47-568: Chiwere (also called Iowa-Otoe-Missouria or Báxoje-Jíwere-Nyútʼach ) is a Siouan language originally spoken by the Missouria , Otoe , and Iowa peoples, who originated in the Great Lakes region but later moved throughout the Midwest and plains. The language is closely related to Ho-Chunk , also known as Winnebago. Non-Native Christian missionaries first documented Chiwere in
94-493: A minimal pair that contrasts primarily the vowel nasalization even though the /ɔ̃/ from bon is slightly more open . Portuguese allows nasal diphthongs , which contrast with their oral counterparts, like the pair mau /ˈmaw/ "bad" and mão /ˈmɐ̃w̃/ "hand". Although there are French loanwords in English with nasal vowels like croissant [ ˈkɹwɑːsɒ̃ ], there is no expectation that an English-speaker would nasalize
141-475: A different analysis of the phonemic system of Proto-Siouan, which appears below: In Siouanist literature (e.g., Rankin et al. 2015), Americanist phonetic transcriptions are the norm, so IPA * ʃ is Americanist *š, IPA *j is Americanist *y, and so on. The major change to the previously-proposed system was accomplished by systematically accounting for the distribution of multiple stop series in modern Siouan languages by tracing them back to multiple stop series in
188-464: A number of variants and allophones. It can appear as a dental tap or flap [ɾ] (especially word-medially), as an alveolar fricative [r] , as an (inter)dental fricative [ð] , as a lateral [l] , as a nasal [n] , or as a voiced dental plosive [d] . The velar nasal phoneme /ŋ/ does not occur word-initially, being confined to "medial position after a nasal vowel." In languages a certain clusters of phonemes show up in particular environments within
235-447: A person meeting a stranger in the dark. If a stranger in the dark challenged a person to identify their self, that person might respond "I am Tci-we-re" (Otoe) or "I am Tce-ki-we-re" (Iowa), which translates to "I am belonging to the people of this land" or "I am belonging to those dwelling here." The Iowa tribe refers to their language as Báxoje ich'é or Bah Kho Je (pronounced [b̥aꜜxodʒɛ itʃʼeꜜ] ). The Otoe-Missouria dialect
282-599: A reflex of [w], [b], [mb], or [p]. The actual phonetic value of these obstruents is an issue of some debate, with some arguing that they arise through geminated *w+*w or *r+*r sequences or a laryngeal plus *w or *r. Previous work on Proto-Siouan only posited single vowel length. However, phonemic vowel length exists in several Siouan languages such as Hidatsa , Ho-Chunk , and Tutelo . Rankin et al. (2015) analyze numerous instances of long vowels as present due to common inheritance rather than common innovation. The five oral vowels and three nasal vowels posited by earlier scholars
329-548: A single complex word. Aside from its complex verbal morphology , Chiwere differs from English in a number of significant ways. There are separate male and female registers , and interrogatives are formed with the question particle je , though this is omitted in informal speech. Finally, Chiwere word order is subject-object-verb , in contrast to English SVO order. The verbal complex is formed of preverbal and postverbal affixes, with preverbal affixes communicating positional, instrumental and pronominal elements. These are added to
376-659: A trailing silent n or m , as is the case in French, Portuguese, Lombard (central classic orthography), Bamana , Breton , and Yoruba . In other cases, they are indicated by diacritics . In the International Phonetic Alphabet , nasal vowels are denoted by a tilde over the symbol for the vowel. The same practice can be found in Portuguese marking with a tilde in diphthongs (e.g. põe ) and for words ending in /ɐ̃/ (e.g. manhã , irmã ). While
423-466: A verb stem, which can be mono-, duo- or polysyllabic, and either agent ( transitive ) or patient ( intransitive ). Most verb stems are passive. Altogether, the Chiwere verb complex is arranged as follows: [wa- pronoun] [wa- directional] [positional] [-wa/ri- pronouns] [ha-/ra- pronouns] [reflexive] [possession] [gi- directional] [instrumental] STEM [pronoun suffix] [causative] Positional prefixes occupy
470-485: A word. According to William Whitman's research of Chiwere, approximately 23 known consonant clusters exist thath are word medial, and approximately 14 of these show up word initially or word medially. In this research Whitman found that the stop + stop consonant cluster čd , as in áčda ('then'), shows up in the word medial position but not as a word initial phoneme cluster. The stop + spirant clusters ʔθ , ʔs , and ʔh all show up word initially and word medially, whereas
517-472: Is a language family of North America that is located primarily in the Great Plains , Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east. Authors who call the entire family Siouan distinguish the two branches as Western Siouan and Eastern Siouan or as "Siouan-proper" and "Catawban". Others restrict the name "Siouan" to the western branch and use
SECTION 10
#1732787282621564-410: Is called Jíwere ich'é (pronounced [d̥ʒiꜜweɾɛ itʃʼeꜜ] ). The spelling Chiwere , used mostly by linguists, derives from the fact that the language has an aspiration distinction rather than a voice distinction (see the phonology section below), so that the unaspirated stops /b̥ d̥ d̥ʒ ɡ̊/ are variably voiced [b d dʒ ɡ] or unvoiced [p t tʃ k] . Although [tʃ] is a valid pronunciation of
611-547: Is distinctive as well. Chiwere grammar is agglutinative ; its verbal complex is central to the structure of the language. Verbs are formed by addition various affixes to a verb stem, each of which corresponds to a part of speech , such as a preposition , pronoun , case marker and so forth. Concepts such as possession , reflexivity and grammatical number , as well subject-object relation and case (including nine instrumental prefixes) are also expressed via affixing. In this way, large, complete sentences can be formed out of
658-518: Is expanded to include a distinction between short and long vowels. The proposed Proto-Siouan vowel system appears below: The Yuchi isolate may be the closest relative of Sioux–Catawban, based on both sound changes and morphological comparison. In the 19th century, Robert Latham suggested that the Siouan languages are related to the Caddoan and Iroquoian languages . In 1931, Louis Allen presented
705-554: Is indicated by employing the nasal vowel, a dotless form of the Arabic letter nūn ( ن ) or the letter marked with the maghnūna diacritic: respectively ں , always occurring word finally, or ن٘ in the medial form, called " nūn ghunna ". In Sindhi , nasalization is represented with the standard nun letter . Nasalized vowels occur in Classical Arabic but not in contemporary speech or Modern Standard Arabic . There
752-478: Is indicated with the particle hnye , which follows the verb. Chiwere is a pro-drop language ; once the subject of the sentence has been established, it can be omitted. Statements are negated with the particle skunyi , which follows the verb. Commands are formed using the simple verb stem plus a gender-specific particle – le for male speakers and lé for female speakers. Siouan languages Siouan ( / ˈ s uː ən / SOO -ən ) or Siouan–Catawban
799-454: Is mentioned as being an error for the spirant + stop combination hd . But the spirant + stop combination xd has also been found in the words chéxdó ('buffalo bull'), náxda ('sour'), and náxdage ('kick'). With this data we can see that the consonant cluster xd is a possible combination and can show up in word medial position. Chiwere has five oral vowel phonemes, /a e i o u/ , and three nasal vowel phonemes, /ã ĩ ũ/ . Vowel length
846-466: Is no phonemic distinction between nasal and oral vowels, and all vowels are considered phonemically oral. Some languages contrast oral vowels and nasalized vowels phonemically . Linguists make use of minimal pairs to decide whether or not the nasality is of linguistic importance. In French, for instance, nasal vowels are distinct from oral vowels, and words can differ by the vowel quality. The words beau /bo/ "beautiful" and bon /bɔ̃/ "good" are
893-449: Is no orthographic way to denote the nasalization, but it is systematically taught as part of the essential rules of tajwid , used to read the Qur'an . Nasalization occurs in recitation, usually when a final nūn is followed by a yāʾ ( ي ). The Brahmic scripts used for most Indic languages mark nasalization with the anusvāra (◌ं), homophonically used for homorganic nasalization in
940-533: Is shown below: With respect to vowels, five oral vowels are reconstructed: /*i, *e, *a, *o, *u/ and three nasal vowels /*ĩ, *ã, *ũ/ . Wolff also reconstructed some consonantal clusters /*tk, *kʃ, *ʃk, *sp/ . Collaborative work involving a number of Siouanists started at the 1984 Comparative Siouan Workshop at the University of Colorado with the goal of creating a comparative Siouan dictionary that would include Proto-Siouan reconstructions. This work yielded
987-620: Is used below, where V, N, and Ṽ (with a tilde above) represent oral vowel, nasal consonant, and nasal vowel, respectively. In the Old French period, vowels became nasalized under the regressive assimilation , as VN > ṼN. In the Middle French period, the realization of the nasal consonant became variable, as VN > Ṽ(N). As the language evolves into its modern form, the consonant is no longer realized, as ṼN > Ṽ. Languages written with Latin script may indicate nasal vowels by
SECTION 20
#17327872826211034-507: The 1830s, but since then not much material has been published about the language. Chiwere suffered a steady decline after extended European American contact in the 1850s, and by 1940 the language had almost totally ceased to be spoken. "Tciwere itce" (in the Otoe dialect) and "Tcekiwere itce" (in the Iowa dialect) translate to "To speak the home dialect." The name "Chiwere" is said to originate from
1081-513: The IPA diacritic for nasalization: ⟨ ẽ ⟩ vs ⟨ ẽ̃ ⟩. Bickford & Floyd (2006) combine the tilde with the ogonek : ⟨ ẽ ⟩ vs ⟨ ę̃ ⟩. (The ogonek is sometimes used in an otherwise IPA transcription to avoid conflict with tone diacritics above the vowels.) Rodney Sampson described a three-stage historical account, explaining the origin of nasal vowels in modern French . The notation of Terry and Webb
1128-696: The Ohio River Valley, but across the Appalachian Plateau and into the Piedmont regions of present-day Virginia and the Carolinas. Some of these groups migrated or were displaced great distances following European contact, ending up as far afield as present-day Ontario and southern Mississippi. Collectively, Siouan languages of Appalachia and the Piedmont are sometimes grouped under the term Tutelo , Tutelo-Saponi, or Yesah (Yesa:sahį) as
1175-401: The basis of linguistic evidence, that Catawban was divergent enough from the other Siouan languages, including neighboring Siouan languages of the Piedmont and Appalachia, to be considered a distinct branch. Voegelin proposes that Biloxi, Ofo and Tutelo consistute one group which he terms Ohio Valley Siouan . This group includes various historical languages spoken by Siouan peoples not only in
1222-561: The cluster hñ has been found in the word medial position, as in péhñi ('whiskey') and thus appears to be another possible spirant + nasal consonant combination. The stop + semivowel consonant clusters θw , xw , and hw all appear to be restricted to the word medial environment, whereas the stop + semivowel consonant cluster sw appears to be the only stop + semivowel known to show up both word initially, as in swá̃la ('to be soft') and baswá ('to cut piece off'). The stop + liquid phoneme clusters θl , sl , and xl have all been found in
1269-400: The first list of systematic correspondences between a set of 25 lexical items in Siouan and Iroquoian. In the 1960s and 1970s, Wallace Chafe further explored the link between Siouan and Caddoan languages. In the 1990s, Marianne Mithun compared the morphology and syntax of all the three families. At present, this Macro-Siouan hypothesis is not considered proven, and the similarities between
1316-415: The first position in the verbal complex. These prefixes refer to the location or direction of the verb's action: Chiwere distinguishes three persons – first, second and inclusive , which functions as an inclusive first person plural. Each person has an agent (subject) and patient (object) form. The agent forms mark the subjects of active verbs, whereas the patient forms mark the objects of active verbs and
1363-508: The first sound of Jiwere ~ Chiwere , it may mislead English speakers into pronouncing it [tʃʰ] . Similarly, a common folk etymology of Báxoje is "dusty noses," based on the misunderstanding of the first syllable bá as pá , or "nose." However, the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma says that Bah-Kho-Je means "grey snow," due to their winter lodges being covered with snow that is stained grey by fire smoke. The last two fluent speakers died in
1410-915: The future. They have provided tribal elders with recording devices to collect Chiwere words and songs. A 2012 NSF grant was used to provide digital access to existing audio recordings of fluent speakers. The Third Annual Otoe-Missouria Language and Culture Day was planned for September 2012. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians is establishing a language program in conjunction with the University of Oklahoma Native American Studies Department. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma 's Otoe Language Program teaches weekly classes in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma , and Red Rock, Oklahoma . The phoneme inventory of Chiwere consists of approximately 33 consonants, and five vowel qualities (three of which occur as nasalized). Voiceless stop sounds /p, t, tʃ, k/ may be heard as voiced [b, d, dʒ, ɡ] in final position. The phoneme /ɾ/ has
1457-486: The influence of neighbouring sounds. For instance, the [ æ ] of the word hand is affected by the following nasal consonant. In most languages, vowels adjacent to nasal consonants are produced partially or fully with a lowered velum in a natural process of assimilation and are therefore technically nasal, but few speakers would notice. That is the case in English: vowels preceding nasal consonants are nasalized, but there
Chiwere language - Misplaced Pages Continue
1504-562: The language historically spoken by the Monacan , Manahoac , Haliwa-Saponi , and Occaneechi peoples. Proto-Siouan is the reconstructed ancestor of all modern Siouan languages. There is a certain amount of comparative work in Siouan–Catawban languages. Wolff (1950–51) is among the first and more complete works on the subject. Wolff reconstructed the system of proto-Siouan, and this was modified by Matthews (1958). The latter's system
1551-590: The name Siouan–Catawban for the entire family. Generally, however, the name "Siouan" is used without distinction. Siouan languages can be grouped into Western Siouan languages and Catawban . The Western Siouan languages are typically subdivided into Missouri River languages (such as Crow and Hidatsa ), Mandan , Mississippi River languages (such as Dakota , Chiwere - Winnebago , and Dhegihan languages ), and Ohio Valley Siouan languages ( Ofo , Biloxi , and Tutelo ). The Catawban branch consists of Catawban and Woccon . Charles F. Voegelin established, on
1598-841: The orthography of the First Grammatical Treatise for the Old Icelandic language , nasal vowels are indicated with a dot above the vowel grapheme : a /ɑ/ vs ȧ /ɑ̃/, ǫ /ɔ/ vs ǫ̇ /ɔ̃/, e /e/ vs. ė /ẽ/ vs ę /ɛ/ vs. ę̇ /ɛ̃/, ı /i/ vs i /ĩ/, o /o/ vs ȯ /õ/, ø /ø/ vs. ø̇ /ø̃/, u /u/ vs u̇ /ũ/, y /y/ vs ẏ /ỹ/; the ogonek instead indicates retracted tongue root or tense vowels , cf. ǫ /ɔ/ vs o /o/ and e /e/ vs. ę /ɛ/. Nasalization in Arabic-based scripts of languages such as Urdu , as well as Punjabi and Saraiki , commonly spoken in Pakistan , and by extension India ,
1645-557: The prefix has no literal meaning. Verbs are made reflexive by the ki- prefix; the reduplicated form kiki- expresses reciprocity. Thus: A number of verbs that are non-reflexive in English take the reflexive prefix in Chiwere. These three prefixes serve to indicate an indirect object and as such are grouped together, even though they do not occupy the same position within the verbal complex: There are nine separate prefixes that indicate instrumentality , all of which change passive verbs into active. The causative , wherein
1692-410: The pronominal hi- , and approximates the English third person plural object of a transitive verb. Additionally, the prefix can be used as a dummy pronoun to make transitive verbs intransitive; these verbal forms are often used as nouns, and this prefix is thus the general method of forming nouns from verb stems. There are several intransitive verbs that take the wa- prefix idiomatically, wherein
1739-436: The proto-language. Previous analysis posited only a single stop series. Many of the consonant clusters proposed by Wolff (1950–1951) can be accounted for due to syncopation of short vowels before stressed syllables. For example, Matthews (1958: 129) gives *wróke as the proto-form for 'male.' With added data from a larger set of Siouan languages since the middle of the twentieth century, Rankin et al. (2015) give *waroː(-ka) as
1786-517: The reconstructed form for 'male.' Unlike Wolff and Matthew's proposals, there are no posited nasal consonants in Proto-Siouan. Nasal consonants only arise in daughter languages when followed by a nasal vowel. In addition, there is a set of sounds that represent obstruentized versions of their corresponding sonorants. These sounds have different reflexes in daughter languages, with *w appearing as [w] or [m] in most daughter languages, while *W has
1833-447: The research of William Whitman, however, the spirant + stop cluster hk has been found to exist word medially, as in chéthka ('domestic cow'). According to Whitman's, research two spirant + nasal consonant clusters that have been found, which are hm , as in sáhmã ('seven') and hn , as in láhnũwe ('calumet'), however Whitman does account that hñ is a combination which appears as a future tense suffix. After reviewing further data,
1880-435: The stop + semivowel clusters dw and gw only show up word medially. The stop + liquid clusters bl and gl show up word initially and word medially. Spirant + stop clusters generally appear in both word initial and word medial position, these clusters include θg , sǰ , sg , hd , and hg , however the spirant + stop clusters sd and xd only appear word medially. These are all the spirant + stop clusters accounted for in
1927-434: The subject causes or makes something else to do or be something, is expressed via the suffix -hi . The verbs prefixed by da- are intransitive and are made transitive with the -hi suffix. " Tense " in Chiwere can be divided into present/past and future. Present and past tenses are unmarked in the language, and are distinguished by actual statements of time using words like "yesterday" or "today." The future tense
Chiwere language - Misplaced Pages Continue
1974-511: The subjects of passive verbs, making Chiwere, like many other Siouan languages, active-stative . Third person forms as they exist in English are not directly marked. Following are the subject and object forms of the pronominal prefixes: The inclusive object form is spelled wa-wa because it can be separated by the positional prefixes. The 3SG is not marked; the 2DU form does not exist. This prefix, perhaps best translated as "something," occurs before every other verbal element except for
2021-508: The three families may instead be due to their protolanguages having been part of a sprachbund . Oral vowel A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the soft palate (or velum) so that the air flow escapes through the nose and the mouth simultaneously, as in the French vowel /ɑ̃/ ( ) or Amoy [ ɛ̃ ]. By contrast, oral vowels are produced without nasalization . Nasalized vowels are vowels under
2068-540: The tilde is also used for this purpose in Paraguayan Guaraní , phonemic nasality is indicated by a diaeresis ( ¨ ) in the standardized orthographies of most varieties of Tupí-Guaraní spoken in Bolivia . Polish , Navajo , and Elfdalian use a hook under the letter, called an ogonek , as in ą, ę . The Pe̍h-ōe-jī romanization of Taiwanese Hokkien and Amoy uses a superscript n ( aⁿ , eⁿ , ...). In
2115-931: The vowels to the same extent as French-speakers or Portuguese-speakers. Likewise, pronunciation keys in English dictionaries do not always indicate nasalization of French or Portuguese loanwords. Nasalization as a result of the assimilation of a nasal consonant tends to cause a raising of vowel height ; phonemically distinctive nasalization tends to lower the vowel. According to a different assessment, high vowels do tend to be lowered, but low vowels tend to be raised instead. In most languages, vowels of all heights are nasalized indiscriminately, but preference occurs in some languages, such as for high vowels in Chamorro and low vowels in Thai . A few languages, such as Palantla Chinantec , contrast lightly nasalized and heavily nasalized vowels. They may be contrasted in print by doubling
2162-538: The winter of 1996, and only a handful of semi-fluent speakers remain, all of whom are elderly, making Chiwere critically endangered . As of 2006, an estimated four members of the Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians still speak the language, while 30 members of the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma speak their language. The Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma has sponsored language workshops in the past and hopes to host more in
2209-442: The word initial and word medial environments. An interesting analysis of the Chiwere language has shown that the spirant + stop consonant cluster hg is the more commonly used pronunciation of the spirant + stop cluster θg and that the hg cluster may be replacing the θg altogether. In William Whitman's research, the spirant + stop combination xd , with the one given example used in this journal being iblí̃xdo ('blackbird'),
#620379