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148-459: The Chisca were a tribe of Native Americans living in present-day eastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia in the 16th century. Their descendants, the Yuchi lived in present-day Alabama , Georgia , and Florida in the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, and were removed to Indian Territory in the 1830s. The Hernando de Soto expedition heard of, and may have had brief contact with,

296-489: A collective noun (also describing First Nations, Inuit, and Métis) is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act, 1982 . Over time, as societal perceptions and government–indigenous relationships have shifted, many historical terms have changed definitions or been replaced as they have fallen out of favor. The use of the term "Indian" is frowned upon because it represents

444-1279: A stickball game with a single goal, similar to games played by Muskogee people. Indigenous peoples of the Americas In the Americas , indigenous peoples comprise the two continents' pre-Columbian inhabitants prior to European settlement in the 15th century, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with the pre-Columbian population of the Americas as such. These populations exhibit significant diversity; some Indigenous peoples were historically hunter-gatherers , while others practiced agriculture and aquaculture . Various Indigenous societies developed complex social structures , including pre-contact monumental architecture, organized cities , city-states , chiefdoms , states , kingdoms , republics , confederacies , and empires . These societies possessed varying levels of knowledge in fields such as engineering , architecture , mathematics , astronomy , writing , physics , medicine , agriculture , irrigation , geology , mining , metallurgy , art , sculpture , and goldsmithing . Indigenous peoples continue to inhabit many regions of

592-458: A Spanish inquiry. The conspiracy quickly gained support in the community. Hann notes that this may partly be because of discontent over pressure on the Chacato from the missionaries to strictly adhere to Christian standards. Another factor was threats from the conspirators to have their Chisca friends kill anyone who did not support the conspiracy. Diocsale also falsely claimed to be supported by

740-645: A Timucuan mission 10 leagues from St. Augustine , in hopes of using them to hunt fugitives from missions and defend the Florida colony. The Chisca roamed freely throughout Spanish Florida in the 1640s. In 1647, Chiscas were involved in the Apalachee Rebellion . After the Spanish suppressed the rebellion, Chiscas ambushed Spanish soldiers and Christian natives in neighboring Yustaga Province. The Spanish then ordered Chiscas, including some that had reached

888-611: A colonial state. The peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers ( Paleo-Indians ) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge , which had formed between northeastern Siberia and western Alaska due to the lowering of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 19,000 years ago). These populations expanded south of

1036-640: A connection to residential schools. Additionally, Indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health outcomes. While there are many studies that found an association between IHT and adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separate categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one monolithic group. For thousands of years, Indigenous peoples domesticated, bred, and cultivated

1184-739: A delegation of Chacatos and Apalachees to Pensacola seeking help. Chacatos were included because they knew the land between Apalachee and Pensacola Bay and had connections in that area. Hearing about the delegation from a spy, the Alabamas sent a party to intercept them, but the delegation reached Pensacola safely. When they reached Pensacola, rather than asking for supplies for Apalachee Province, they asked for permission to continue to Mobile . The governor of Pensacola, Andrés de Arriola, refused them permission to go to Mobile, but allowed them to stay in Pensacola rather than returning to Apalachee. More of

1332-855: A few still considered uncontacted peoples . The Americas also host millions of individuals of mixed Indigenous, European, and sometimes African or Asian descent, historically referred to as mestizos in Spanish-speaking countries. In many Latin American nations, people of partial Indigenous descent constitute a majority or significant portion of the population, particularly in Central America , Mexico , Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador , Colombia , Venezuela , Chile , and Paraguay. Mestizos outnumber Indigenous peoples in most Spanish-speaking countries, according to estimates of ethnic cultural identification. However, since Indigenous communities in

1480-701: A force of 800 Spaniards and Apalachees that intended to attack the former Apalachicola Province towns (the English called them the Ochise Creeks) in central Georgia in 1702. The Apalachicola towns ambused the Spanish-Apalachee force in the Battle of Flint River , killing or capturing 500 of them. Attacks by the English from the Province of Carolina and their Indian allies in 1704 destroyed many of

1628-654: A fortified village site with two mounds, may have been occupied by the ancestors of the historic Chacato. Pottery found in the historic Chacato settlement area is more closely related to that of Apalachee Province than to that of the peoples of the Pensacola and Mobile bays. The subsistence economy of the Chacatos also resembled that of the Apalachees, rather than the peoples to their west. The Chacatos appear to be an exception to their neighbors in that inheritance of

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1776-476: A large array of plant species. These species now constitute between 50% and 60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. In certain cases, the Indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection , as with the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in

1924-424: A large citizenry. Indigenous civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women. Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and Indigenous creation myths tell of

2072-551: A multitude of ways because the Indigenous community and their history are diverse. Many studies (such as Whitbeck et al., 2014; Brockie, 2012; Anastasio et al., 2016; Clark & Winterowd, 2012; Tucker et al., 2016) have evaluated the impact of IHT on health outcomes of Indigenous communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is a difficult term to standardize and measure because of the vast and variable diversity of Indigenous people and their communities. Therefore, it

2220-580: A plea for help to the Spanish authorities in San Luis , the capitol of Apalachee Province. Some of the loyal Chacatos defected to the conspirators and those remaining loyal advised Barreda to flee to the mission of Santa Cruz de Sabacola , on the Apalachicola River. Barreda's guides were chosen by an official who had secretly joined the conspirators, and he told them to kill Barreda after they had left San Carlos. The attack failed, although Barreda

2368-416: A pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million to some 300,000 in 1997. The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The reintroduction of the horse , extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Indigenous cultures in several regions, such as those of

2516-592: A second, more recent wave of migration several thousand years later and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the Indigenous peoples of Siberia . However, these groups are nonetheless considered "Indigenous peoples of the Americas". The term Amerindian , a portmanteau of "American Indian", was coined in 1902 by the American Anthropological Association . It has been controversial ever since its creation. It

2664-406: A site about 20 miles east of Marion, North Carolina ) in late January 1567, where they built Fort San Juan. Pardo left Sergeant Hernando Moyana in charge of the fort when he continued his journey of exploration before returning to Santa Elena. In March of that year, Moyana reported to Pardo that he had fought a chief named Chisca, killing 1,000 Chiscas and burning 50 houses. Shortly afterwards, Moyana

2812-420: A small fort nearby. The towns destroyed by Pardo and his soldiers are identified in Spanish sources as Maniatique and Guapere. Luisa Mendez, a Native American woman who was married to a Spanish soldier, was identified as the "cacica" (female chief) of the town of Guanaytique or Manaytique. Mendez's description of brine springs in the area has been taken as evidence that Maniatique was near Saltville, Virginia on

2960-459: A small settlement on the mainland opposite the point to support the lookout post, where some Chacatos lived. Two churches were established, with one named "Our Lady of Guadaloupe" serving the Chacatos. The lookout post and settlement were shortly abandoned, perhaps within months, but certainly by 1704. Sabacolas participated with Apalachicolas and Tiquepaches in an attack on the Chacato mission in 1694, killing five Chacatos and taking 42 Chacatos to

3108-611: A threat to livestock. Several bird species, such as turkeys , Muscovy ducks , Puna ibis , and neotropic cormorants were domesticated by various peoples in Mesoamerica and South America to be used for poultry. In the Andean region, indigenous peoples domesticated llamas and alpacas to produce fiber and meat. The llama was the only beast of burden in the Americas before European colonization. Guinea pigs were domesticated from wild cavies to be raised for meat consumption in

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3256-615: A total of 251 men at that time. Some Chacatos may have remained near Mobile. A small tribe known as "Chatos" was reported to have lived on the Mississippi coast and been absorbed into the Six Towns division of the Choctaws . A Chacato was reportedly mentioned in a Mobile newspaper in the early 1850s. Chacatos, Biloxis , and Pascagoulas totaled about 100 men after the move to Louisiana. Chacatos were reported at Rapides in 1773, on

3404-493: A variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point , and others came from "across the ocean". The European colonization of the Americas fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-colonization population count of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations diminished by between 80% and 90% during

3552-611: A violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries . Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent Captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with

3700-437: A whole, in general, most Indigenous peoples prefer to be identified by the name of their specific nation, tribe, or band. Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming has often been based on shared language, region, or historical relationship. Many English exonyms have been used to refer to

3848-534: A whole. Since the 1970s, the word "Indigenous", which is capitalized when referring to people, has gradually emerged as a favored umbrella term. The capitalization is to acknowledge that Indigenous peoples have cultures and societies that are equal to Europeans, Africans, and Asians. This has recently been acknowledged in the AP Stylebook . Some consider it improper to refer to Indigenous people as "Indigenous Americans" or to append any colonial nationality to

3996-533: Is a common term, though nativos or pueblos nativos ('native peoples') may also be heard; moreover, aborigen ('aborigine') is used in Argentina and pueblos originarios ('original peoples') is common in Chile . In Brazil, indígenas and povos originários ('Indigenous peoples') are common formal-sounding designations, while índio ('Indian') is still the more often heard term (the noun for

4144-416: Is an arduous task to assign an operational definition and systematically collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways, making it hard to compile data and review it holistically. This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts. Some of

4292-551: Is general agreement that the Americas were first settled from Asia, the pattern of migration and the place(s) of origin in Eurasia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remain unclear. The traditional theory is that Ancient Beringians moved when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation , following herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between

4440-962: Is now western Illinois , to live under French protection. Around this time, these Chisca seem to have joined with the Shawnee under the name Chaskepe . They followed the Shawnee's later migrations (1692–1754) through Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. La Salle reported that the Chisca had originally lived in the Appalachians east of where he found them, until their town was burnt down by colonists from Florida. (He mistakenly called those colonists English; they were Spanish). Chisca have been documented in Apalachicola Province by 1662, but may have been there as early as they were in Spanish Florida. The Chisca were at war with

4588-496: The Apalachicola . The Spanish found little evidence, however, that any Chisca had been involved in the conspiracy. The conspirators planned to seek refuge at Tawasa after killing Barreda. The conspirators spoke to Chacato leaders about expelling Barreda, but the leaders supported Barreda. When the conspirators then revealed that they intended to kill Barreda, the Chacato leaders placed guards to protect Barreda. Barreda sent

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4736-570: The Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point where pottery had started to become common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indigenous peoples began using fire in a controlled manner. They carried out the intentional burning of vegetation to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated

4884-506: The Battle of Flint River in 1702. The Apalachee were seeking to avenge earlier attacks on several missions in Apalachee Province, but lost more than half of their force killed or captured. Four Spaniards captured near Pensacola by Native groups, and released to St. Augustine in 1709, reported Chiscas among the various peoples supporting the English in their war against the Spanish. That group of Chiscas may have been living near

5032-564: The Chipola River basin in what is now Jackson County, Florida .) By the 1620s, Spanish records indicated that many Chiscas were living in the area. When Juan de Salinas was governor of Spanish Florida between 1618 and 1624, he sent soldiers 60 leagues to punish Chiscas and Chichimecos for robbing and killing Christian natives in Timucua and Apalachee provinces. In 1639, the Spanish unsuccessfully invited some Chiscas to settle near

5180-614: The Chiribaya to herd llamas . The vast majority of indigenous dog breeds in the Americas went extinct, due to being replaced by dogs of European origin. The Fuegian dog was a domesticated variation of the culpeo that was raised by several cultures in Tierra del Fuego , like the Selk'nam and the Yahgan . It was exterminated by Argentine and Chilean settlers, due to supposedly posing as

5328-544: The Choctaw nation. When West Florida was transferred to Great Britain in 1763, other Chacatos moved west to Louisiana. In the 17th and earliest 18th centuries, when they lived in the eastern panhandle of Florida, the Spanish usually called the people "Chacato", and less often, "Chacta", "Chacto", "Chata", and "Chato". "Chatot" is the name commonly used in English sources through most of the 20th century, although scholars have recently used "Chacato". After they moved west to

5476-705: The Choctaws . A village called Uchi was among the Lower Towns of the Muscogee Confederacy on the Chattahoochee River (the site of the former Apalachicola Province) by 1715. John Swanton identified the people of that village as Chiscas (Yuchis). Chisca were living in a mission near Pensacola in 1747. Chisca were also reported to be living 20 or 30 leagues east of Pensacola "on the road to Apalachee" in 1760. John R. Swanton equated

5624-635: The Florida panhandle , and in Tawasa and Tiquepache villages in Alabama . After the destruction of the Apalachee Province missions by the English of the Province of Carolina and their Native American allies in 1704, the surviving Chacatos moved west with Apalachees and other peoples of the province, settling in the vicinity of Pensacola and Mobile bays. Some of those Chacatos may have been absorbed into

5772-771: The Great Plains , the Northwest Plateau , the Great Basin , Aridoamerica , the Gran Chaco and the Southern Cone . By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game , such as bison . According to Erin McKenna and Scott L. Pratt, the Indigenous population of the Americas

5920-526: The Holston River . On the other hand, DePratter, et al. place the Chisca towns on the upper Nolichucky River or the Watauga River , or both. People that the Spanish called Chisca were in the western part of what is now the state of Florida by late in the 16th century. A Chacato chief, Juan de Diocsale, who had a Chisca mother, was born by 1595. (Chacato Province was roughly coterminous with

6068-503: The Inca Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico. Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in

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6216-573: The Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using boats , they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America as far as Chile . Any archaeological evidence of coastal occupation during the last Ice Age would now have been covered by the sea level rise , up to a hundred metres since then. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus ' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice

6364-549: The Laurentide Ice Sheet and spread rapidly southward, occupying both North and South America by 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known as Paleo-Indians . Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by proposed linguistic factors , the distribution of blood types , and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA . While there

6512-823: The Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions. Numerous Native American dog breeds have been used by the people of the Americas, such as the Canadian Eskimo dog , the Carolina dog , and the Chihuahua . Some indigenous peoples in the Great Plains used dogs for pulling travois , while others like the Tahltan bear dog were bred to hunt larger game. Some Andean cultures also bred

6660-622: The Nolichucky River in the vicinity of the upper Tennessee River , where they were attacked and defeated by Chisca warriors. The Spanish established the first capital of Spanish Florida at Santa Elena , on Parris Island, South Carolina . In late 1566, Captain Juan Pardo departed from Santa Elena to explore the interior of what is now the Southeastern United States. Pardo's expedition reached Joara (at

6808-582: The Savannah River , and near Tampa Bay . The Chiscas played a ballgame that pitted men against women. There were goals at the north and south ends of the field. The goals were made of branches that formed an arch. Both sides could kick or roll the ball, but the women could also pick up the ball and run with it or pass it to other women. The games were part of a set of rituals culminating in the Green Corn Ceremony . The Chiscas also played

6956-624: The St. Johns River valley, to settle in towns under Christian caciques, but the Chiscas remained "rebellious" in 1650 and 1651, killing some mission inhabitants, and kidnapping others. The Chisca had several settlements near the St. Johns River, from which they raided Timucua missions and the La Chua ranch . In 1651, the Spanish succeeded in driving the Chisca out of Timucua province. Some Chisca had settled at

7104-485: The history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period . The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising independently around

7252-448: The residential school ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, or "elders from their community" went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools is associated with negative health outcomes. In a comprehensive review of the research literature, Joseph Gone and colleagues compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures relative to

7400-431: The " West Indies " (or " Antilles "), a name that is still used to describe the islands. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" ( Spanish : indios ; Portuguese : índios ; French : indiens ; Dutch : indianen ) for the Indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of ethnic or cultural unity among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics,

7548-621: The 1520s, possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521. There are many factors as to why Indigenous peoples suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian diseases. Many Old World diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not indigenous to

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7696-588: The 16th century on the upper Nolichucky River or Watauga River . Beck equates the town of Chisca during the same period with Maniatique on the Holston River . Swanton considered the people called "Chichimeco" by the Spanish to be the same as the Chisca, but Hann equates the Chichimeca with the Westo . The Chisca and the Westo may have spoken related languages, although not all authorities agree. The Uchi village on

7844-473: The 16th century were Constantinople and Paris with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively. The population in London, Madrid, and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000 people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of England was just under three million people. This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture, governmental procedure, and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such

7992-453: The 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola , represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died. They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. One such outbreak occurred in a camp of enslaved Africans, where smallpox spread to the nearby Taíno population and reduced their numbers by 50%. Increasing punishment of

8140-411: The 350 people in the mission of San Nicolás de los Chacatos that appeared around that time. Some Chacatos may also have been among the some 150 people at the Sabacola mission of San Carlos de Çabacola . The Sabacola mission was listed as Çabacola Chuba (Big Savacola) in 1690. The Sabacola mission was gone by 1693, when the Chacato village on the Apalchicola was mentioned as the "most outlying mission" in

8288-462: The Americas are defined by cultural identification and kinship rather than ancestry or race , mestizos are typically not counted among the Indigenous population unless they speak an Indigenous language or identify with a specific Indigenous culture. Additionally, many individuals of wholly Indigenous descent who do not follow Indigenous traditions or speak an Indigenous language have been classified or self-identify as mestizo due to assimilation into

8436-416: The Americas have been more vocal about how they want to be addressed, pushing to suppress the use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist . During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement , the United States federal government responded by proposing the use of the term " Native American ", to recognize the primacy of Indigenous peoples' tenure in

8584-899: The Americas, with significant populations in countries such as Bolivia , Canada , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Guatemala , Mexico , Peru , and the United States . There are at least 1,000 different indigenous languages spoken across the Americas, with 574 federally recognized tribes in the US alone. Some languages, including Quechua , Arawak , Aymara , Guaraní , Mayan , and Nahuatl , have millions of speakers and are recognized as official by governments in Bolivia , Peru , Paraguay , and Greenland . Indigenous peoples, whether residing in rural or urban areas, often maintain aspects of their cultural practices, including religion , social organization , and subsistence practices. Over time, these cultures have evolved, preserving traditional customs while adapting to modern needs. Some Indigenous groups remain relatively isolated from Western culture , with

8732-399: The Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance, over many generations. Many of the Old World diseases that were brought over to the Americas were diseases, like yellow fever , that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for

8880-475: The Andean region. Guinea pigs are now widely raised in Western society as household pets. Chacato In the late 17th century, one village of Chacatos moved from the center of Apalachee Province to near where the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers join to form the Apalachicola River, close to a Sabacola village and mission. That village was abandoned after it was attacked by Apalachicolas and others. Other Chacatos lived in small settlements scattered across

9028-411: The Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee rivers. At the time of first contact with the Spanish, the people they called Chacato lived in the upper part of the Chipola River basin and the adjacent section of the Appalachicola River in the area of the Fort Walton culture , primarily in what is now Jackson County, Florida . A number of archaeological sites in the area, including the Waddells Mill Pond Site ,

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9176-514: The Apalachicola towns in the 1680s, but had formed an alliance with them by 1702. Two Chisca were reported to be among the attackers on the San Carlos de los Chacatos mission in 1689 (the others were from Sabacola, Coweta , Apalachicola, and Tiquepache). Chiscas participated with Apalachicolas in the attacks that pushed the Spanish out of Apalachee Province. Chisca were among the force (mainly Apalachicola and some Westo) of more than 400 fighters who ambushed and defeated an Apalachee force of 800 men in

9324-454: The Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace. The Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513 , were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly concerning Indigenous peoples. The laws forbade the maltreatment of them and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism . The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in distant colonies. Epidemic disease

9472-567: The Chacato and Apalachee provinces in the 1660s and 1670s. They were described as "warrior Indians, their faces striped, and who use firearms". The Spanish called some of the invaders "Chichimecos" (probably Westos ). Hann suggests that most of the migrants were Tama and Yamasee . Two missions were established among the Chacato in June 1674. The first mission, San Carlos Borromeo, was in the principal Chacato village of Achercatane (later listed as Yatcatane), four days journey northwest of Apalachee Province. A second mission, San Nicolás de Tolentino,

9620-446: The Chacato in Spanish records was in 1638, when a representative of the Spanish governor of Florida was able to stop a war between the allied Chacato, Apalachicola, and Yamassee peoples, and the Apalachees. The next governor visited the Chacato and Apalachicola Province in 1646, when both peoples requested missionaries. The Chacatos requested missionaries again in the 1660s. There are isolated Spanish reports of people migrating into

9768-401: The Chacato villages and in their own nearby village make trouble for the missionaries and converts. The Spanish lieutenant-governor in Apalachee Province took some soldiers and 25 Apalachees armed with harquebuses to the Chacato missions. The three reluctant warriors were nominally converted to Christianity and the Chiscas were expelled from the Chacato villages while the Spanish-Apalachee party

9916-407: The Chacato, Tawasa, and Apalachee people who had survived the attacks on the missions soon moved to Pensacola. Some of the Apalachees and Chacatos drove cattle with them to Pensacola in July 1704. Most of the Chacatos and the Apalachees from San Luis and Escambe who had fled to Pensacola continued on to the French settlement at Mobile. Between 200 and 250 Chacatos arrived in Mobile in 1704. Some of

10064-428: The Chacato. The Chacato spoke a Muskogean language , which may have been the same as that of several other peoples in western Florida, including the Amacano , Chine , Pacara, and Pensacola peoples. Swanton states that the language of the Chacato is "undoubtedly" a member of the southern division of the Muskogean stock. While it has been suggested that the Chacato were part of the Apalachee people, Hann notes that

10212-423: The Chacatos and Apalachees spoke different languages, but noted that both had adopted many Spanish words. Some Chacatos may have lived with Apalachees. Swanton repeats population estimates of 250 Chacato men when they were first settled at Mobile, but only 40 men in 1725-1726, and 30 men in 1817. Some Chacatos and Apalachees stayed at Pensacola for another year or two, with 80 or more workers receiving rations from

10360-407: The Chacatos seeking refuge at Mobile were reported to be from St. Joseph Bay . The French placed the Chacatos on a site called "Oigonets" at the mouth of the Mobile River. In 1711, the French moved their settlement from its original site at Old Mobile to Oigonets, and moved the Chacatos to Dog River on Mobile Bay. The French regarded the Chacatos as warriors and good Catholics. They understood that

10508-404: The Chattahoochee River in the 18th century may have included Chichimecos as well as Chiscas. Hann states the Yuchi/Uchee were clearly descended from the Chisca. Remnants of the Westos may have been absorbed into Chiscas/Yuchis. Hann states that the use of the name "Chisca" by the Spanish for a specific group of people in Florida suggests that the Spanish believed they were the same as the people of

10656-600: The Chisca chiefdom encountered in the Appalachian Mountains by the Juan Pardo expeditions. Some authors, starting with John Swanton, have regarded Chiscas, Westos and Yuchis as the same people, although Goddard argues that Chiscas spoke a language distinct from that of the Westos, and that the three groups appeared in the southeastern United States at different times; the Chiscas in 1618, the Westo in 1661, and

10804-453: The Chisca in 1540. The Juan Pardo expeditions of 1566 and 1568 encountered the Chisca and fought them. By early in the 17th century, Chisca people were present in several parts of Spanish Florida , engaged at various times and places in alternately friendly or hostile relations with the Spanish and the peoples of the Spanish mission system . After the capture of a fortified Chisca town by

10952-399: The Chisca in the village at the mouth of the Apalachicola River cause trouble for other Chacatos and the missions. The lone missionary in the province was forced to flee for his life. The Spanish sent a few soldiers and 25 Apalachees armed with harquebuses to support the missionary, and to expel Chiscas who had been living in the Chacato towns. In 1676, the Chisca moved their village from near

11100-482: The Chisca settlement on the Choctawhatchee River . Sometime between 1683 and 1685, the Chacato left the site near San Luis and moved to the Apalachicola River, near a Sabacola village and mission, Santa Cruz de Sabacola. The Sabacola of that village had recently moved downriver to be closer to Apalachee Province, so that a missionary could be placed with them. The mission of San Carlos de los Chacatos

11248-502: The Chisca town. The Spanish and Apalachees used this trail to approach the Chisca town without opposition. While the Spanish and Apalachees had only 190 men, the 30 firearms carried by the Apalachees vastly outnumbered the two firearms that the Chisca were known to have. The Apalachees fired bar shot , which battered the wooden houses and other structures inside the palisade, and also started fires. Many women and children who had taken refuge in various structures were burned to death. The town

11396-442: The Chisca with the Yuchi and the Westo . Later scholars have rejected the Westo identification, and some have questioned the identification of Yuchi with Chisca, arguing that Swanton based the connections on a misinterpretation of the route de Soto took through the Appalachian Mountains, and noting that while the different groups may have lived at the same places, they did not do so at the same time. DePratter, et al. locate Chisca in

11544-493: The Chiscas in their attacks on the mission Apalachee. By 1677, the Chisca town on the mouth of the Apalachicola was abandoned, and the Spanish learned from a Chacato informant that the Chisca had built a palisaded town on the Choctawhatchee River, two days journey west of the Apalachicola River. The palisade was described as a bit more than 16 feet (4.9 m) high, and about 300 paces long on each side. It had boards near

11692-501: The Chiscas. There is no record of the missionaries returning to the Chacato missions after the revolt. Chacatos were still living at San Carlos in early 1676, but the Chisca attacked the village soon after, and both San Carlos and San Nicolas were abandoned before September 1677. At least part of the Chacato people had moved into Apalachee Province, settling half a league west of the Apalachee capitol at San Luis. Chacatos were among

11840-719: The Cisca had taken refuge in Tennessee after their village had been burned by a combined force of English and "Apalalchites". Mason thinks it is likely that La Salle misinterpreted what he was told, and that the people of the village were Chiscas who had fled the destruction of their village on the Choctawhatchee. La Salle persuaded those villagers and the Shawnee north of the Cumberland to relocate to Fort St. Louis in what

11988-525: The English and Spanish lexicons. The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru , from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies indigenous to south-central Chile , Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum , where it

12136-538: The Europeans began the human trafficking of massive numbers of enslaved Western and Central African people to the Americas. Like Indigenous peoples, these African people, newly exposed to European diseases, lacked any inherited resistance to the diseases of Europe. In 1520, an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South America and had arrived at

12284-401: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempts to translate or transliterate endonyms from the native languages. Other terms arose during periods of conflict between the colonists and Indigenous peoples. Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in

12432-611: The Indigenous population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans. Some 90 percent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619. In 1633, in Fort Orange (New Netherland) , the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and

12580-796: The Indigenous-European mixed-race mestizos (or caboclos in Brazil) of Hispanic America who, with their larger population (in most Latin American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity ( cf. ladinos ). Among Spanish-speaking countries , indígenas or pueblos indígenas ('Indigenous peoples')

12728-665: The Plata basin. Colonist violence towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European colonists perpetrated massacres on the Indigenous peoples and enslaved them. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century had a known death toll of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000 Native Americans, and an estimated total death toll of 45,000 Native Americans. The first Indigenous group encountered by Columbus,

12876-481: The Province of Carolina to sell as slaves. After the attack, the Chacatos retreated to Escambé in Apalachee Province. The Chacatos requested that they be allowed to return to the site near San Luis where they had lived from 1676 until after 1683. A contract with the Apalachee chief to allow that was drawn up, but there is no record that the Chacatos returned to that place. Chacatos did remain in Apalachee Province until 1704, however. Chacatos and Apalachees worked for

13024-748: The South-Asian nationality being indiano ), but for the past 10 years has been considered offensive and pejorative. Aborígene and nativo are rarely used in Brazil in Indigenous-specific contexts (e.g., aborígene is usually understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians ). The Spanish and Portuguese equivalents to Indian , nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person, particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa—for example, indios filipinos . Indigenous peoples of

13172-714: The Spanish and Apalachee in 1677, some Chisca took refuge in northern Tennessee, where they were absorbed into the Shawnee , and in Muscogee towns in Alabama. Around the turn of the 18th century some Chisca, by then generally called Yuchi, joined the Apalachicola Province towns that resettled around Ochisi Creek in central Georgia, thus becoming part of the "Lower Towns of the Muscogee Confederacy ". A few Chiscas remained in western Florida into

13320-401: The Spanish missions in Apalachee Province, with the attackers killing or taking away many of the people living at those missions. Residents of other missions survived the attacks, but soon abandoned their villages. Immediately after Ayubale was attacked in 1704, Apalachicolas in the attacking group demanded that Chacatos be turned over to them in exchange for Spaniards captured in the raid, but

13468-453: The Spanish missions. In that inquiry, Miguel, chief of San Nicolás, had been accused of being one of the principal conspirators in the 1675 revolt, and of going to St. Augustine to help Diocsale escape from arrest, but was released because of lack of credible witnesses. On being released from custody. Miguel returned to his village, recruited some of his men, and joined the Chiscas. He was also accused of helping recruit some Pensacolas to join

13616-490: The Spanish on building the new settlement at Pensacola Bay in 1698. They may have also helped drive cattle from Apalachee Province to Pensacola Bay. In the winter of 1698–1699, 40 Chacatos led by a Spaniard were on a buffalo hunt when they encountered 24 men from Tasquique travelling with goods to trade at San Luis. The Chacatos attacked the Tasquiques while they slept, killing 16, and taking the trade goods. Chacatos joined

13764-476: The Spanish presidio in 1707. That year food shortages resulted in a reduction in the ration and another 150 Chacatos and 100 Apalachees left for Mobile. When the British took over West Florida in 1763, most of the Chacatos, along with other small tribes that had settled around Mobile, moved to Spanish Louisiana . The Chacatos, Pensacolas, Capinans , Washas, Chawashas , and Pascagoulas living near Mobile had

13912-465: The Spanish refused to do so. Dubcovsky says the demand by the Apalachicolas was in retaliation for the incident in which 40 Chacatos killed 16 Tasquiques five years earlier. Dudcovsky also says the raiders struck Ayubale first because that is where the Chacatos had returned after the killings. Following the attack on the missions, the province was low on supplies. In early June 1704, Solano sent

14060-508: The Spanish that the English were urging the Chichimeco to attack Spanish missions and other native groups that had submitted to the Spanish king. On the other hand, that same year Pablo de Hita Salazar, governor of Florida, described the Chisca as "our enemies, rebellious people, untamed and brought up licentiously". Diaz Vara Calderon, Bishop of Cuba, described the Chisca as living "without any fixed settlements, and sustaining themselves with

14208-524: The Spanish used interpreters to translate from Chacato to Apalachee, and other interpreters to translate from Apalachee to Spanish. Martin states that suggestions that the Chacato language is related to Choctaw are unreliable. The Chacato may have lived along one or more rivers flowing into Choctawhatchee Bay . A map in Martin shows the Chacato occupying an area along the Gulf Coast of Florida between

14356-474: The Taínos for revolting against forced labor, despite measures put in place by the encomienda , which included religious education and protection from warring tribes, eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion (1511–1529). Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava ,

14504-568: The United States are commonly known as Native Americans , Indians, as well as Alaska Natives . The term "Indian" is still used in some communities and remains in use in the official names of many institutions and businesses in Indian Country . The various nations, tribes, and bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas have differing preferences in terminology for themselves. While there are regional and generational variations in which umbrella terms are preferred for Indigenous peoples as

14652-507: The Yuchis just before 1707. The Spanish referred to both Chiscas and Chichimecos early in the 17th century, and used Chisca interpreters to question Chichimeco captives in 1662. The people called Chichimecos (at least, later in the 17th century) by the Spanish were probably the people called Westos by the English. The Chisca were also known as the Ysica or Yuchi to the Spanish. Hann believes that

14800-576: The area around Mobile Bay, and later to west of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, they were often also called "Chactoo", "Chacchou", "Chaetoo" and "Chattoo". Other forms of the name have included "Chacâto", "Chaqto", and "Chactot". Galloway notes that chato is Spanish for "flat" or "roman-nosed", and speculates that the Spanish called the people that because they practiced artificial cranial deformation . Milanich notes that confusion of

14948-467: The chieftainship did not necessarily pass to the offspring of the previous chief's eldest sister. The Chacato, along with the Apalachees and Muscogees, applied the title usinulo (beloved son) to one of the chief's sons. The Chacatos also shared use of the leadership titles inija (second-in-command) and chacal (assistant to an inija ) with the Apalachee and the Timucua peoples. The first mention of

15096-680: The contact and colonization period and were documented in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, Aztec , and Nahua peoples , had their written languages and records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs and burned many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. According to both Indigenous and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at

15244-476: The differences may be due to many of the people of the villages being on hunting or fishing trips at the time of the bishop's visit. Another report places about 80 men at San Antonio in that year. The missionaries at the two missions claimed to have converted more than 300 Chacatos, including the chiefs of the settlements, to Christianity by late September. Three warriors complained that they were being pressured to convert, and threatened to have Chiscas living in

15392-504: The dominant Hispanic culture . In recent years, the self-identified Indigenous population in many countries has increased as individuals reclaim their heritage amid rising Indigenous-led movements for self-determination and social justice . Application of the term " Indian " originated with Christopher Columbus , who, in his search for India , thought that he had arrived in the East Indies . The islands came to be known as

15540-420: The earlier party with orders to bring Barreda and Fray Juan Ocon, the missionary at Sabacola, back to San Luis. After the failed attempt on Barreda's life, many Chacato, including essentially all of San Antonio, most of the population of San Nicolás, and an unknown number of people from San Carlos, fled to Tawasa. The deputy governor for Apalachee, Juan Fernandez de Hita y Salazar, soon returned to San Luis, and

15688-582: The eastern mouth of the Apalachicola River to the Choctawhatchee River . After the move, the Chisca began openly raiding missions in Apalachee and Timucua provinces. While the Chacato conspirator Diocsale was held under house arrest in St. Augustine, he was allowed visitors. Informants told Spanish officials that he had sent messages by those visitors inciting the Chisca to attack Spanish missions. Apalachees were killed in raids on Ivitachuco, Patale , Bacuqua, Escambé , and Ayubale, although some of

15836-529: The eastern mouth of the Apalachicola River to the Choctawhatchee River . After the move, the Chisca began raiding missions in Apalachee and Timucua provinces. Chiscas had apparently been raiding Spanish missions for several years before 1676, when the Spanish finally realized that they were responsible for some of the raids. In 1676, Chisca were believed to have raided several missions in Apalachee Province, including Ivitachuco, Patale , Bacuqua, Escambe , and Ayubale , killing Christian Apalachees, although some of

15984-630: The first centuries of European colonization. Most scholars estimate a pre-colonization population of around 50 million, with other scholars arguing for an estimate of 100 million. Estimates reach as high as 145 million. Epidemics ravaged the Americas with diseases, such as smallpox , measles , and cholera , which the early colonists brought from Europe. The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected, due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure to these diseases in Europe. This changed when

16132-435: The first people to take refuge in Apalachee Province. They were incorporated into Apalachee society as tributaries. The mission of San Carlos de los Chatacos was still located near San Luis in 1683. It was reported to have a population of 216 in 1681, apparently not including children; most of the adults were Christians. Chacatos from that settlement were drafted by the Spanish as guides for an expedition in 1677 that destroyed

16280-466: The governor of Florida, Pablo de Hita y Salazar sent a few more soldiers to Apalachee. Before the Spanish could decide on a course of action, Fray Juan de Paiva, the missionary assigned to San Nicolás de Tolentino, persuaded Pérez to spare the lives of the conspirators who had fled to Tawasa if they returned to San Carlos. Some of the exiles returned to San Carlos, but others rejected the amnesty and remained in Tawasa. The Spanish conducted inquiries into

16428-579: The growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important both for food and for medicines. In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut and fruit trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used prescribed burning farther away, in forest and prairie areas. Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous peoples are now produced and used globally, most notably maize (or "corn") arguably

16576-435: The health outcomes of Indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include such concepts as anxiety , suicidal ideation , suicide attempts , polysubstance abuse , PTSD , depression , binge eating , anger, and sexual abuse. The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because

16724-456: The hunt, nuts, and roots of trees". Calderon gave the Chisca population as more than 4,000. In 1674, Spanish missions were established in two Chacato towns. Diocsale, a chief of the Chacato, whose mother had been a Chisca, entertained Chiscas regularly at his house. Diocsale and other Chacatos resentful of Spanish missionary attempts to force them to confine themselves to one wife, and to otherwise conform with Christian morality, threatened to have

16872-570: The imposition and restriction of Indigenous peoples and cultures by the Canadian Government. The terms "Native" and " Eskimo " are generally regarded as disrespectful (in Canada), and so are rarely used unless specifically required. While "Indigenous peoples" is the preferred term, many individuals or communities may choose to describe their identity using a different term. The Métis people of Canada can be contrasted, for instance, to

17020-423: The land portion of an expedition to assess Pensacola Bay for a new settlement. Five Chacatos and five Apalachees went to Pensacola with Torres y Ayala to care for 100 horses he bought in Apalachee Province. At Pensacola Bay, the expedition found 20 Chacatos living in two small camps, but no Pensacolas. In 1701, the Spanish established a lookout post on St. Joseph Point on the end of the St. Joseph Peninsula , with

17168-707: The lands of the Iroquois by 1679. During the 1770s smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians . In 1832 the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans ( The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 ). The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from

17316-476: The methodologies to measure IHT include a "Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies. HLS uses a survey format that includes "12 kinds of historical losses", such as loss of language and loss of land and asks participants how often they think about those losses. The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions, and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses. Lastly,

17464-620: The middle of the 18th century. In 1540, the Hernando de Soto expedition entered the southern Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina. At the town of Coste at the mouth of the Little Tennessee River , de Soto was told of the "Chisca" province that was north of Coste and produced copper and "another finer but softer metal of the same color". According to de Sotos's account, he sent out a small exploration party near

17612-887: The most important crop in the world. Other significant crops include cassava ; chia ; squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow , acorn squash , butternut squash ); the pinto bean , Phaseolus beans including most common beans , tepary beans , and lima beans ; tomatoes ; potatoes ; sweet potatoes ; avocados ; peanuts ; cocoa beans (used to make chocolate ); vanilla ; strawberries ; pineapples ; peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum , including bell peppers , jalapeños , paprika , and chili peppers ); sunflower seeds ; rubber ; brazilwood ; chicle ; tobacco ; coca ; blueberries , cranberries , and some species of cotton . Studies of contemporary Indigenous environmental management—including agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and hunting and fishing among

17760-539: The mouth of the Apalachicola River , near Apalachee Province, as early as 1661, and relations with the Spanish were friendly enough that they tried to recruit some Chiscas to serve as interpreters for questioning some Chichimecos held prisoner by the Spanish, and, in 1675, asked the Chiscas to not support the Chacatos in their dispute with the Spanish. In 1675, the Chisca living near Apalachee Province warned

17908-470: The names "Chatot" and "Chactato" with the Choctaw of Mississippi may have been responsible for the name of Choctawhatchee Bay . Galloway says that the Chacatos and Choctaws should not be confused, that the names are phonetically distinct, and were consistently used to refer to distinct peoples in the 18th century. Swanton states that the Choctawhatchee River in Florida and Bayou Chattique, Choctaw Point , and Choctaw Swamp near Mobile are probably named after

18056-574: The names Chisca, Ysica, Yuchi, Uchi, and Uchee refer to the same people, and that they were possibly related to the Westo. Hann also states that the Spanish began calling Chisca "Yuchi" ( Yujiha in their language, "Euchee" in English sources) in 1715. Those people were incorporated into the Muscogee nation and survive as a separate community in Oklahoma . Wright notes a tradition that the Yuchi had been

18204-458: The nation. As may be expected among people of over 400 different cultures in the US alone, not all of the people intended to be described by this term have agreed on its use or adopted it. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Most prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations when not speaking about Native Americans/American Indians as

18352-612: The people of the chiefdom of Chisca encountered by de Soto, and that in 1763 they retained memories of the Chisca chiefdom and continued to speak their own language, despite domination by Muscogee speakers. They kept separate from Muscogee speakers, living with Shawnees on the Tallapoosa River and Hitchiti speakers along the Chattahoochee River. Other Yuchis lived in separate villages on the Flint River ,

18500-467: The raids may have been carried out by Yamassees . In an inquiry in 1676 into recent attacks on missions, Diocsale finally admitted to inciting the Chiscas to make war on Christians, and was sentenced to exile in Mexico. Testimony was also given that the Chiscas had conducted the attacks on the missions, and were fortifying their village on the Choctawhatchee River in preparation for further warfare against

18648-448: The raids may have been committed by Yamasee . By the next year, a Chacato village had moved into Apalachee Province for better protection against raids by Chiscas. A Chacato casique named Miguel testified in a hearing in St. Augustine that the Chisca were responsible for the killings in Apalachee, and that they intended to continue attacking the Apalachee. Miguel was later accused by the Spanish of recruiting Chacatos and Pansacolas to join

18796-514: The region. Just as Chacatos had sought refuge at Tawasa in 1675, Tawasa sought refuge with the Chacatos in the mid-1690s, and stayed until the Chacatos abandoned Apalachee Province. The Tawasa remained west of Apalachee Province, and were not converted to Christianity. They dispersed after the destruction of the Apalachee Missions. In 1693, Laureano de Torres y Ayala , waiting to take up his post of governor of Spanish Florida, led

18944-774: The rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would result in these diseases proving fatal. Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles . Their culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, Indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of colonization and genocide. Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 percent of

19092-432: The revolt is late 1675 and again 1676. At the first inquiry, the Spanish honored the promise to spare the lives of the conspirators, but Diocsale and two others were taken to San Luis for further trial. Diocsale was exiled from San Carlos for life and held in house-arrest in St. Augustine while the other two were sentenced to four years of labor for the colonial government. In 1676, the Chisca moved their village from near

19240-540: The same time as that of Egypt . Many later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, engineering, astronomy, trade, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies . Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with

19388-474: The term Indigenous people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different experiences and histories. That being said some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman (2014), Elias et al. (2012), and Pearce et al. (2008) found that Indigenous respondents with a connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (e.g., suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and depression) than those who did not have

19536-497: The term because Indigenous cultures existed before European colonization. Indigenous groups have territorial claims that are different from modern national and international borders, and when labeled as part of a country, their traditional lands are not acknowledged. Some who have written guidelines consider it more appropriate to describe an Indigenous person as "living in" or "of" the Americas, rather than calling them "American"; or simply calling them "Indigenous" without any addition of

19684-569: The term usually includes the history of Indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the pre-contact Mesoamerican Indigenous societies : Olmec ; Toltec ; Teotihuacano ' Zapotec ; Mixtec ; Aztec and Maya civilizations ; and the complex cultures of the Andes : Inca Empire , Moche culture , Muisca Confederation , and Cañari . The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in

19832-458: The time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what would become Mexico City ), with an estimated population of 200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five million for the extended empire. By comparison, the largest European cities in

19980-425: The top of the walls for fighters to stand on, and features that may have been glacis . The town was big enough to hold 700 fighting men and their dependents. The Spanish were told that the Chisca intended to use the town as a base for attacking the Apalachee, Timucua, Apalachicola , Chacato, Sabacola , Casista , Oconee , Usichi, Ayjichito and other peoples. The Spanish and Apalachee mounted an expedition against

20128-411: The town on the Choctawhatchee in 1677. They suspected that the Chisca would be watching the trail that led directly from Chacato Province to the Choctawhatchee town, so the Spanish-Apalachee force moved south to a trail that ran closer to the coast. This led to a place where Chacatos and Pansacolas had settled near the coast. Those people had established a trail to the Chisca town, and then had all moved to

20276-456: Was 145 million in the late 15th and by the late 17th century, had been reduced to 15 million due to epidemics , wars, massacres, mass rapes , starvation, and enslavement. Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that can accumulate across generations and develop as a result of the historical ramifications of colonization and is linked to mental and physical health hardships and population decline. IHT affects many different people in

20424-400: Was challenged by another chief (assumed to also be a Chisca by Hudson, et al.). In response, Moyana marched for four days with 19 Spanish soldiers and an unspecified number of Joaras, and captured a palisaded town, killing a claimed 1,500 inhabitants and burning the town. Moyana then marched another four days to Chiaha . Chiaha was also surrounded by a palisade, and Moyana settled for building

20572-589: Was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago. According to Linda Newson , "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines , while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet." Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of the Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico. Indigenous peoples of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in

20720-489: Was established in the village of Atanchia. A third village, with a visita called San Antonio by the Spanish, may have been located in what is now Houston County, Alabama . In the winter of 1675, Bishop Gabriel Díaz Vara y Calderón estimated San Carlos's population to be just over 100, and San Nicolas's just over 30. Later that year, acting deputy governor Andrés Pérez estimated San Carlos's population to be about 300, and that of San Nicolas, about 100. Hann suggests that

20868-656: Was immediately rejected by some leading members of the Association, and, while adopted by many, it was never universally accepted. While never popular in Indigenous communities themselves, it remains a preferred term among some anthropologists, notably in some parts of Canada and the English-speaking Caribbean . " Indigenous peoples in Canada " is used as the collective name for First Nations , Inuit , and Métis . The term Aboriginal peoples as

21016-680: Was in the vicinity of the Sabacola mission, but was listed as being in Apalachee Province . In 1686, the chief of Tawasa visited Apalachee, bringing 24 Christian Chacatos who had been in Tawasa since 1675. Other Chacatos may have returned to Apalachee from Tawasa after that. Marcos Delgado, a Spanish soldier who traveled to Tawasa that year, reported that Chacatos lived in a village called Okchai in Tiquepache Province, beyond Tawasa. Such returning Chacatos may have made up

21164-505: Was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of Indigenous peoples themselves but has since been embraced or tolerated by many over the last two centuries. The term "Indian" generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas, including the Aleuts , Inuit , or Yupik peoples . These peoples entered the continent as

21312-713: Was on a bluff overlooking a river, and many Chisca fled by swimming across the river. Surviving Chiscas sought refuge in various places. Some went to Atassi (relatives of the Tukabatchee ) on the Tallapoosa River and Tawasa on the Alabama River . Others apparently went to Tennessee. In 1683 the French explorer La Salle found what his expedition recorded as a "Cisca" village between the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers in northern Tennessee. La Salle reported that

21460-517: Was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous peoples. After initial contact with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years. Smallpox killed from one-third to half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518. By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac , smallpox caused

21608-460: Was the son of a Chisca woman and had been chief of the village where San Carlos was located. He resented being forced by Barreda to attend mass and to give up three of his four wives. Another conspirator, Ubabesa, had been scolded by Barreda in Sunday mass for having an affair with a Christian woman while her husband was away. Other alleged conspirators including Chacatos and Chiscas were later named in

21756-438: Was there. In the summer of 1675, three Chacato warriors, who may have been the same as those who threatened trouble the previous year, conspired against the missionaries. They initially claimed only to want to expel Fray Barreda, the missionary at San Carlos and the sole missionary in the Chacato lands at the time, but it was soon revealed that the plan was to kill Fray Barreda. One of the conspirators, Juan Fernández de Diocsale,

21904-484: Was wounded. Barreda killed one of the attackers with his musket and escaped to Santa Cruz. In the absence of the deputy governor for Apalachee Province, the acting deputy governor, Andrés Pérez, sent a few Spanish soldiers and Apalachees to help guard Barreda. On hearing that the number of loyalists guarding Barreda was shrinking, Pérez sent 26 archers after the first group. Later the same day word reached San Luis that Barreda had fled to Sabacola. Pérez sent 11 gunmen after

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