68-704: Choristodera (from the Greek χωριστός chōristos + δέρη dérē , 'separated neck') is an extinct order of semiaquatic diapsid reptiles that ranged from the Middle Jurassic , or possibly Triassic , to the Miocene (168 to 20 or possibly 11.6 million years ago). Choristoderes are morphologically diverse, with the best known members being the crocodile-like neochoristoderes such as Champsosaurus . Other choristoderans had lizard-like or long necked morphologies. Choristoderes appear to have been confined to
136-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
204-400: A close relationship with Pareiasaurus . Alfred Romer in publications in 1956 and 1968 placed Choristodera within the paraphyletic or polyphyletic grouping of " Eosuchia ", describing them, as “an offshoot of the basic eosuchian stock”, a classification which was widely accepted. However, the use of computer based cladistics in the 1980s demonstrated the non-monophyly of "Eosuchia", making
272-425: A fin to propel Hyphalosaurus through the water. Skin impressions of Champsosaurus have also been reported, they consist of small (0.6-0.1 mm) pustulate and rhomboid scales, with the largest scales being located on the lateral sides of the body, decreasing in size dorsally, no osteoderms were present. The Menat specimen of Lazarussuchus preserves some remnants of soft tissue, but no scales, which shows that
340-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
408-745: A length of only around 30 cm (12 in), and the largest known choristoderan, Kosmodraco dakotensis is estimated to have had a total length of around 5 m (16 ft). Neochoristoderes such as Champsosaurus are the best-known group of the Choristodera. They resembled modern crocodilians , especially gharials . The skull of these animals have a long, thin snout filled with small, sharp conical teeth. Other choristoderes are referred to collectively as "non-neochoristoderes", which are mostly small lizard-like forms, though Shokawa , Khurendukhosaurus and Hyphalosaurus possess long plesiosaur like necks. The grouping of "non-neochoristoderes"
476-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
544-782: A major evolutionary radiation in Asia during the Early Cretaceous , which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including the first records of the gharial-like Neochoristodera, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic neosuchian crocodyliformes. A partial femur of an indeterminate choristodere is known from the Yellow Cat Member of the Cedar Mountain Formation in North America. They appear to be absent from
612-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
680-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
748-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
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#1732780911354816-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
884-419: Is paraphyletic (not containing all descendants of a common ancestor), as the lizard-like bodyform represents the ancestral morphology of the group. According to Matsumoto and colleagues (2019), choristoderes are united by the presence of nine synapomorphies (shared traits characteristic of the group), including a median contact of the elongated prefrontal bones of the skull separating the nasal bones from
952-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
1020-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
1088-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
1156-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
1224-533: Is more likely that they represent late-stage embryos. A specimen of Hyphalosaurus has been found with small rib bones in its abdominal cavity, suggesting that it took vertebrate prey at least on occasion. A specimen of Hyphalosaurus baitaigouensis has been found with 18 fully developed embryos within the mother's body, suggesting that they were viviparous , but another specimen shows that Hyphalosaurus baitaigouensis also possessed soft-shelled eggs, similar to those of lepidosaurs . A possible explanation for this
1292-598: Is supported by the ossification sequence of their embryos. Choristoderes must have diverged from all other known reptile groups prior to the end of the Permian period, over 250 million years ago, based on their primitive phylogenetic position. In 2015, Rainer R. Schoch reported a new small (~ 20 cm long) diapsid from the Middle Triassic ( Ladinian ) Lower Keuper of Southern Germany , known from both cranial and postcranial material, which he claimed represented
1360-660: Is that Hyphalosaurus was ovoviviparous , with the thin-shelled eggs hatching immediately after they were laid, presumably on land, though it has also been suggested that the species employed both viviparous and oviparous reproductive modes. An embryo of Ikechosaurus has been found preserved within a weakly mineralised parchment-shelled egg, suggesting that Ikechosaurus was oviparous, and laid their eggs on land. Monjuruosuchus has been suggested to have been viviparous. In Champsosaurus , it has been suggested that adult females could crawl ashore to lay eggs on land, with males and juveniles appearing to be incapable of doing so, based on
1428-548: Is thought to have been more generalist, being able to take both aquatic and terrestrial prey. Cteniogenys and Lazarussuchus have been suggested to have fed on invertebrates. Preserved gut contents of a Monjurosuchus specimen appear to show arthropod cuticle fragments. Another specimen of Monjurosuchus has been found with preserved skulls of seven juvenile individuals within the abdominal cavity. This has been proposed to represent evidence of cannibalism . However, this proposal has been criticised by other authors, who suggest it
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#17327809113541496-708: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
1564-550: The Middle Jurassic of Britain. The genus had first been described by Charles W. Gilmore in 1928 from the Late Jurassic of the western United States, and had previously been enigmatic. The studies revealed it to be a small, lizard-like choristodere, different from the crocodile-like forms previously known. Choristoderes vary substantially in size, the smallest genera like Cteniogenys and Lazarussuchus had
1632-410: The frontal bones , the dorsal flange of the maxilla is inflected medially (toward the midline of the body), the parietal foramen are absent, the squamosal bones are expanded behind ( posterior to) the occipital condyle , the teeth are conical and sub- thecodont (located in shallow sockets), the dentaries are slender with elongated grooves running along the labial (outward facing) surface of
1700-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
1768-554: The 2010s, the "non-neochoristoderes" from the Early Cretaceous of Asia (with the exception of Heishanosaurus ) alongside Lazarussuchus from the Cenozoic of Europe were recovered (with weak support) as belonging to a monophyletic clade, which were informally named the "Allochoristoderes" by Dong and colleagues in 2020, characterised by the shared trait of completely closed lower temporal fenestrae, with Cteniogenys from
1836-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
1904-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
1972-732: The Campanian aged Grünbach Formation of Austria indicate the presence of choristoderes in Europe during this time period. The only record of choristoderes from Asia in the Late Cretaceous is a single vertebra from the Turonian of Japan. Fragmentary remains found in the Campanian aged Oldman and Dinosaur Park formations in Alberta , Canada, also possibly suggest the presence of small bodied "non-neochoristoderes" in North America during
2040-482: The Czech Republic and as well as possible indeterminate remains of Lazarussuchus reported from the late Miocene (~11.6 million years ago) of southern Germany. Ancient Greek Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into
2108-565: The Late Cretaceous Laramie Formation of the United States, though only two prints are present and it is not possible to distinguish between a manus (forefoot) or pes (hindfoot). Historically, the internal phylogenetics of Choristodera were unclear, with the neochoristoderes being recovered as a well-supported clade, but the relationships of the "non-neochoristoderes" being poorly resolved. However, during
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2176-529: The Late Cretaceous. Champsosaurus survived the K-Pg extinction , and together with fellow neochoristoderes Kosmodraco and Simoedosaurus are present in Europe, Asia and North America during the Paleocene, however they became extinct during the early Eocene . Their extinction coincides with major faunal turnover associated with elevated temperatures . Small bodied "non-neochoristoderes", which are absent from
2244-575: The Middle-Late Jurassic of Europe and North America being consistently recovered as the basalmost choristodere. The long necked "non-neochoristoderes" Shokawa and Hyphalosaurus have often been recovered as a clade, dubbed the Hyphalosauridae by Gao and Fox in 2005. The finding of more complete material of the previously fragmentary Khurendukhosaurus shows that it also has a long neck, and it has also been recovered as part of
2312-640: The Northern Hemisphere, having been found in North America , Asia , and Europe , and possibly also North Africa . Choristoderes are generally thought to be derived neodiapsids that are close relatives or members of Sauria . Choristodera was erected in 1876, originally as a suborder of Rhynchocephalia by Edward Drinker Cope to contain Champsosaurus , which was described from Late Cretaceous strata of Montana by Cope in
2380-809: The Upper Jurassic Alcobaça Formation of Portugal and the Morrison Formation of the United States, with broadly similar remains also known from the late Middle Jurassic ( Callovian ) Balabansai Formation of Kyrgyzstan in Central Asia , the Bathonian Itat Formation of western Siberia, as well as possibly the Bathonian aged Anoual Formation in Morocco, North Africa. Choristoderes underwent
2448-612: The abdomen) like tuatara and crocodilians . The internal skull anatomy of choristoderes is only known for Champsosaurus. The braincase of Champsosaurus is poorly ossified at the front of the skull (anterior), but is well ossified in the rear (posterior) similar to other diapsids. The cranial endocast (space occupied by the brain in the cranial vault ) is proportionally narrow in both lateral and dorsoventral axes, with an enlarged pineal body and olfactory bulbs . The optic lobes and flocculi are small in size, indicating only average vision ability at best. The olfactory chambers of
2516-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
2584-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
2652-400: The bone, additional sacral vertebrae are present, expanded "spine tables" are present on the vertebrae, and the surfaces of both ends of vertebral centra are flat (amphiplatyan). All known choristoderans possess or are inferred to possess a novel skull bone not found in other reptiles, referred to as the "neomorphic bone" or neomorph, which is a component of the dermatocranium . Ancestrally,
2720-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
2788-523: The clade is uncertain, due to their mix of primitive and derived features, and a long ghost lineage (absence of a fossil record) after their split from other reptiles. After initially being placed in Rhynchocephalia, Cope later suggested a placement in Lacertilla due to the shape of the cervical vertebrae. Louis Dollo in 1891 returned Choristodera to Rhynchocephalia, but in 1893 suggested
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2856-652: The clade. Phylogeny from the analysis of Dong and colleagues (2020): Cteniogenys sp. Heishanosaurus pygmaeus Coeruleodraco jurassicus Ikechosaurus pijiagouensis Ikechosaurus sunailinae Tchoiria namsari Tchoiria klauseni C. gigas C. albertensis S. lemoinei S. dakotensis Monjurosuchus splendens Philydrosaurus proseilus L. inexpectatus Lazarussuchus sp. L. dvoraki Khurendukhosaurus orlovi Hyphalosaurus sp. Hyphalosaurus lingyuanensis Shokawa ikoi Choristoderes are universally agreed to be members of Neodiapsida , but their exact placement in
2924-503: The classification of choristoderes again uncertain. Subsequent studies either suggested placement as archosauromorphs , lepidosauromorphs or members of Diapsida incertae sedis . In a 2016 analysis of neodiapsid relationships by Martín Ezcurra they were recovered as members of the advanced neodiapsid group Sauria , in a polytomy with Lepidosauromorpha and Archosauromorpha, with being the earliest diverging members of either group also being plausible. A position as basal archosauromorphs
2992-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
3060-417: The dorsum (upper midline) of the body. The fossil also preserves webbed feet . Hyphalosaurus was covered in scales of varying shape, depending on their position on the body, with at least one and possibly multiple rows of large ovoid scales running down sides of the trunk and tail. The feet display evidence of webbing, and the tail probably had additional tissue at the top and bottom, allowing it to be used as
3128-526: The following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
3196-531: The fossil record after the Early Cretaceous (except for possible North American remains), reappear in the form of the lizard-like Lazarussuchus from the late Paleocene of France. The European endemic Lazarussuchus is the last known choristodere, surviving the extinction of neochoristoderes at the beginning of the Eocene, with the youngest known remains being those of L. dvoraki from the Early Miocene of
3264-479: The hindfoot (pes) was not webbed, and a dark stained region with a crenellated edge is present above the caudal vertebrae of the tail, suggestive of a crest similar to those found in some living reptiles, like the tuatara, lizards and crocodiles. Choristoderes are exclusively found in freshwater deposits, often associated with turtles , fish, frogs , salamanders and crocodyliformes . They appear to have been almost exclusively found in warm temperate climates , with
3332-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
3400-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
3468-465: The more crocodile-like neochoristoderes, there appears to have been niche differentiation , with gharial-like neochoristoderans occurring in association with blunt snouted crocodyliformes, but not in association with narrow snouted forms. Neochoristoderans are presumed to have been piscivorous . Champsosaurus in particular is thought to have fed like modern gharials, sweeping its head to the side to catch individual fish from shoals, while Simoedosaurus
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#17327809113543536-418: The mouth, probably in combination with the tongue. In most choristoderes, longitudinal rows of palatal teeth are present on the pterygoid , palatine and vomer , as well as a row on the pterygoid flange. In some neochoristoderes the palatal tooth rows are modified into tooth batteries on raised platforms. The morphology of the palatal teeth is identical to that of the marginal teeth of non-neochoristoderes, and
3604-560: The nasal passages and olfactory stalks of the braincase are reasonably large, indicating that Champsosaurus probably had good olfactory capabilities (sense of smell). The nasal passages lack bony turbinates . The semicircular canals of the inner ear are most similar to those of other aquatic reptiles. The expansion of the sacculus indicates that Champsosaurus likely had an increased sensitivity to low frequency sounds and vibrations. Most choristoderes have rather simple undifferentiated ( homodont ) teeth, with striated enamel covering
3672-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
3740-573: The oldest known choristodere. Pachystropheus from the Late Triassic ( Rhaetian ) of Britain was historically suggested to be a choristodere, but was later demonstrated to be a member of the marine reptile group Thalattosauria . The oldest unequivocal choristoderan is the small lizard-like Cteniogenys, the oldest known remains of which are known from the late Middle Jurassic ( Bathonian ~168-166 million years ago) Forest Marble and Kilmaluag formations of Britain, with remains also known from
3808-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
3876-451: The presumably sexually dimorphic fusion of the sacral vertebrae and possession of more robust limb bones in presumed females. A skeleton of Philydrosaurus has been found with associated post-hatchling stage juveniles, suggesting that they engaged in post-hatching parental care . Tracks from the Early Cretaceous ( Albian ) of South Korea, given the ichnotaxon name Novapes ulsanensis have been attributed to choristoderans, based on
3944-521: The range of neochoristoderes extending to the high Canadian Arctic during the Coniacian - Santonian stages of the Late Cretaceous (~89-83 Million years ago), a time of extreme warmth. Due to the morphological similarities between choristoderes and crocodyliformes, it has often been assumed that they existed in competition. However "non-neochoristoderes" were smaller than adult aquatic crocodyliformes and were more likely in competition with other taxa. For
4012-408: The replacement of palatal teeth is nearly identical to the replacement of marginal teeth. An exceptionally preserved specimen of Monjurosuchus preserves pleated skin, which indicates that in life it was probably thin and soft. The preserved scales are small and overlapping, and are smaller on the ventral underside of the body than the dorsal surface. A double row of larger ovoid scales runs along
4080-562: The same paper. A year later, in 1877, Simoedosaurus was described by Paul Gervais from Upper Paleocene deposits at Cernay , near Rheims , France. These remained the only recognised choristoderes for over a century, until new taxa were described in the late 20th century. Beginning in the late 1970s, additional taxa were described by Soviet-Mongolian teams from Lower Cretaceous sediments in Mongolia. In studies from 1989 to 1991, Susan E. Evans described new material of Cteniogenys from
4148-408: The similarity of the pentadactyl (five fingered) preserved tracks to the foot morphology of Monjurosuchus . The tracks preserve traces of webbing between the digits. The authors of the study proposed based on the spacing of the prints, that choristoderans could " high walk " like modern crocodilians. Tracks attributed to neochoristoderans dubbed Champsosaurichnus parfeti have also been reported from
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#17327809113544216-500: The skull of choristoderes possess elongated upper and lower temporal fenestrae (openings of the skull behind the eye socket), these are greatly expanded in neochoristoderes, most extremely in Champsosaurus , giving the skull a cordiform (heart shaped) appearance when viewed from above. In many "non-neochoristoderes" the lower temporal fenestrae are secondarily closed. Choristoderes possessed gastralia (rib-like bones situated in
4284-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
4352-403: The tooth crown but not the base. Neochoristoderes have teeth completely enveloped in striated enamel with an enamel infolding at the base, labiolingually compressed and hooked, the exception being Ikechosaurus which has still rather simple teeth aside from the start of an enamel infolding. Teeth implantation is subthecodont, with teeth being replaced by erosion of a pit in the lingual (side of
4420-457: The tooth facing the tongue) surface of the tooth base. There is some tooth differentiation among neochoristoderes, with the anterior teeth being sharper and more slender than posterior teeth. Choristoderes retain palatal teeth (teeth present on the bones of the roof of the mouth). Unlike most diapsid groups, where palatal teeth are reduced or lost completely, the palatal teeth in choristoderes are extensively developed indicating food manipulation in
4488-753: The well sampled European localities of the Berriasian aged Purbeck Group , Great Britain and the Barremian aged La Huérguina Formation , Spain, though there is a record of a small Cteniogenys -like taxon from the Berriasian aged Angeac-Charente bonebed in France. In the latter half of the Late Cretaceous ( Campanian - Maastrichtian ), the neochoristodere Champsosaurus is found in Utah, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, Alberta and Saskatchewan, which were along
4556-692: The western coast of the Western Interior Seaway on the island of Laramidia . Indeterminate remains of neochoristoderes are also known from the Canadian High Arctic, dating to the early Late Cretaceous ( Coniacian – Turonian ) and from the Navesink Formation of New Jersey from the latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian), which formed the separate island of Appalachia . Vertebrae from the Cenomanian of Germany and
4624-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
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