130-664: The term Chinese Riviera is used for several premier tourist destinations in China (including Hong Kong and Macau ) near the Canton River : This Chinese location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . History of the People%27s Republic of China (1949%E2%80%931976) The time period in China from the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 until Mao's death in 1976
260-669: A counteroffensive , the first conducted by the UN in the war, for August. It would kick off with an attack by the US reserve units on the Masan area to secure Chinju, followed by a larger general push to the Geum River in the middle of the month. One of Walker's goals was to break up a suspected massing of KPA troops near the Daegu area by forcing the diversion of some KPA units southward. On August 6,
390-627: A US-backed Korea on its border. After the UN forces liberated Seoul in September, Beijing countered by saying that ROK troops could cross into North Korea, but not American ones. MacArthur ignored this, believing that the South Korean army was too weak to attack on its own. After Pyongyang fell in October, the UN troops approached the strategically sensitive Yalu River area. China responded by sending waves of troops south, in what became known as
520-473: A border dispute with India, saying that the territory in question was "just a frozen waste where nobody lives." Leading into the Great Leap Forward, China experienced a population boom that strained its food supply, despite rising agricultural yields. Increased yields could not keep pace a population that benefitted from a major decrease in mortality (due to successful public health campaigns and
650-608: A comprehensive rail interdiction plan ready. This plan sought to cut the flow of KPA troops and materiel from North Korea to the combat area. Two cut points, the Pyongyang railroad bridge and marshaling yards and the Hamhung bridge and Hamhung and Wonsan marshaling yards, would almost completely sever North Korea's rail logistics network. Destruction of the rail bridges over the Han River near Seoul would cut rail communication to
780-532: A fatal weakness of the KPA, costing it crucial defeats after an initial success with combat forces. The KPA's communications and supply were not capable of exploiting a breakthrough and of supporting a continuing attack in the face of massive air, armor, and artillery fire that could be concentrated against its troops at critical points. The UN forces established a perimeter around the port city of Busan throughout July and August 1950. Roughly 140 miles (230 km) long,
910-526: A final stand against the invading Korean People's Army (KPA), 98,000 men strong. UN forces, having been repeatedly defeated by the advancing KPA, were forced back to the "Pusan Perimeter", a 140-mile (230 km) defense line around an area on the southeastern tip of South Korea that included the port of Busan (then spelt Pusan ). The UN troops, consisting mostly of forces from the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA), United States, and United Kingdom, mounted
1040-563: A good, well-meaning Marxist. He felt that the Soviets were not treating China as an equal partner. Cultural differences also contributed to friction between the two communist giants. Khrushchev's idea of peaceful competition with the United States rather than overt hostility did not resonate well with Beijing. Mao said that "Do you think the capitalists will put down their butcher knife and become Buddhas?" Khrushchev's 1958 suggestion of
1170-463: A joint Sino-Soviet fleet to counter the US 7th Fleet was angrily rejected by Mao Zedong, who told the Soviet ambassador "If you want to talk about joint cooperation, fine. We can practice joint cooperation in government, military, cultural, and economic matters and you can leave us with a guerrilla force." When the Soviet premier himself visited China the following year, Mao again asked him to explain what
1300-726: A joint fleet was. He stated that the Soviets were not welcome to put any troops on Chinese soil in peacetime and added "Listen carefully. We have worked long and hard to drive out the Americans, the British, the Japanese, and others. Never again will we allow foreigners to use our territory for their purposes." Khrushchev also thought that the Chinese were too soft on the Dalai Lama (Tibet's spiritual leader) and failed to support them in
1430-551: A lack of a previously drafted plan forced UN logisticians to create a system on the fly. The majority of resupply by sea was conducted by cargo ships of the US Army and US Navy. The massive demand for ships forced the UN to charter private ships and bring ships out of the reserve fleet to increase the number of military vessels in service. Busan was the only port in South Korea that had dock facilities large enough to handle
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#17327809610051560-585: A last stand around the perimeter, fighting off repeated KPA attacks for six weeks as they were engaged around the cities of Taegu , Masan , and Pohang and the Naktong River . The massive KPA assaults were unsuccessful in forcing the UN troops back farther from the perimeter, despite two major pushes in August and September. North Korean troops, hampered by supply shortages and massive losses, continually staged attacks on UN forces in an attempt to penetrate
1690-489: A logistical system which was very lean and substantially smaller than the UN system. This logistics network was therefore capable of moving far fewer supplies, and this caused considerable difficulty for front-line troops. Based on the efficient Soviet Army model, this ground-based network relied primarily on railroads to transport supplies to the front while troops transported those items to the individual units on foot, trucks, or carts. This second effort, though more versatile,
1820-401: A massive offensive on Cloverleaf Hill and Obong-ni on August 17. At first tenacious KPA defense halted the marines' push. The KPA then mounted a counterattack following this in hopes of pushing the marines back, but this failed disastrously. By nightfall on August 18, the KPA 4th Division had been nearly annihilated and Obong-ni and Cloverleaf Hill had been retaken by US forces. The next day,
1950-449: A rank system (modeled after the Soviet one) was implemented in 1954. While taking a trip through the countryside, Peng was horrified at the wreckage of the Great Leap Forward. Everywhere fields were dotted with abandoned communes, ruined crops, and lumps of useless pig iron. Afterwards, he accused Mao of being responsible for this disaster and was in turn denounced as a rightist and removed from office. Peng then lived retired in disgrace for
2080-615: A severe drought in the summer of 1950, receiving only 5 in (130 mm) of rain as opposed to the normal 20 in (510 mm) during the months of July and August. Combined with temperatures of 105 °F (41 °C), the hot and dry weather contributed to a large number of heat and exertion casualties, particularly for the unconditioned American forces. On August 1, the Eighth Army issued an operational directive to all UN ground forces in Korea for their planned withdrawal east of
2210-498: A sizable amount of cargo. An emergency airlift of critically needed items began almost immediately from the United States to Japan. Although it did not fly into Korea, the Military Air Transport Service (MATS), Pacific Division, expanded rapidly after the outbreak of the war. The consumption of aviation gasoline thanks to both combat and transport aircraft was so great in the early phase of the war, taxing
2340-483: A specified level to the state at artificially low prices. In some regions the state also ate into the rural grain supply, causing shortages for the locals. The rural population endured the worst of the Great Leap Famine in part because the state could seize as much grain as it needed, even under starvation conditions. The appropriated grain was largely used to feed the urban population, although some of it
2470-634: Is commonly known as Maoist China and Red China . The history of the People's Republic of China is often divided distinctly by historians into the Mao era and the post-Mao era . The country's Mao era lasted from the founding of the People's republic on 1 October 1949 to Deng Xiaoping 's consolidation of power and policy reversal at the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress on 22 December 1978. The Mao era focuses on Mao Zedong 's social movements from
2600-458: The 39th Fighter Squadron and 40th Fighter Squadron from the airstrip, against the wishes of General MacArthur. In the event, the airstrip remained under the protection of UN ground forces and never came under direct fire. The squadrons were moved to Tsuiki Air Field on the island of Kyushu , Japan. In the meantime, the ROK 3rd Division, surrounded earlier in the month, was forced farther south to
2730-416: The 8th Infantry Regiment , 2nd Infantry Division. Task Force Bradley was tasked with defending P'ohang-dong. What followed was a complicated series of fights throughout the region around P'ohang-dong and An'gang-ni as ROK forces, aided by US air forces, engaged groups of KPA in the area. The KPA 12th Division was operating in the valley west of P'ohang-dong and was able to push back Task Force P'ohang and
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#17327809610052860-463: The Battle of Andong . Outnumbered and under-equipped US forces—committed in piecemeal fashion as rapidly as they could be deployed—were repeatedly defeated and pushed south. The 24th Division, the first US division committed, took heavy losses in the Battle of Taejon in mid-July, which they were driven from after heavy fighting. Elements of the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in
2990-944: The Deng Xiaoping reforms to be a betrayal of Mao's legacy. Pusan Perimeter [REDACTED] United Nations [REDACTED] Eighth Army [REDACTED] Fifth Air Force [REDACTED] Seventh Fleet [REDACTED] South Korean Army [REDACTED] British Army [REDACTED] Royal Navy [REDACTED] Australian Air Force [REDACTED] Australian Navy [REDACTED] Netherlands Navy [REDACTED] Canadian Navy [REDACTED] French Navy [REDACTED] New Zealand Navy [REDACTED] Korean People's Army [REDACTED] Korean People's Navy [REDACTED] Korean People's Air Force [REDACTED] est. 40,000+ [REDACTED] 4,599 killed 12,058 wounded 2,701 missing 401 captured 60 tanks [REDACTED] 5 killed 17 wounded The Battle of
3120-636: The Fifth Air Force were positioned within the perimeter and in Japan, and just off the coast were US Navy aircraft aboard the USS ; Valley Forge and the USS Philippine Sea . By the end of the battle the Eighth Army had more air support than General Omar Bradley 's Twelfth United States Army Group in Europe during World War II. From south to northeast, the KPA units positioned opposite
3250-867: The Five Black Categories . Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the Stinking Old Ninth , and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the National College Entrance Examination were cancelled. Over 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under the Down to the Countryside Movement policy. The urban–rural divide was the most important division in Maoist China when it came to
3380-551: The Opium War to the end of the Civil War , mushroomed more than 700,000,000 as of Mao's death. Under Mao's regime, some argue that China ended its "Century of Humiliation" and resumed its status as a major power on the international stage. Mao also industrialized China to a considerable extent and ensured China's sovereignty during his rule. In addition, Mao tried to abolish Confucianist and feudal norms. China's economy in 1976
3510-777: The People's Republic of China (PRC) was formally proclaimed by Mao Zedong , the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party , on October 1, 1949, at 3:00 pm in Tiananmen Square in Beijing . The establishment of the Central People's Government of the PRC , the government of the new nation, was officially declared during the proclamation speech at the founding ceremony. A military parade took place during
3640-584: The Resist America, Aid Korea Campaign in China, the first major offensive of the Chinese forces was pushed back in October, but by Christmas 1950, the " People's Volunteer Army " under the command of Gen. Peng Dehuai had forced the United Nations to retreat back to the 38th Parallel. However, the war was very costly to the Chinese side, as more than just "volunteers" were mobilised, and because of
3770-452: The 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea. The KPA, 89,000 men strong, had advanced into South Korea in six columns, catching the ROKA by surprise and completely routing it. The smaller ROK suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment, and was unprepared for war. Numerically superior, KPA forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38,000 ROK soldiers on
3900-658: The Busan Perimeter area. On August 4, FEAF began B-29 interdiction attacks against all key bridges north of the 37th Parallel in Korea and, on August 15, light bombers and fighter-bombers joined in the interdiction campaign. The supremacy of the Fifth Air Force in the skies over Korea forced the North Koreans in the first month of the war to resort to night movement of supplies to the battle area. They relied primarily on railroads to move supplies to
4030-528: The Chinese and Soviet schools of communism seeded a novel and radical drive to reform China's economic system in its entirety. This split developed after Stalin's death in 1953 when new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced him. The "secret speech" in 1956 stunned the communist world. China rejected de-Stalinization and in fact displayed large Stalin portraits at the May Day celebrations that year. Mao declared that despite some faults, Stalin had basically been
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4160-467: The Chinese emperors in past centuries, but declared its independence in 1912. Under Mao's direction, China built its first atomic bomb in its nuclear program, Project 596 , testing it on October 16, 1964, at Lop Nor ; it was the fifth country to conduct a successful nuclear test. The Korean War had been enormously costly to China, especially coming on the heels of the civil war, and it delayed postwar reconstruction. In 1949, Mao Zedong declared that
4290-674: The Economic Stalinization of China, 1948–1953 in 1953, Mao, misled by glowing reports in History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik): Short Course , authorized by Stalin of social and economic progress in the Soviet Union, abandoned the liberal economic programs of "New Democracy" and instituted the "general line for socialist transition", a program to build socialism based on Soviet models. He
4420-420: The Eighth Army issued the operational directive for the attack by Task Force Kean , named for the US 25th Infantry Division commander, William B. Kean . Task Force Kean consisted of the 25th Division, less the 27th Infantry Regiment and a field artillery battalion, plus the 5th Regimental Combat Team and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade attached — a force of about 20,000 men. The plan of attack required
4550-578: The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his death in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese socialism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society . Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked
4680-540: The Indonesian ambassador that they had little to export except agricultural products. Several jointly owned Sino-Soviet corporations were established, but Mao considered these to impinge on Chinese sovereignty and in 1954 they were quietly dissolved. By 1956, Mao was becoming bored with the day-to-day running of the state and also worried about growing red tape and bureaucracy. The 8th Party Congress that year declared that socialism had more-or-less been established and so
4810-475: The KPA 15th Division formed up on the east side of the Naktong River in the vicinity of Yuhak-san, 3 miles (4.8 km) northwest of Tabu-dong. It was quickly locked in combat on Yuhak-san with the ROK 1st Division. South of Waegwan, two more KPA divisions stood ready to cross the Naktong River in a coordinated attack with the divisions to the north. The experienced KPA 3rd Division was concentrated in
4940-417: The KPA significantly in their invasion of South Korea, costing them 58,000 of their troops and a large number of tanks. In order to recoup these losses, the KPA had to rely on less-experienced replacements and conscripts, many of whom had been taken from the conquered regions of South Korea. During the course of the battle, the KPA raised a total of 13 infantry divisions and one armored division to fight at
5070-469: The KPA troops to scatter into the mountains. The division reassembled to the east and launched a concerted night attack, broke the ROK defenses, and began an advance that carried it twenty miles (32 km) southeast of Naktong-ni on the main road to Taegu. Within a week, the KPA 1st and 13th divisions were converging on the Tabu-dong area, about 15 miles (24 km) north of Daegu. During August 12–16,
5200-480: The KPA. Heavy fighting continued in the area for three days. By August 9, Task Force Kean was poised to retake Chinju. The Americans initially advanced quickly though heavy KPA resistance. On August 10, the Marines picked up the advance. However, the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade was withdrawn from the force on August 12 to be redeployed elsewhere on the perimeter. Task Force Kean continued forward, capturing
5330-533: The Korean war has been evaluated by each participant in sharply different ways. Soon after its founding, the newly born People's Republic of China was drawn into its first international conflict. On June 25, 1950, Kim Il Sung 's North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel , invaded South Korea , and eventually advanced as far as the Pusan Perimeter in south-east Korea. United Nations forces entered
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5460-542: The Kyongju and An'gang-ni areas, putting the supply road to Taegu out of immediate danger. By August 19 the KPA forces had completely withdrawn from the offensive. Shortly before the Busan Perimeter battles began, Walker established Daegu as the Eighth Army's headquarters. Right at the center of the Busan Perimeter, Daegu stood at the entrance to the Naktong River valley, an area where KPA forces could advance in large numbers in close support. The natural barriers provided by
5590-404: The Naktong River in the retreat. At one bridge in the 1st Cavalry Division sector, the division commander attempted several times to clear refugees from the bridge but they continued to cross it despite warnings and several attempts to clear the bridge. Eventually the commander was forced to demolish the bridge, taking several hundred refugees with it. Central to the UN defensive plan was to hold
5720-406: The Naktong River to the south and the mountainous terrain to the north converged around Daegu, which was also the major transportation hub and last major South Korean city aside from Busan itself to remain in UN hands. From south to north, the city was defended by the US 1st Cavalry Division, and the ROK 1st and 6th divisions of ROK II Corps. 1st Cavalry Division was spread out along a long line along
5850-476: The Naktong River to the south, with its 5th and 8th cavalry regiments holding a line 24 kilometres (15 mi) along the river and the 7th Cavalry Regiment in reserve along with artillery forces, ready to reinforce anywhere a crossing could be attempted. Five KPA divisions amassed to oppose the UN at Taegu; from south to north, the 10th , 3rd, 15th, 13th, and 1st Divisions occupied a line from Tuksong-dong and around Waegwan to Kunwi. The KPA planned to use
5980-465: The Naktong River to the west, and extremely mountainous terrain to the north, using the terrain as a natural defense. However the rough terrain also made communication difficult, particularly for the ROK forces in the P'ohang-dong area. Forces in this region also suffered from casualties related to the heat of the summer, as the Naktong region has little vegetation and clean water. Korea suffered from
6110-498: The Naktong River. UN units would then establish a Main line of resistance behind what was to be called the Busan Perimeter. The intent was to draw the line on retreating and hold off the KPA while the UN built up its forces and launched a counteroffensive. The US 25th Infantry Division held the southernmost flank at Masan , while the 24th Infantry Division withdrew from Geochang County to Changyeong. The 1st Cavalry Division withdrew to Waegwan. US forces demolished all bridges over
6240-699: The North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing. However, US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier, and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength, and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending. Regardless,
6370-600: The Party-State's rule. Thoroughly shocked, Mao put an end to this and then launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign . Scores of intellectuals and common workers were purged, jailed, or disappeared . Many were not " rehabilitated " until the 1970s. Mao's social and cultural programs, including collectivization , were most popular in the early 1950s. However, China's strained relations with new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev and newfound contradictions between
6500-469: The People's Volunteers in order to disassociate them from the PLA. The Chinese army was poorly equipped but contained many veterans of the civil war and the conflict with Japan. In addition, it possessed huge reserves of manpower. The United States was on its way to the height of military power, and historians contend that Mao's participation in the war asserted China as a new power to not be taken lightly. Known as
6630-635: The Pusan Perimeter ( Korean : 부산 교두보 전투 ), known in Korean as the Battle of the Naktong River Defense Line ( Korean : 낙동강 방어선 전투 ), was a large-scale battle between United Nations Command (UN) and North Korean forces lasting from August 4 to September 18, 1950. It was one of the first major engagements of the Korean War . An army of 140,000 UN troops, having been pushed south to the brink of defeat, were rallied to make
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#17327809610056760-529: The Pusan Perimeter. The UN forces were organized under the command of the Eighth United States Army, which served and was headquartered at Daegu. Under it were three weak US divisions; the 24th Infantry Division was brought to the country early in July, while the 1st Cavalry Division and 25th Infantry Division arrived between July 14 and 18. These forces occupied the western segment of
6890-559: The ROK 3rd Division and took the area around P'ohang-dong. On August 10, the Eighth Army organized Task Force P'ohang — the ROK 17th , 25th, and 26th regiments as well as the ROK 1st Anti-Guerrilla Battalion, Marine Battalion and a battery from the US 18th Field Artillery Regiment . This task force was given the mission to clear out KPA forces in the mountainous region. At the same time, Eighth Army formed Task Force Bradley under Brigadier General Joseph S. Bradley , consisting of elements of
7020-417: The ROK 8th Division. This fighting was so heavy that the KPA 8th Division was forced to hold its ground for a week before trying to advance. Stalled again by ROK resistance, it halted to wait for reinforcements. However the other two attacks were more successful, catching the UN forces by surprise. East of the KPA and ROK 8th Divisions, the KPA 12th Division crossed the Naktong River at Andong, moving through
7150-571: The ROK Capital Division, which was along the line to the east. At the same time, the KPA 766th Infantry Regiment and elements of the KPA 5th Division fought Task Force Bradley at and south of P'ohang-dong. US naval fire drove the KPA troops from the town, but it became a bitterly contested no man's land as fighting moved to the surrounding hills. By August 13, KPA troops were operating in the mountains west and southwest of Yongil Airfield. USAF commanders, wary of KPA attacks, evacuated
7280-455: The ROKA. Support for the American and South Korean armies came through the United States and Japan. The re-equipping of the ROK presented the UN forces with major logistical problems in July. The biggest challenge was a shortage of ammunition. Though logistics situations improved over time, ammunition was short for much of the war. Consumption of supplies differed among the various units and
7410-835: The Soviet model and announced a new economic program, the " Great Leap Forward ", in 1958, aimed at rapidly raising industrial and agricultural production. Specific to industrial production, Mao announced the goal of surpassing the steel production output of Great Britain by 1968. Giant cooperatives, otherwise known as people's communes , were formed. Within a year almost all Chinese villages had been reformed into working communes of several thousand people in size, where people would live and work together as envisioned by an ideal communist society. Rather than build steel mills, small "backyard furnaces" would be used. The results, however, were disastrous . Normal market mechanisms were disrupted, agricultural production fell behind, and people exhausted themselves producing shoddy, unsellable goods. Because of
7540-521: The Soviets withdrew all of their personnel from China by August 1960, leaving many construction projects dormant. In the same year, the Soviets and the Chinese began to have disputes openly in international forums. The relationship between the two powers reached a low point in 1969 with the Sino-Soviet border conflict , when Soviet and Chinese troops met in combat on the Manchurian border. After
7670-577: The UN established its highest command under MacArthur in Tokyo, Japan . KPA forces in the meantime were suffering from overextended supply lines which severely reduced their fighting capacity. KPA forces had four possible routes in the perimeter: to the south, the pass through the city of Masan around the confluence of the Nam and Naktong rivers; another southerly route through the Naktong Bulge and into
7800-496: The UN units were the 83rd Motorized Regiment of the 105th Armored Division and then the 6th , 4th , 3rd , 2nd , 15th , 1st , 13th , 8th , 12th , and 5th divisions and the 766th Independent Infantry Regiment . Throughout September 1950, as the battle raged, more UN forces arrived from the US and other locations. The 2nd Infantry Division , 5th Regimental Combat Team , 1st Provisional Marine Brigade , and British 27th Commonwealth Brigade arrived in Busan later in
7930-413: The area around Chondong-ni. Eighth Army requested several of its units to redeploy to Taegu to be used elsewhere on the front, particularly at the Naktong Bulge. An attempt to move the 25th Infantry Division's division trains through the valley became mired in the mud through the night of August 10–11 and was attacked in the morning by KPA forces who had driven American forces from the high ground. In
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#17327809610058060-428: The bodies of 75 men, 55 from the 555th Field Artillery and 20 from the 90th Field Artillery, were found executed when the area again came under American control. Task Force Kean was forced to withdraw back to Masan, unable to hold its gains, and by August 14 it was in approximately the same position it had been in when it started the offensive. Task Force Kean had failed in its objective of diverting KPA troops from
8190-406: The building of the Third Front, which involved massive projects including railroad infrastructure, aerospace industry including satellite launch facilities, and steel production industry including Panzhihua Iron and Steel . Development of the Third Front slowed in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, but accelerated again after the Sino-Soviet border conflict at Zhenbao Island, which increased
8320-487: The confusion, KPA armor was able to penetrate roadblocks and assault the supporting US artillery positions. The surprise attack was successful in wiping out most of the 555th and 90th Field Artillery Battalions , with much of their equipment. Both KPA and American armor swarmed to the scene and US Marine aircraft continued to provide cover, but neither side was able to make appreciable gains despite inflicting massive numbers of casualties on one another. Upon later inspection,
8450-403: The country followed up on the Soviet model of five-year plans with its own first five-year plan from 1953 to 1957. The country went through a transformation whereby means of production were transferred from private to public entities, and through nationalization of industry in 1955, the state controlled the economy in a similar fashion to the economy of the Soviet Union . China's role in
8580-403: The country, were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by KPA forces on July 27, leaving open a pass to the Busan area. Soon after, Chinju to the west was taken, pushing back the 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving open routes to Busan. US units were able to defeat and push back the KPA on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2. Suffering mounting losses, the KPA force on
8710-526: The death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the Four Olds (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president Liu Shaoqi , as well as Deng Xiaoping , Peng Dehuai , and He Long . Millions were persecuted for being members of
8840-427: The deaths were not from famine but were killed or overworked by the authorities. According to various sources, the resulting death toll was likely between 20 and 40 million. The steel produced in backyard furnaces at low temperatures proved to be useless. Finally, the peasants hated the lack of privacy and the militarization of their lives. One of the loudest opponents of the GLF was Defense Minister Peng Dehuai . Peng
8970-450: The destroyer departed the area without either side widening the conflict by initiating hostile fire. Declining a UN armistice, the two sides fought intermittently on both sides of the 38th Parallel until the armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. The Korean War ended any possibility of normalised relations with the United States for years. Meanwhile, Chinese forces invaded and annexed Tibet in October 1950. Tibet had been nominally subject to
9100-474: The distribution of food, clothing, housing and health care. Rural status carried no entitlement to a state ration card, wages or social security. As a result, Maoist China is sometimes described as a dual society. The model of development in Mao's China was to develop heavy industry through the exploitation of the rural population. In order to minimize the cost of staple foods for the urban population, farmers were compelled to sell any agricultural surplus above
9230-441: The early 1950s on, including land reform , the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution . The Great Chinese Famine , one of the worst famines in human history, occurred during this era. On September 29, 1949, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference unanimously adopted the Common Program as the basic political program for the country following the success of the Chinese revolution . The founding of
9360-694: The effective return of Mao to the center of power in China after his political sidelining , in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward and the Great Chinese Famine . In May 1966, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group , Mao launched the Revolution and said that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to bombard
9490-431: The end of war) and high fertility rate. The Chinese government recognized the country's dilemma of feeding its rapidly growing population without the means to make significant capital improvements in agriculture. Viewing human labor as an underutilized factor of production , the government intensified the mobilization of masses of people to increase labor inputs in agriculture. Under Mao's leadership, China broke with
9620-453: The exception of the Naktong delta to the south, and the valley between Daegu and P'ohang-dong , the terrain is extremely rough and mountainous. Northeast of P'ohang-dong along the South Korean line the terrain was especially treacherous, and movement in the region was extremely difficult. Thus, the UN established the Busan Perimeter in a location outlined by the Sea of Japan to the south and east,
9750-507: The failure of the Great Leap Forward, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization. It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods. After an April 1964 General Staff report concluded that the concentration of China's industry in its major coastal cities made it vulnerable to attack by foreign powers, Mao argued for the development of basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in China's interior. This resulted in
9880-498: The fighting, along with large numbers of fresh troops and equipment, including over 500 tanks. By the end of the battle, Eighth Army's force had gone from three under-strength, under-prepared divisions to four formations that were well-equipped and ready for war. On July 1, the US Far East Command directed the Eighth Army to assume responsibility for all logistical support of the US and UN forces in Korea, including
10010-604: The following day . The battle was the farthest the KPA would advance in the war, as subsequent fighting ground the war into a stalemate. Following the outbreak of the Korean War, the United Nations decided to commit troops in support of South Korea, which had been invaded by the neighboring North Korea. The United States subsequently sent ground forces to the Korean Peninsula with the goal of fighting back
10140-573: The food supply and overemphasis on village industry is often blamed for the millions of deaths by famine during the "Mao era". However, there were also positive changes as a result from his management. Before 1949, for instance, the illiteracy rate in Mainland China was 80%, and life expectancy was a meager 35 years. At his death, illiteracy had declined to less than 7%, and average life expectancy had increased by 30 years. In addition, China's population which had remained constant at 400,000,000 from
10270-550: The force to move west from positions held near Masan, seize the Chinju Pass, and secure the line as far as the Nam River. However, the offensive relied on the arrival of the entire 2nd Infantry Division , as well as three more battalions of American tanks. Task Force Kean launched its attack on August 7, moving out from Masan, but Kean's attack resulted in a meeting engagement with one being simultaneously delivered by
10400-417: The foundation ceremony. The People's Republic of China was founded on a land that was ravaged by a century of foreign invasion and civil wars . Both urban and rural communities, as well as both agriculture and industry, experienced significant growth between 1949 and 1959. Mao's government carried out land reform , instituted collectivisation and implemented the laogai camp system. Economically,
10530-593: The front before moving steadily south. Most of South Korea's forces retreated in the face of the advance. By June 28, the KPA had captured South Korea's capital Seoul , forcing the government and its shattered forces to retreat further south. Though it was steadily pushed back, ROK forces increased their resistance farther south, hoping to delay KPA units as much as possible. North and South Korean units sparred for control of several cities, inflicting heavy casualties on one another. The ROK defended Yeongdeok fiercely before being forced back, and managed to repel KPA forces in
10660-438: The front, due to extensive losses so far in the war. UN commander General Douglas MacArthur reported 141,808 UN troops in Korea on August 4, of which 47,000 were in US ground combat units and 45,000 in ROK combat units. Thus, the UN ground combat force outnumbered the KPA 92,000 to 70,000. UN forces had complete control of the air and sea throughout the fight as well, and US Air Force and US Navy elements provided support for
10790-482: The front, however a shortage of trucks posed the most serious problem of getting supplies from the trains to individual units, forcing them to rely on carts and pack animals. The KPA was able to maintain transport to its front lines over long lines of communications despite heavy and constant air attacks. The UN air effort failed to completely halt military rail transport. Ammunition and motor fuel, which took precedence over all other types of supply, continued to arrive at
10920-440: The front, though in smaller amounts than before. At best there were rations for only one or two meals a day. Most units had to live at least partially off the South Korean populace, scavenging for food and supplies at night. By September 1 the food situation was so bad in the KPA at the front that most of the soldiers showed a loss of stamina with resulting impaired combat effectiveness. The inefficiency of its logistics remained
11050-565: The ground units throughout the battle virtually unopposed. Overall command of the naval force was taken by the US Seventh Fleet , and the bulk of the naval power provided was also from the US. The United Kingdom also provided a small naval task force including an aircraft carrier and several cruisers. Eventually, Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and New Zealand provided ships as well. Several hundred fighter-bombers of
11180-659: The headquarters , and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in Beijing with Red August in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming cadres of Red Guards throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the Little Red Book , which became revered within his cult of personality . In 1967, emboldened radicals began seizing power from local governments and party branches, establishing new revolutionary committees in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating armed clashes among
11310-427: The lack of experience in modern warfare and the lack of modern military technology, China's casualties vastly outnumbered that of the United Nations. On 11 April 1951, a U.S. Seventh Fleet destroyer approached close to the port of Swatow (Shantou) , on the southeast coast of China, provoking China to send an armada of more than forty armed powered junks to confront and surround the destroyer for nearly five hours before
11440-465: The line was at the town of An'gang-ni , 12 miles (19 km) west of P'ohang-dong, situated near a valley through the natural rugged terrain to the major rail hub of Kyongju, which was a staging post for moving supplies to Daegu. Walker chose not to heavily reinforce the area as he felt the terrain made meaningful attack impossible, preferring to respond to attack with reinforcements from the transportation routes and air cover from Yongil Airfield , which
11570-402: The mountains in small groups to reach P'ohang-dong. UN planners had not anticipated that the 12th Division would be able to cross the river effectively, and thus were unprepared. In the meantime, the ROK 3rd Division was heavily engaged with the KPA 5th Division along the coastal road to P'ohang-dong. The divisions' clashes centered on the town of Yongdok, with each side capturing and recapturing
11700-476: The nation would " lean to one side ", meaning that the Soviet Union and the communist bloc would be its principal allies. Three months after the PRC was established in October 1949, Mao and his delegation traveled to Moscow. They were not received warmly by Stalin , who doubted if they really were Marxist-Leninists and not simply a group of Chinese nationalists. He had also recognized Chiang Kai-Shek's government, and furthermore distrusted any communist movement that
11830-410: The natural corridor of the Naktong valley from Sangju to Daegu as their main axis of attack for the next push south. Elements of the 105th Armored Division were also supporting the attack. By August 7, the KPA 13th Division had crossed the Naktong River at Naktong-ni, 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Daegu. ROK troops attacked the 13th Division immediately after it completed its crossing, forcing
11960-505: The next few years would be devoted to rest and consolidation. In February 1957, Mao gave one of his most famous addresses in which he said, "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend." The Hundred Flowers Campaign was promoted by the CCP as a way of furthering socialist ideology through open debate, but many took it as an invitation to express open disdain for the Communist Party. Many began to voice their opposition to
12090-455: The next several years until he was arrested and beaten by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution. He survived the torture, but sustained permanent injuries and died in 1974. After Mao's death, Peng was posthumously rehabilitated with full honors. The already strained Sino-Soviet relationship deteriorated sharply in 1959, when the Soviets started to restrict the flow of scientific and technological information to China. The dispute escalated, and
12220-421: The north, and also failed in its objective of reaching the Chinju Pass. However, the offensive was considered to have significantly increased morale among the troops of the 25th Infantry Division, which performed extremely well in subsequent engagements. The KPA 6th Division had been reduced to 3,000-4,000 and had to replenish its ranks with South Korean conscripts from Andong. Fighting in the region continued for
12350-593: The north. Despite American counterattacks, the KPA were able to continue pressing forward and take Cloverleaf Hill and Oblong-ni Ridge, critical terrain astride the main road in the bulge area. By August 10 the entire KPA 4th Division was across the river and beginning to move south, outflanking the American lines. The next day, scattered KPA elements attacked Yongsan. The KPA forces repeatedly attacked US lines at night, when American soldiers were resting and had greater difficulty resisting. The 1st Marine Provisional Brigade, in conjunction with Task Force Hill , mounted
12480-466: The other two regiments and forced them back to the west bank. Only a small number of KPA reached the east side where either they were captured, or hid until recrossing the river the following night. At dawn on August 9, 1st Cavalry Division learned of the North Korean crossing. KPA infantry had gathered on Hill 268, also known as Triangulation Hill, which was 3 miles (4.8 km) southeast of Waegwan and 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Taegu. The hill
12610-560: The perceived risk of Soviet Invasion. Third Front construction again decreased after United States President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China and the resulting rapprochement between the United States and China. When Reform and Opening up began after Mao's death, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects. The Third Front distributed physical and human capital around the country, ultimately decreased regional disparities and created favorable conditions for later market development. The Cultural Revolution , formally known as
12740-409: The perimeter and collapse the line. The UN forces, however, used the port to amass an overwhelming advantage in troops, equipment, and logistics, and its navy and air forces remained unchallenged by the KPA during the fight. After six weeks, the KPA force collapsed and retreated in defeat after the UN force launched a counterattack at Inchon on September 15, and the UN forces in the perimeter broke out
12870-624: The perimeter stretched from the Korea Strait to the Sea of Japan west and north of Busan. To the west the perimeter was roughly outlined by the Naktong River where it curved at the city of Daegu, except for the southernmost 15 miles (24 km) where the Naktong turned eastward after its confluence with the Nam River . The northern boundary was an irregular line that ran through the mountains from above Waegwan and Andong to Yongdok . With
13000-407: The perimeter, along the Naktong River. The ROK, a force of 58,000, was organized into two corps and five divisions; from east to west, I Corps controlled the 8th Infantry Division and Capital Divisions , while II Corps controlled the 1st Infantry Division and 6th Infantry Division . A reconstituted ROK 3rd Infantry Division was placed under direct ROK control. Morale among the UN units
13130-632: The port of Busan, where vital ground supplies and reinforcements were arriving from Japan and the US. Busan possessed airfields where US combat and cargo aircraft were streaming into Korea with more supplies. A system similar to the Red Ball Express in World War II was employed to get supplies from Busan to the front lines. Hundreds of ships arrived in Busan each month, starting with 230 in July and increasing steadily thereafter. On July 24,
13260-728: The radicals . After the fall of Lin Biao in 1971, the Gang of Four became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four. The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including a massacre in Guangxi that included acts of cannibalism , as well as massacres in Beijing, Inner Mongolia , Guangdong , Yunnan , and Hunan . Estimates of
13390-540: The railroad lines at Miryang ; through the route into Daegu in the north; and through Kyongju in the eastern corridor. The KPA mounted a large offensive in August, simultaneously attacking all four entries into the perimeter. As a result, the Battle of Busan Perimeter was not one single engagement, but a series of large battles fought between the UN and KPA divisions all along the perimeter. The Eighth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Walton Walker , began preparing
13520-441: The reliance on the government providing and distributing food and resources and their rapid depletion due to poor planning, starvation appeared even in fertile agricultural areas. From 1960 to 1961, the combination of poor planning during the Great Leap Forward, political movements incited by the government, as well as unusual weather patterns and natural disasters resulted in widespread famine and many deaths. A significant number of
13650-553: The remains of the 4th Division withdrew completely across the river. In their hasty retreat, they left a large number of artillery pieces and equipment behind which the Americans used. The terrain along the ROK front on the eastern corridor made movement extremely difficult. A major road ran from Daegu 50 miles (80 km) east, to P'ohang-dong on Korea's east coast. The only major north–south road intersecting this line moved south from Andong through Yongch'on , midway between Daegu and P'ohang-dong. The only other natural entry through
13780-573: The responsibility of saving the regime in Pyongyang . Up to this time, the Truman Administration was thoroughly disgusted with the corruption of Chiang Kai-shek 's government and considered simply recognizing the PRC. On June 27, the US 7th Fleet was sent to the Taiwan Straits both to prevent a Communist invasion of the island and to prevent an attempted reconquest of the mainland. China meanwhile warned that it would not accept
13910-422: The rest of the month. About 7 miles (11 km) north of the confluence of the Naktong and Nam rivers, the Naktong curves westward opposite Yongsan in a wide semicircular loop. For most of this span, the Naktong river is around 1,300 feet (400 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep, allowing infantry to wade across with some difficulty, but preventing vehicles from crossing without assistance. This perimeter
14040-405: The river further north but met with resistance and fell back. On the morning of August 6, the KPA attacked in an attempt to penetrate the lines to Yongsan. This caught the Americans, who were expecting an attack from further north, by surprise and drove them back, and the KPA captured a large amount of American equipment. The attack threatened to split the American lines and disrupt supply lines to
14170-417: The rural proportion of the population was higher in 1978 than it had been in 1958. The history of the People's Republic from 1949 to 1976 is accorded the name "Mao era"-China. A proper evaluation of the period is, in essence, an evaluation of Mao's legacy. Since Mao's death there has been generated a great deal of controversy about him amongst both historians and political analysts. Mao's poor management of
14300-433: The town several times. On August 5, the KPA attacked, again taking the town from the ROK and pushing them south. On August 6, the ROK launched a counteroffensive to retake the town. However, KPA 5th Division forces were able to infiltrate the coastal road south of Yongdok at Hunghae. This effectively surrounded the ROK 3rd Division, trapping it several miles above P'ohang-dong. The KPA 766th Independent Regiment advanced around
14430-407: The town. The KPA supply chain had completely broken down and more food, ammunition, and supplies were not available. UN forces began their final counteroffensive against the stalled KPA forces on August 15. Intense fighting around P'ohang-dong ensued for several days as each side suffered large numbers of casualties in back-and-forth battles. By August 17, UN forces were able to push KPA troops out of
14560-494: The transport of some troops and supplies, but they remained far too underdeveloped to support any large-scale logistical movements, and the port of Inchon in the south was difficult to navigate with large numbers of ships. In mid-July, the UN Far East Air Force Bomber Command began a steady and increasing campaign against strategic North Korean logistics targets. The first of these targets
14690-488: The very limited supply available in the Far East, that it became one of the serious logistical problems. From Busan a good railroad system built by the Japanese extended northward. The railroads were the backbone of the UN transportation system in Korea. The 20,000 mi (32,000 km) of Korean vehicular roads were all of a secondary nature, as measured by American or European standards. The North Koreans relied on
14820-501: The vicinity of Songju , while the untested KPA 10th Division was concentrated in the Koryong area. These two divisions crossed in the US 1st Cavalry Division's line. The KPA 3rd Division's 7th Regiment started crossing the Naktong on August 9. Despite being spotted and taking fire, the bulk of it reached the east bank safely and moved inland into the hills. The 5th Cavalry Regiment and its supporting artillery, now fully alerted, spotted
14950-469: The village of Changsa-dong, where US Navy craft amphibiously withdrew the division. The division would sail 20 miles (32 km) south to Yongil Bay to join the other UN forces in a coordinated attack to push the KPA out of the region. This evacuation was carried out on the night of August 16. By August 14, large KPA forces were focused entirely on taking P'ohang-dong. However they were unable to hold it because of US air superiority and naval bombardment on
15080-530: The war on side of the South, and American General Douglas MacArthur , having forced a Communist retreat, proposed to end the war by Christmas 1950. The Soviet Union and China saw a UN (and consequently, American) victory as a major political victory to the United States, a prospect seen as dangerous in the beginnings of the Cold War . However, Stalin had no desire to go to war with the United States, and left China
15210-439: The west flank withdrew for several days to re-equip and receive reinforcements. This granted both sides several days of reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Busan Perimeter. The KPA was organized into a mechanized combined arms force of ten divisions , originally numbering some 90,000 well-trained and well-equipped troops in July, with hundreds of T-34 tanks. However, defensive actions by US and ROK forces had delayed
15340-483: Was Wonsan on the east coast. Wonsan was important as a communications center that linked Vladivostok , Siberia , with North Korea by rail and sea. From it, rail lines ran to all the KPA build-up centers. The great bulk of Russian supplies for North Korea in the early part of the war came in at Wonsan, and from the beginning it was considered a major military target. By July 27, the FEAF Bomber Command had
15470-441: Was a believer in orthodox Soviet-style economic planning and totally against experimentations. Several years earlier, he had been instrumental in trying to develop the PLA into a well-equipped, professional fighting force, as opposed to Mao's belief that soldiers who were revolutionary enough could overcome any obstacle. The army had had no ranks during the civil war and Korea. This system worked rather poorly in those conflicts, and so
15600-530: Was also a substantial disadvantage because it was less efficient and often too slow to follow the moving front-line units. North Korea's lack of large airstrips and aircraft meant it conducted only minimal air resupply, mostly critical items being imported from China . Other than this, however, aircraft played almost no role in North Korean logistics. The North Koreans were also unable to effectively use sea transport. Ports in Wonsan and Hungnam could be used for
15730-505: Was codified into China's Constitution as a guiding ideology. Internationally, it has influenced many communists around the world, including third world revolutionary movements such as Cambodia 's Khmer Rouge , Peru 's Shining Path and the revolutionary movement in Nepal . In practice, Mao Zedong Thought is defunct inside China aside from anecdotes about the CCP's legitimacy and China's revolutionary origins. Of those that remain, some regard
15860-422: Was exported. The difference in treatment of urban and rural areas was a major push factor for internal migration, which lead to increased restrictions on mobility. The ways to acquire an urban hukou were limited, including serving in the People's Liberation Army , passing the national university entrance examination or being recruited by an urban work unit as a permanent worker. Because of these restrictions,
15990-422: Was important for its proximity to lines of communication, as the main Korean north–south highway and the main double-track Seoul-Pusan railroad skirted its base. 1st Cavalry Division counterattacked the KPA gathering to force them back across the river, but their initial assault was repelled. The next morning, August 10, air strikes and artillery barrages rocked Hill 268, devastating the KPA, who withdrew back behind
16120-477: Was low due to the large number of defeats incurred to that point in the war. US forces had suffered over 6,000 casualties over the past month, while the ROK had lost an estimated 70,000. Troop numbers for each side have been difficult to estimate. The KPA had around 70,000 combat troops committed to the Pusan Perimeter on August 5, with most of its divisions far understrength. It likely had less than 3,000 personnel in mechanized units, and around 40 T-34 tanks at
16250-631: Was manned by a network of observation posts on the high ground where forces from the 24th Infantry Division monitored the river area. Forces in reserve would counterattack any attempted crossings by KPA forces. The division was spread extremely thinly; already understrength, it presented a very weak line. On the night of August 5–6, 800 KPA soldiers began wading across the river at the Ohang ferry site, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) south of Pugong-ni and west of Yongsan, carrying light weapons and supplies over their heads or on rafts. A second force attempted to cross
16380-597: Was not under his direct control. After a meeting with Mao, the Soviet leader remarked "What sort of a man is Mao? He seems to have some idea of revolution involving the peasants, but not the workers." Eventually, a frustrated Mao was ready to go home, but Zhou Enlai refused to leave without a formal agreement. Thus, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Friendship was signed and the Chinese at last departed in February 1950. According to Hua-yu Li, writing in Mao and
16510-458: Was reportedly moved in part by personal and national rivalry with Stalin and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union provided considerable economic aid and training during the 1950s. Many Chinese students were sent to study in Moscow. Factories and other infrastructure projects were all based on Soviet designs, for China was an agrarian country with little established industry. In 1953, Mao Zedong told
16640-516: Was south of P'ohang-dong. In early August, three KPA divisions mounted offensives against the three passes through the area, with the 8th Division attacking Yongch'on, 12th Division attacking P'ohang-dong and 5th Division, in conjunction with the 766th Independent Infantry Regiment, attacking An'gang-ni. The 8th Division drove for Yongch'on from Uiseong , but its attack failed to reach the Taegu-P'ohang corridor after being surprised and outflanked by
16770-415: Was three times its 1949 size (but the size of the Chinese economy in 1949 was one-tenth of the size of the economy in 1936), and whilst Mao-era China acquired some of the attributes of a superpower such as: nuclear weapons and a space programme; the nation was still quite poor and backwards compared to the Soviet Union, the United States, Japan, or Western Europe. Fairly significant economic growth in 1962–1966
16900-404: Was wiped out by the Cultural Revolution. Other critics of Mao fault him for not encouraging birth control and for creating an unnecessary demographic bump by encouraging the masses, "The more people, the more power", which later Chinese leaders forcibly responded to with the controversial one-child policy . The ideology surrounding Mao's interpretation of Marxism–Leninism , also known as Maoism ,
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