric Buddhism that have flourished among the Chinese people . The Tantric masters Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra , established the Esoteric Buddhist Zhenyan ( Chinese : 真言 , "true word", " mantra ") tradition from 716 to 720 during
200-481: A new religious movement that identifies as Vajrayana Buddhist while also adopting local Chinese and Taiwanese popular religious ideas. In contemporary times, esoteric traditions are deeply embedded in mainstream Chinese Buddhism and expressed through various rituals which make use of tantric mantras and dhāraṇīs and the veneration of certain tantric deities like Cundi and Acala . One example of esoteric teachings still practiced in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries
300-425: A Chan that was "outside the scriptures". Song emperors did continue to patronize Buddhism and translations efforts. Esoteric deities like Mahavairocana, Thousand-armed Guanyin and Mārīcī also continued to be popular as well as the use of spells and dharani. The prestige of the esoteric tradition influenced other schools of Chinese Buddhism such as Chan and Tiantai to adopt esoteric practices as well, leading to
400-543: A key part of Chinese Buddhism throughout the ninth century. Even after the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (845 CE) initiated by Emperor Wuzong of Tang , the Zhenyan tradition continued to transmit and practice the yoga of Mantrayana well into the early Song Dynasty, as shown by the records of Japanese pilgrims. Due to this newfound influence and prestige, esoteric Buddhism strongly influenced
500-415: A liminal zone on the borders between fields and forests. Their rites involved the conjunction of sexual practices and Buddhist mandala visualization with ritual accoutrements made from parts of the human body, so that control may be exercised over the forces hindering the natural abilities of the siddha to manipulate the cosmos at will. At their most extreme, siddhas also represented a defensive position within
600-532: A mantra. Vajrayāna Buddhists developed a large corpus of texts called the Buddhist Tantras , some of which can be traced to at least the 7th century CE but might be older. The dating of the tantras is "a difficult, indeed an impossible task" according to David Snellgrove . Some of the earliest of these texts, Kriya tantras such as the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa ( c. 6th century ), teach
700-639: A merging of teachings between the various schools which continued on through the Yuan , Ming and Qing dynasties to the modern period. Esoteric Buddhism was also present in the Khitan Liao dynasty and the Tangut Western Xia . The Xia in particular adopted Tibetan Buddhist influences and produced many translations into the Tangut language and artistic works, many of which have been preserved in
800-594: A movement called Sahaja -siddhi developed in the 8th century in Bengal . It was dominated by long-haired, wandering mahasiddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the Buddhist establishment. The mahasiddhas pursued siddhis , magical powers such as flight and extrasensory perception as well as spiritual liberation. Ronald M. Davidson states that Buddhist siddhas demonstrated the appropriation of an older sociological form—the independent sage/magician, who lived in
900-606: A scandal among Chinese literati. A common perception among some Chinese was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Mongol Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Mongol sponsored lamas were expelled from the court and Vajrayana Buddhism was denounced by some as not being an orthodox path. It was demonized as a form of sorcery and licentiousness that led to
1000-407: Is "obscured by discursive thought". This doctrine is often associated with the idea of the inherent or natural luminosity ( Skt: prakṛti-prabhāsvara-citta , T. ’od gsal gyi sems ) or purity of the mind ( prakrti-parisuddha ). Another fundamental theory of Tantric practice is that of transformation. In Vajrayāna, negative mental factors such as desire, hatred, greed, pride are used as part of
1100-677: Is a Buddhist tradition of tantric practice that developed in Medieval India . Tantrism, which originated within Hinduism during the first millennium CE, significantly influenced South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, giving rise to distinct Buddhist tantric traditions. Emerging in the 7th century CE, these traditions spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, leading to distinct East Asian and Tibetan practices. Vajrayāna practices are connected to specific lineages in Buddhism, through
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#17327911934261200-523: Is a method which works faster. Various classifications are possible when distinguishing Vajrayāna from the other Buddhist traditions. Vajrayāna can be seen as a third yana , next to Śrāvakayāna and Mahayana . Vajrayāna can be distinguished from the Sutrayana . The Sutrayana is the method of perfecting good qualities, where the Vajrayāna is the method of taking the intended outcome of Buddhahood as
1300-615: Is a mythical weapon associated with Indra which was said to be indestructible and unbreakable (like a diamond) and extremely powerful (like thunder). Thus, the term is variously translated as Diamond Vehicle, Thunderbolt Vehicle, Indestructible Vehicle and so on. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism it is generally known by various terms such as Zhēnyán ( Chinese : 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), Tángmì or Hanmì (唐密 - 漢密, " Tang Esotericism" or " Han Esotericism") , Mìzōng (密宗, "Esoteric Sect") or Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching). The Chinese term mì 密 ("secret, esoteric")
1400-609: Is a translation of the Sanskrit term Guhya ("secret, hidden, profound, abstruse"). In Japan , Buddhist esotericism is known as Mikkyō ( 密教 , secret teachings) or by the term Shingon (a Japanese rendering of Zhēnyán ), which also refers to a specific school of Shingon-shū ( 真言宗 ) . The term "Esoteric Buddhism" is first used by Western occultist writers, such as Helena Blavatsky and Alfred Percy Sinnett , to describe theosophical doctrines passed down from "supposedly initiated Buddhist masters." Tantric Buddhism
1500-705: Is also evidence that esoteric Buddhist practices also influenced developments in Taoism . The growth of esoteric practice in the Tang era is also evident outside the Chinese heartland such as in Dunhuang , Central Asia , Yunnan and Nanzhao . Before the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, Master Kūkai (774–835) from Japan came to Tang China to learn the complete esoteric teachings expounded by
1600-553: Is associated with groups of wandering yogis called mahasiddhas in medieval India . According to Robert Thurman , these tantric figures thrived during the latter half of the first millennium CE. According to John Myrdhin Reynolds, the mahasiddhas date to the medieval period in North India and used methods that were radically different from those used in Buddhist monasteries, including practicing on charnel grounds . Since
1700-494: Is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists this practice of reversals is not known. The Hevajra further states that "one knowing the nature of poison may dispel poison with poison." As Snellgrove notes, this idea is already present in Asanga 's Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika and therefore it is possible that he was aware of Tantric techniques, including sexual yoga. According to Buddhist Tantra, there
1800-537: Is commonly referred to as Tángmì (唐密 – "Tang Dynasty Esoterica"), or Hànchuán Mìzōng (漢傳密宗 – "Han Chinese Transmission of the Esoteric Tradition"), sometimes abbreviated as Hànmì (漢密 – "Han Mysteries"). Its manifestation through subsequent Japanese transmission is sometimes referred as Dōngmì ( 東密 ) "Eastern Esotericism", meaning the succession of Tang Esoterica in Japan (east of China) transmitted by
1900-530: Is developed. Other early tantras include the Mahāvairocana Abhisaṃbodhi and the Guhyasamāja (Gathering of Secrets). The Guhyasamāja is a Mahayoga class of Tantra, which features forms of ritual practice considered "left-hand" ( vamachara ) such as the use of taboo substances like alcohol, consort practices, and charnel ground practices which evoke wrathful deities . Ryujun Tajima divides
2000-534: Is more common for a yogi or yogini to use an imagined consort (a buddhist tantric deity, i.e. a yidam). These later tantras such as the Hevajra Tantra and the Chakrasamvara are classed as " Yogini tantras" and represent the final form of development of Indian Buddhist tantras in the ninth and tenth centuries. The Kalachakra tantra developed in the 10th century. It is farthest removed from
2100-444: Is more complex than a simple process of religious imitation and textual appropriation. There can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements, but the influence was apparently mutual. Perhaps a more nuanced model would be that the various lines of transmission were locally flourishing and that in some areas they interacted, while in others they maintained concerted hostility. Thus
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#17327911934262200-496: Is no strict separation of the profane or samsara and the sacred or nirvana , rather they exist in a continuum. All individuals are seen as containing the seed of enlightenment within, which is covered over by defilements . Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayana sees Buddhahood not as something outside or an event in the future, but as immanently present. Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as Buddhaguhya , Vimalamitra , Ratnākaraśānti and Abhayakaragupta continued
2300-672: Is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava . According to Alexis Sanderson , various classes of Vajrayāna literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism. The relationship between the two systems can be seen in texts like the Mañjusrimulakalpa , which later came to be classified under Kriya tantra , and states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri . Sanderson notes that
2400-540: Is said to be the purpose of all the various tantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana. Bodhiruci Bodhiruci ( Chinese : 菩提流支 ; pinyin : pú tí liú zhī ) was a Buddhist monk from North India (6th century CE) active in the area of Luoyang , China. He was appointed as master translator at Yongning (永寧寺) temple by emperor Xuanwu of the Northern Wei . In his translations, Bodhiruci
2500-605: Is the Śūraṅgama Sūtra and the dhāraṇī revealed within it, the Śūraṅgama Mantra , which are especially influential in the Chinese Chan tradition . Another example is the ritual for feeding hungry ghosts which is practiced by both monks and laypeople during the Hungry Ghost Festival . Repentance rituals, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and Land , also involve various esoteric aspects, including
2600-703: Is the ancestral temple where Huiguo originally taught Kūkai the esoteric teachings before the latter brought them into Japan. Another example is Daxingshan Temple , also in Xi'an, where the three patriarchs, Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra , originally taught esoteric Buddhism. While some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under the oversight of Kōyasan Shingon-shū or Shingon-shu Buzan-ha and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, many other acharyas have chosen to distinguish themselves from Shingon by establishing their own Chinese lineages after their return from Japan. Members from
2700-522: Is the superiority of Tantric methods, which provide a faster vehicle to liberation and contain many more skillful means ( upaya ). The importance of the theory of emptiness is central to the Tantric Buddhist view and practice. The Buddhist emptiness view sees the world as being fluid, without an ontological foundation or inherent existence, but ultimately a fabric of constructions. Because of this, tantric practice such as self-visualization as
2800-540: Is to be considered as the true founder of the Zhenyan or Mantra Tradition. He translated the largest number of texts (second only to Xuanzang ), performed rituals for the royal family, taught disciples from Japan and Korea and was the first to be bestowed Tang imperial titles. Goble also argues that the reason that Tantric Buddhism became popular in this period lies in the similarity between their Buddhist rituals and pre-existing Tang state rites which were supposed to support
2900-522: Is to become a Sammāsambuddha (fully awakened Buddha ); those on this path are termed Bodhisattvas . As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayāna practice. The Bodhisattva-path is an integral part of the Vajrayāna, which teaches that all practices are to be undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. In the vehicle of Sutra Mahayana,
3000-463: The Hīnayāna ) and Mahāyāna (a.k.a. Pāramitāyāna ). There are several Buddhist tantric traditions that are currently practiced, including Tibetan Buddhism , Chinese Esoteric Buddhism , Shingon Buddhism and Newar Buddhism . Historically, there were also other esoteric Buddhist traditions, such as that of maritime Southeast Asia , which are no longer practiced today. In India, the initial term
3100-492: The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra . As Shinohara notes, the early "esoteric" texts were not initially considered a separate category of "tantric" or "esoteric" sutras, and they were not seen as separate from mainstream Mahayana. During the eighth century, three great masters ( acharyas ) came from India to China: Śubhakarasiṃha (637–735), Vajrabodhi (671–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774). These three masters brought
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3200-630: The Collection of Coded Instructions ( Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha sūtra , Tuoluoni ji jing 陀羅尼集經 , T. 901), early versions of the Heart-dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara-ekadaśamukha Sūtra , the Cintāmaṇicakra Dhāraṇī Sūtra and various sutras related to Amoghapāśa translated by Bodhiruci which contain the Mantra of Light . These early esoteric works focus on dharani recitation (and sometimes add
3300-699: The Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, which was the official religion of the Manchu state. The 5th Dalai Lama visited Beijing during the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor and likewise Lobsang Palden Yeshe, 6th Panchen Lama visited the Qianlong emperor during his 70th birthday at Chengde in 1780 showing the importance of Tibetan Buddhism during this era. To mark the occasion, the Qianlong Emperor had
3400-712: The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition , which prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas. Sanderson says that the Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhāva , introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place. Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's arguments for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of
3500-606: The Mantrayana leads one to Buddhahood in a single lifetime. According to the literature, the mantra is an easy path without the difficulties innate to the Paramitayana . Mantrayana is sometimes portrayed as a method for those of inferior abilities. However the practitioner of the mantra still has to adhere to the vows of the Bodhisattva . The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayāna traditions
3600-678: The Modengqie jing (T.D. no. 1300). Others such as Fotudeng (d. 348) served Chinese emperors with mantras and rituals. The use of mandalas ( Chinese : 曼荼羅 ) in China as goes back to the sixth century. While these elements were present, it is with the rise of esoteric Buddhism during the Tang dynasty that a full ritual system arose. The Tang dynasty saw the growth to prominence of Chinese Tantric Buddhism. Early Tang translators such as Atikūta , Bodhiruci , Yijing , and Manicintana worked on esoteric texts promoting mantras and dharanis such as
3700-562: The Silk Road and the Southeast Asian Maritime trade routes into China, linking Chinese Buddhism with Indian, South Asian and Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism . The use of mantras and dhāraṇīs dates at least to the 2nd century. Tantric materials with mantras and dharanis begin to appear in China during the fifth century. Early Chinese Buddhists include the like of Zhu Lüyan , who translated the first text containing dhāraṇīs,
3800-561: The Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established" and that "the available evidence suggests that received Saiva tantras come into evidence sometime in the ninth to tenth centuries with their affirmation by scholars like Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 c.e.)" Davidson also notes that the list of pithas or sacred places "are certainly not particularly Buddhist, nor are they uniquely Kapalika venues, despite their presence in lists employed by both traditions." Davidson further adds that like
3900-659: The Xumi Fushou Temple built in Tibetan style and showered the Panchen Lama with riches. The Tibetan style Puning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple were also built during the reign of the Qianglong Emperor. The Qianglong Emperor was also a promoter of the arts which flourished in his reign, and he was particularly fond of Tibetan thangkas . The wars and rebellions which racked the later Qing saw
4000-488: The "path of the cause" is taken whereby a practitioner starts with his or her potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayāna, the "path of the fruit" is taken whereby the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature. Experiencing ultimate truth
4100-600: The Baotang school of Chan, founded by Baotang Wuzhu also seem to have had a strong affiliation with the Zhenyan tradition. On the other hand, while the East Asian Yogācāra school of Xuanzang and the Tiantai of Zhiyi already included certain esoteric practices and texts before the rise of Tang Mantrayana, the influence of esoteric elements of these schools seems to have grown during the era of Tang esoterica. There
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4200-447: The Buddhist tradition, adopted and sustained for the purpose of aggressive engagement with the medieval culture of public violence. They reinforced their reputations for personal sanctity with rumors of the magical manipulation of various flavors of demonic females ( dakini , yaksi , yogini ), cemetery ghouls ( vetala ), and other things that go bump in the night. Operating on the margins of both monasteries and polite society, some adopted
4300-521: The Buddhists, the Shaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of Hindu and non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions, an example being "village or tribal divinities like Tumburu". Davidson adds that Buddhists and Kapalikas as well as other ascetics (possibly Pasupatas ) mingled and discussed their paths at various pilgrimage places and that there were conversions between the different groups. Thus he concludes: The Buddhist-Kapalika connection
4400-867: The Japanese monk Kūkai . During the Tang dynasty the actual term widely used to refer to these teachings by Tantric masters was "mantra teaching" ( zhenyan jiao 真言教) and "path of mantras" ( Zhenyan sheng 真言乘, Mantrayana). Chinese tantric masters like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra also used the term Vajrayana ( Jin'gangsheng 金剛乘). In a more general sense, the Chinese term Mìzōng ( 密宗 ) "Esoteric Tradition" and Mìjiào (密教, "Esoteric Teaching") are popular Chinese terms used when referring to any form of Esoteric Buddhism. According to scholars such as Henrik Sørensen, Esoteric Buddhism emerged in India out of Mahayana Buddhist ritual and magical practices. Esoteric teachings followed
4500-689: The Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) periods, and in the Republic of China (1912–1949). During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the emperors such as the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) continued to support and invite Tibetan lamas to court, including Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama . Tibetan Buddhism thus continued to spread among the elite and the wider populace. The rule of the Yongle emperor also saw
4600-550: The Tantric Buddhists that came after Amoghavajra, like his descendants Huilang and Huiguo . Prajña ( Chinese : 般若 ; pinyin : Bōrě ; 744– c. 810 ) was one of the last great translators of the Tang, known for his translation of the Gaṇdavyūha sūtra . Despite lacking the strong patronage it enjoyed under Emperor Daizong (r. 762–779), there is evidence that Zhenyan practices and rituals continued to be
4700-600: The Vajrayāna Yogini tantras draw extensively from the material also present in Shaiva Bhairava tantras classified as Vidyapitha . Sanderson's comparison of them shows similarity in "ritual procedures, style of observance, deities, mantras, mandalas, ritual dress, Kapalika accouterments like skull bowls, specialized terminology, secret gestures, and secret jargons. There is even direct borrowing of passages from Shaiva texts." Sanderson gives numerous examples such as
4800-435: The adherents and texts of Vajrayāna claim these teachings have been passed down by an unbroken lineage going back to the historical Buddha ( c. the 5th century BCE ) or to other mythical Buddhas and bodhisattvas (e.g. Vajrapani ). According to Vajrayāna scriptures, the term Vajrayāna refers to one of three vehicles or routes to enlightenment , the other two being the Śrāvakayāna (also known pejoratively as
4900-523: The behaviors associated with ghosts ( preta , pisaca ), not only as a religious praxis but also as an extension of their implied threats. Tantrism originated within Hinduism and significantly influenced early South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist practices, contributing to the emergence of unique Buddhist tantric traditions. These Buddhist tantric traditions, which developed in the 7th century CE, spread quickly across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, resulting in
5000-478: The carving of printing blocks for the first printed Kangyur known thus far, known as "the Yongle Kanjur". This was the earliest and one of the most authoritative versions of the Tibetan canon, and it contributed to the further spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China, Tibet and Mongolia. There were also many translations of Tibetan tantric works into Chinese during this period. Another edition of the Tibetan canon
5100-699: The court. Lamas of the Sakya school like Sakya Pandita and also of the Kagyu became imperial preceptors of the Mongol Khans. The tantric deity Mahakala was used in military campaign to protect the armies during their war against China and became the protector deity of the Yuan state. They were granted unprecedented status and privileges such as temple offerings and shrines. The introduction of "the secret teaching of supreme bliss" (tantric sexual practice) caused quite
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#17327911934265200-490: The deity is seen as being no less real than everyday reality, but a process of transforming reality itself, including the practitioner's identity as the deity. As Stephan Beyer notes, "In a universe where all events dissolve ontologically into Emptiness, the touching of Emptiness in the ritual is the re-creation of the world in actuality". The doctrine of Buddha-nature , as outlined in the Ratnagotravibhāga of Asanga ,
5300-506: The descent to Laṅka ( Ru lengqie jing 入楞伽經), and a Sūtra of Buddha names (Foming jing 佛名經). By the time of his death Bodhiruci had translated between 20 and 30 texts. Bodhiruci is regarded as the patriarch of the Dashabhumika ( Chinese : 地論宗 ; pinyin : Dìlùn zōng ) school, which used his Ten Stages Sutra and Vasubandhu's commentary as its chief object of study. Bodhiruci's disciple, Daochong (道寵), founded of
5400-402: The downfall of the Yuan. However, despite these attacks Tibetan Vajrayana continued to spread in China after the downfall of the Yuan. The rulers of the Ming were also enthusiastic about Tibetan tantric Buddhism. Many translation of Tibetan texts into Chinese were also made during the Yuan and texts associated with Sakya lam bras teachings have been identified as having been disseminated during
5500-424: The earlier Buddhist traditions, and incorporates concepts of messianism and astrology not present elsewhere in Buddhist literature. According to Ronald M. Davidson, the rise of Tantric Buddhism was a response to the feudal structure of Indian society in the early medieval period (ca. 500–1200 CE) which saw kings being divinized as manifestations of gods. Likewise, tantric yogis reconfigured their practice through
5600-513: The economic system". Gray Tuttle has noted that Mount Wutai has experienced a growth of religious activity since the 1990s, led by Han, Tibetan and Mongol followers of Tibetan Buddhism. Temples, monasteries and stupas have been built or repaired in the area. There are also some newer Chinese tantric Buddhists that do not have direct association with traditional institutions, one of the most successful (and controversial within other organized Buddhist groups) being Lu Sheng-yen 's True Buddha School ,
5700-530: The emperor by granting political stability and imperial longevity. Amoghavajra assisted the Tang dynasty state against the An Lushan rebellion. He carried out Vajrayana rituals which were ostensible effective in supernaturally attacking and destroying An Lushan's army including the death of one of An Lushan's generals, Zhou Zhiguang. Amoghavajra used his rituals against An Lushan while staying in Chang'an when it
5800-517: The esoteric teachings to their height of popularity in China. Major tantric texts introduced by these masters included the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra , as well as numerous commentaries and ritual manuals. It was at this point that "esoteric Buddhism" began to be seen as a distinct and unique system of its own, with special rites of consecration or initiation ( abhiseka ). As Charles D. Orzech writes, outlining
5900-498: The findings at Khara-Khoto . Following the Liao, the Jin dynasty saw a continuation of the forms of Buddhism that existed in the Liao. Vajrayana had also become the major religion of Tibet and the Western Xia by the time of the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century. As the Tibetan and Tangut peoples came under the rule of Mongol leaders during the reign of Möngke Khan (1209–1259), they increased their missionary activity in Mongolian lands, eventually converting
6000-525: The formation of various distinct traditions in East Asia and Tibet. There are other Mahāyāna sutras which contain "proto-tantric" material such as the Gandavyuha and the Dasabhumika which might have served as a central source of visual imagery for Tantric texts. Later Mahāyāna texts like the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra ( c. 4th –5th century CE) expound the use of mantras such as Om mani padme hum , associated with vastly powerful beings like Avalokiteshvara . The popular Heart Sutra also includes
6100-412: The growth of this tradition: We first see the translation of a variety of texts representative of the growing interest in mantra and dhāraṇī. Many of these texts promote a particular dhāraṇī, ritual, and deity. Second, we see the advent of texts representing distinct and comprehensive systems that are meant to codify the swelling tide of mantric texts, deities, and techniques. Full entry into these systems
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#17327911934266200-527: The head temple of the Kōyasan Shingon-shū (the school of Shingon Buddhism of Mount Kōya ) and its affiliate temples. The revival is mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhist monks and laypersons who travel to Mount Kōya to be trained, initiated, and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who bring the esoteric teachings and practices back to their homeland after their training has ended. One example of temples which have been subject to this revival are Qinglong Temple in Xi'an , which
6300-409: The influence was both sustained and reciprocal, even in those places where Buddhist and Kapalika siddhas were in extreme antagonism. Davidson also argues for the influence of non-Brahmanical and outcaste tribal religions and their feminine deities (such as Parnasabari and Janguli). According to several Buddhist tantras as well as traditional Tibetan Buddhist sources, the tantras and the Vajrayana
6400-450: The invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five Wisdom Buddhas and the Ten Wisdom Kings . In contemporary China, Taiwan, and elsewhere in East Asia where Chinese populations are prevalent, there is an ongoing revival of Tang Esoteric Buddhism. The majority of this revival has been spearheaded by Chinese Buddhists who have appropriated aspects of Japanese Shingon. There are also a smattering of centers that have support from Kongōbu-ji ,
6500-598: The late imperial period and Tibetan Buddhism was also influential during the Yuan dynasty period and beyond. In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) through to the modern period, esoteric practices and teachings became absorbed and merged with the other Chinese Buddhist traditions to a large extent. In Chinese these traditions are also termed Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or Tángmì (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica"). In China and countries with large Chinese populations such as Taiwan , Malaysia and Singapore , Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
6600-472: The latter group, while deriving their orthodoxy and legitimacy from their Shingon masters in Japan, view themselves as re-establishing a distinctly Chinese tradition of Esoteric Buddhism rather than merely acting as emissaries of Japanese Shingon, in the same way that Kūkai started his own Japanese sect of Esoteric Buddhism after learning it from Chinese teachers. Some examples are: According to Charles D. Orzech and Henrik H. Sørensen, "Buddhist practice involving
6700-439: The leadership and much of the population as well aiding in the translation of Buddhist texts into Mongolian. So it is no surprise that after the Mongol conquest of China and their establishment of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the Yuan emperors made Tibetan Buddhism the official religion of China, and Tibetan monks (or, as they were called in Chinese, "barbarian monks from the West", Chinese : 西番僧 ) were given patronage at
6800-413: The metaphor of being consecrated ( abhiśeka ) as the overlord ( rājādhirāja ) of a mandala palace of divine vassals, an imperial metaphor symbolizing kingly fortresses and their political power. The question of the origins of early Vajrayāna has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a “pan-Indian religious substrate” which
6900-463: The northern Dilun branch which focused on the practice of reciting the names of the Buddhas. Bodhiruci was also the master of Tanluan (曇鸞), one of the patriarchs of the Pure Land tradition. This Bodhiruci should not be confused with 8th century Bodhiruchi who translated Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra . This article about a member of the Buddhist clergy is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biography of an Indian religious figure
7000-409: The overcoming of the last barrier in Chan". Fahai Lama also built a monastery for nuns on Tianmu Mountain in Zhejiang . According to Dan Smyer Yü's recent monograph on the subject, Tibetan Buddhism is currently experiencing a revival in certain regions such as Qinghai and Sichuan , which he describes as "trans-cultural, cross-regional, tech-savvy, conversant with modern science and familiar with
7100-400: The path. As noted by French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau, the tantric doctrine is "an attempt to place kama , desire, in every meaning of the word, in the service of liberation." This view is outlined in the following quote from the Hevajra tantra : Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world
7200-471: The path. Vajrayāna can also be distinguished from the paramitayana. According to this schema, Indian Mahayana revealed two vehicles ( yana ) or methods for attaining enlightenment: the method of the perfections ( Paramitayana ) and the method of mantra ( Mantrayana ). The Paramitayana consists of the six or ten paramitas , of which the scriptures say that it takes three incalculable aeons to lead one to Buddhahood. The tantra literature, however, says that
7300-556: The popularization of esoteric deities such as various forms of Avalokiteśvara and Vajrapāṇi which became the focus of wider devotion. In Chinese Buddhism there was no major distinction between exoteric and esoteric practices and the Northern School of Chan even became known for its esoteric practices of dhāraṇīs and mantras . Śubhakarasiṃha's most eminent disciple, Yi Xing , who was an influential Zhenyan figure in his own right, later practiced Chan Buddhism . The followers of
7400-569: The practice of Tantra focuses on the transformation of poisons into wisdom, the yogic circles came together in tantric feasts , often in sacred sites ( pitha ) and places ( ksetra ) which included dancing, singing, consort practices and the ingestion of taboo substances like alcohol, urine, and meat. At least two of the mahasiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with the Shaiva Nath saints ( Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath ) who practiced Hatha Yoga . According to Schumann,
7500-400: The reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang . It employed mandalas , mantras, mudras , abhiṣekas , and deity yoga . The Zhenyan tradition was transported to Japan as Shingon Buddhism by Kūkai as well as influencing Korean Buddhism and Vietnamese Buddhism . The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw a second diffusion of Esoteric texts. Esoteric Buddhist practices continued to have an influence into
7600-427: The rest of Chinese Buddhism during the Tang dynasty . This prestige also drew East Asian pilgrims to esoteric centers such as Qinglong 青龍寺 and Xingshan 興善寺. The Mantrayana tradition also influenced other Chinese Buddhist schools like Huayan , Tiantai , Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism , through the adoption of mantras, dhāraṇīs , ritual forms as well as the construction of altars. This prestige also influenced
7700-650: The revelation of Buddhist tantras to Padmasambhava , saying that he was an emanation of Amitabha and Avaloketishvara and that his arrival was predicted by the Buddha. Some accounts also maintain Padmasambhava is a direct reincarnation of Buddha Shakyamuni. According to Alex Wayman , the philosophical view of the Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy , mainly the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. The major difference seen by Vajrayana thinkers
7800-491: The spread of Tibetan Buddhism and translation of scriptures into modern Chinese. These two figures, both of the Gelug school, were key in what is known as the "Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement" ( Chinese : 密教復興運動 ). Chinese Buddhists like Dayong (1893–1929) also went also to Japan to learn and bring back the complete teachings of Tang Mysteries passed down in Tendai and Shingon Buddhism. Most of this movement's work
7900-476: The state and emperor. Tang dynasty Emperor Suzong was crowned as cakravartin by Amoghavajra after victory against An Lushan in 759 and he had invoked the Acala vidyaraja against An Lushan. The Tang dynasty crown prince Li Heng (later Suzong) also received important strategic military information from Chang'an when it was occupied by An Lushan though secret message sent by Amoghavajra. There is less information about
8000-532: The tantras into those which were "a development of Mahāyānist thought" and those "formed in a rather popular mould toward the end of the eighth century and declining into the esoterism of the left", this "left esoterism" mainly refers to the Yogini tantras and later works associated with wandering yogis. This practice survives in Tibetan Buddhism, but it is rare for this to be done with an actual person. It
8100-455: The tantric view continued to be debated in medieval Tibet. Tibetan Buddhist Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo (1012–1088) held that the views of sutra such as Madhyamaka were inferior to that of tantra, which was based on basic purity of ultimate reality. Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) on the other hand, held that there is no difference between Vajrayāna and other forms of Mahayana in terms of prajnaparamita (perfection of insight) itself, only that Vajrayāna
8200-422: The teachings of lineage holders. Others might generally refer to these texts as the Buddhist Tantras . It includes practices that make use of mantras , dharanis , mudras , mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas. According to contemporary historical scholarship, Vajrayāna practice originated in the tantric era of medieval India ( c. the 5th century CE onwards ). However, traditionally,
8300-559: The temple Tō-ji (東寺, literally Eastern Temple ) at Kyoto , Japan, where Master Kūkai established the Shingon school of Buddhism. Master Saichō (767–822) also brought a few esoteric teachings to Japan that were related to the Japanese lineage of Tiāntāi School (天台宗), which are referred to in Chinese as Tāimì (台密), "Tāi Esoterica", where Tāi means the Tāi of Tiāntāi. Dōngmì and Tāimì became
8400-411: The three Indian masters. Kukai was taught by the great master Hui-kuo (746–805; Japanese: Keika). It is claimed that he learned the complete teachings in two years before returning to Japan. The transmission to Japan later became Shingon Buddhism (真言宗), which is often referred to in Chinese as Dōngmì (東密), "Eastern Esoterica", because Japan is east of China geographically. Some said it is so named due to
8500-651: The tradition of Buddhist philosophy and adapted it to their commentaries on the major Tantras. Abhayakaragupta's Vajravali is a key source in the theory and practice of tantric rituals. After monks such as Vajrabodhi and Śubhakarasiṃha brought Tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as Yi Xing and Kūkai . Likewise in Tibet , Sakya Pandita (1182–28 – 1251), as well as later thinkers like Longchenpa (1308–1364) expanded on these philosophies in their tantric commentaries and treatises. The status of
8600-536: The two main systems of Esoteric Buddhism in Japan. Esoteric Buddhism also entered the Korean kingdom of Goryeo (918–1392). The Zhenyan tradition continued through the end of the Tang into the early Song dynasty (960–1279), though in a more limited capacity than under the Tang, as noted by Zanning 贊寧 (919–1001), a Chan Buddhist of the Fayan school who also embraced esoteric teachings, unlike Linji Chan who championed
8700-838: The use of mudra , mantra and mandala are often regarded as the primary hallmarks of esoteric Buddhism." These "three modes of action" or "ritual technologies" are often tied to the concept of the "Three Mysteries" (sanmi 三密), the "secrets" of body, speech and mind and to the ritual of abhisheka or consecration where tantric vows of samaya were undertaken by initiates. Tantra techniques (Vajrayana) New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Vajrayāna ( Sanskrit : वज्रयान ; lit. ' vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Mantranāya ('path of mantra'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism , and Esoteric Buddhism ,
8800-417: The use of images, altars, mandalas or visualization). Koichi Shinohara has argued that the earliest layer consisted of sutras that promoted simple recitation of dharanis and that more complex elements (such as use of images, complex arrangements of mandalas, etc) were added to this core practice over time. The complexity of the rituals continued to increase until reaching the "full" or "pure" tantric texts like
8900-482: The use of mantras and dharanis for mostly worldly ends including curing illness, controlling the weather and generating wealth. The Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra ( Compendium of Principles ), classed as a "Yoga tantra", is one of the first Buddhist tantras which focuses on liberation as opposed to worldly goals. In another early tantra, the Vajrasekhara (Vajra Peak), the influential schema of the five Buddha families
9000-765: The weakening of state-sponsored esoteric Buddhism. Robert Gimello has observed that in late imperial China esoteric dharani practices continued and esoteric practices associated with Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite. During the Republic of China (1912–1949) , the government believed that esoteric Buddhism had become weakened after the Tang and thus sought to revitalize it by returning to either Tibet or Japan to revitalize Chinese Buddhism. During this period, Tibetans traveled to China to teach, and Chinese monks traveled to Tibet to study, including influential monks like Nenghai (能海喇嘛, 1886–1967) and Master Fazun (法尊, 1902–1980), who played major roles in
9100-480: Was Mantranāya (Path of Mantras), and Mantrayāna (Mantra Vehicle). Later, other terms were adopted, like Vajrayāna. In Tibetan Buddhism practiced in the Himalayan regions of India , Nepal , and Bhutan , Buddhist Tantra is most often termed Vajrayāna (Tib. རྡོ་རྗེ་ཐེག་པ་, dorje tekpa , Wyl. rdo rje theg pa ) and Secret mantra (Skt. Guhyamantra , Tib. གསང་སྔགས་, sang ngak , Wyl. gsang sngags ). The vajra
9200-438: Was accessed only through abhiseka, effecting the ritual transformation of a disciple into a cosmic overlord. Third, these overarching systems were given what amounts to imperial imprimatur during the twenty year period from the 760s into the 780s. During this period, particularly during the period of Daizong's 代宗 (r. 762–779) support of Amoghavajra (Bukong jin'gang 不空金剛 704–774), significant religious and institutional infrastructure
9300-457: Was also an important theory which became the basis for Tantric views. As explained by the Tantric commentator Lilavajra, this "intrinsic secret (behind) diverse manifestation" is the utmost secret and aim of Tantra. According to Wayman this "Buddha embryo" ( tathāgatagarbha ) is a "non-dual, self-originated Wisdom ( jnana ), an effortless fount of good qualities" that resides in the mindstream but
9400-814: Was assisted by the central Indian monk Ratnamati (勒那摩提). Bodhiruci translated various important texts including the Ten Stages Sutra ( Chinese : 十地経論 ) and the commentary on this sutra by Vasubandhu ( Shidi jing lun 十地經論) . He translated the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as well as Vasubandhu's commentary titled Stances of the vow to be reborn [in the Pure Land] in the Sūtra [of the Buddha] Infinite Life ( Wuliangshou jing youbotishe yuansheng jie 無量壽經優波提 舍願生偈). He also translated Sūtra of
9500-705: Was further printed in Beijing in 1606. During the Xuanzong reign (1398–1435), Tibetan monks were allowed back into the palace and also allowed to live in Beijing. The Zhengde Emperor (r. 1491–1521) was known as a Vajrayana practitioner and a promoter of Tibetan Buddhism, but his successor, the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1566), was a Daoist who persecuted Buddhists. Among the common populace Tibetan Buddhism seems to have grown in popularity. A profitable business
9600-529: Was occupied in 756 while the Tang dynasty crown prince and Xuanzong emperor had retreated to Sichuan. Amoghavajra's rituals were explicitly intended to introduced death, disaster and disease against An Lushan. As a result of Amoghavajrya's assistance in crushing An Lushan, Estoteric Buddhism became the official state Buddhist sect supported by the Tang dynasty, "Imperial Buddhism" with state funding and backing for writing scriptures, and constructing monasteries and temples. The disciples of Amoghavajra did ceremonies for
9700-428: Was put in place, including imperially sanctioned altars for abhiseka in certain monasteries and imperial palaces for the performance of rituals to benefit the state; construction projects, including the renovation of Jin'ge Monastery 金閣寺 on Mount Wutai 五台山; and the installation of Mañjuśrī as the patron in official government monasteries. According to Geoffrey C. Goble, Amoghavajra was the most influential of these and
9800-694: Was severely damaged by the Cultural Revolution . But Tibetan Buddhism continued to flourish outside communist China in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, and since the 80s and 90s, in mainland China itself. However, Tibetan Buddhists remain under serious government surveillance and control in the mainland. Monica Esposito has also written about a Chinese lama who taught Chan Buddhism and the Nyingma Dzogchen tradition, known as Fahai Lama (1920–1991). Fahai attempted to reconcile Tantrism and Chan, claiming that Dzogchen "can be aligned with
9900-545: Was taught by the Buddha Shakyamuni , but only to some individuals. There are several stories and versions of how the tantras were disseminated. The Jñana Tilaka Tantra , for example, has the Buddha state that the tantras will be explained by the bodhisattva Vajrapani . One of the most famous legends is that of king Indrabhuti (also known as King Ja) of Oddiyana (a figure related to Vajrapani, in some cases said to be an emanation of him). Other accounts attribute
10000-403: Was the selling of Dharma instruments at the capital and one report states that "men and women in the capital filled the street" for Tibetan monks in Beijing. Tibetan-style ceremonies also became fashionable for weddings and funerals of the rich. Many Ming literati and courtiers continued to attack and ridicule the religion as demon worship and sorcery. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) court promoted
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