Misplaced Pages

#478521

68-562: Christian counseling on the other hand is conducted by a licensed counselor who integrates spirituality into traditional counseling methods and psychological principles. They may reference scripture but unlike biblical counselors, Christian Therapists do not focus solely on biblical teachings. Christian counseling began between the late 1960s and early 1970s with the Biblical Counseling Movement directed by Jay E. Adams . Adams's 1970 book Competent to Counsel advocated

136-442: A Christian-based approach which differed from the psychological and psychiatric solutions of the time. As a devout Protestant , Adams believed that it was the job of the church to heal people who he believed were morally corrupt, but labeled by society as mentally ill. He rejected other models of counseling, such as the medical model , which gave clients a medical diagnosis based on a list of their behaviors or actions. Adams believed

204-757: A commitment conflicts with academic freedom. In some contexts, theology has been held to belong in institutions of higher education primarily as a form of professional training for Christian ministry. This was the basis on which Friedrich Schleiermacher , a liberal theologian, argued for the inclusion of theology in the new University of Berlin in 1810. For instance, in Germany , theological faculties at state universities are typically tied to particular denominations, Protestant or Roman Catholic, and those faculties will offer denominationally-bound (konfessionsgebunden) degrees, and have denominationally bound public posts amongst their faculty; as well as contributing "to

272-473: A field separate from the church. These intellectual movements collectively drove counseling practices away from the church and toward secular frameworks. Jay Adams brought attention back to the church with his 1970 publication Competent to Counsel , which introduced nouthetic counseling. However, his influence waned by the 1980s, and the mantle was taken up by David Powlison. A convert to Christianity in adulthood, Powlison advanced Adams’ work and sought to refine

340-449: A field that was racing toward rancor, even dissolution by its fascination with all manner of anti-Christian psycho-babble." David Powlison said that Adams' writings provided "abundant resources for the development of counseling". These led to the establishment of various institutions based on his views. Some non-evangelical psychologists have argued that nouthetic counseling can do considerable harm to patients. Critics note that some of

408-491: A long history in academia and continues in many colleges and universities that have continued their founding religious underpinnings. There are multiple kinds of integration, as it has been defined differently over the years. The way in which Christianity has been integrated with psychology thus far is by considering the ways in which psychology and the Bible agree and not integrating the teachings of psychology that don't agree with

476-1026: A primary purpose at their foundation. Seminaries and bible colleges have continued this alliance between the academic study of theology and training for Christian ministry. There are, for instance, numerous prominent examples in the United States, including Phoenix Seminary , Catholic Theological Union in Chicago, The Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, Criswell College in Dallas, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in Deerfield, Illinois, Dallas Theological Seminary , North Texas Collegiate Institute in Farmers Branch, Texas, and

544-746: A religious tradition; or it may be used to compare , challenge (e.g. biblical criticism ), or oppose (e.g. irreligion ) a religious tradition or worldview . Theology might also help a theologian address some present situation or need through a religious tradition, or to explore possible ways of interpreting the world. The term "theology" derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία), a combination of theos (Θεός, ' god ') and logia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles ')—the latter word relating to Greek logos (λόγος, 'word, discourse , account, reasoning '). The term would pass on to Latin as theologia , then French as théologie , eventually becoming

612-842: Is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. For instance: The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools . It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by kings ( University of Naples Federico II , Charles University in Prague , Jagiellonian University in Kraków ) or by municipal administrations ( University of Cologne , University of Erfurt ). In

680-448: Is constituted by a triple aspect: what is taught by God, teaches of God, and leads to God ( Latin : Theologia a Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducit ). This indicates the three distinct areas of God as theophanic revelation , the systematic study of the nature of divine and, more generally, of religious belief , and the spiritual path . Christian theology as the study of Christian belief and practice concentrates primarily upon

748-455: Is denied that there is as clear a boundary between them. Whether or not reasoned discussion about the divine is possible has long been a point of contention. Protagoras , as early as the fifth century BC , who is reputed to have been exiled from Athens because of his agnosticism about the existence of the gods, said that "Concerning the gods I cannot know either that they exist or that they do not exist, or what form they might have, for there

SECTION 10

#1732791232479

816-541: Is in fault not religion. Theology is a science that may justly be compared to the Box of Pandora . Many good things lie uppermost in it; but many evil lie under them, and scatter plagues and desolation throughout the world." Thomas Paine , a Deistic American political theorist and pamphleteer , wrote in his three-part work The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, 1807): The study of theology, as it stands in Christian churches,

884-435: Is known at Aberdeen) and in religious studies. In some contemporary contexts, a distinction is made between theology, which is seen as involving some level of commitment to the claims of the religious tradition being studied, and religious studies , which by contrast is normally seen as requiring that the question of the truth or falsehood of the religious traditions studied be kept outside its field. Religious studies involves

952-575: Is much to prevent one's knowing: the obscurity of the subject and the shortness of man's life." Since at least the eighteenth century, various authors have criticized the suitability of theology as an academic discipline. In 1772, Baron d'Holbach labeled theology "a continual insult to human reason" in Le Bon sens . Lord Bolingbroke , an English politician and political philosopher, wrote in Section IV of his Essays on Human Knowledge , "Theology

1020-401: Is not part of theology proper , but is found in the philosophy of religion , and increasingly through the psychology of religion and neurotheology . Theology's aim, then, is to record, structure and understand these experiences and concepts; and to use them to derive normative prescriptions for how to live our lives . The history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education

1088-443: Is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God." Whatever the case, there are various Buddhist theories and discussions on the nature of Buddhahood and the ultimate reality / highest form of divinity , which has been termed "buddhology" by some scholars like Louis de La Vallée-Poussin . This is a different usage of the term than when it is taken to mean the academic study of Buddhism , and here would refer to

1156-492: Is that all truth is God's truth. Christian counseling focuses on a few main principles. It focuses on a holistic approach. One that can help with the individuals mind, spirit, and bodies well-being. Another term often used is "soul-care". This approach is to incorporate Christian views from the Bible, and include traditional beliefs and values. It encourages diving into an individual's mental, spiritual, and physiological health with

1224-575: Is the only animal that loves his neighbor as himself and cuts his throat if his theology isn't straight. He has made a graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to smooth his brother's path to happiness and heaven.... The higher animals have no religion. And we are told that they are going to be left out in the Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable taste. A. J. Ayer , a British former logical-positivist , sought to show in his essay "Critique of Ethics and Theology" that all statements about

1292-476: Is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity . It is taught as an academic discipline , typically in universities and seminaries . It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural , but also deals with religious epistemology , asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation . Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God , gods , or deities , as not only transcendent or above

1360-497: Is the study of nothing; it is founded on nothing; it rests on no principles; it proceeds by no authorities; it has no data; it can demonstrate nothing; and it admits of no conclusion. Not anything can be studied as a science, without our being in possession of the principles upon which it is founded; and as this is the case with Christian theology, it is therefore the study of nothing. The German atheist philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach sought to dissolve theology in his work Principles of

1428-716: Is used by Christine Kraemer in her book Seeking The Mystery: An Introduction to Pagan Theologies and by Michael York in Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion . Richard Hooker defines theology as "the science of things divine". The term can, however, be used for a variety of disciplines or fields of study. Theology considers whether the divine exists in some form, such as in physical , supernatural , mental , or social realities , and what evidence for and about it may be found via personal spiritual experiences or historical records of such experiences as documented by others. The study of these assumptions

SECTION 20

#1732791232479

1496-591: The ātman (soul). The Sanskrit word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is darśana ('view, viewpoint'), the most influential one in terms of modern Hindu religion is Vedanta and its various sub-schools, each of which presents a different theory of Ishvara (the Supreme lord, God). Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars in India for centuries. A large part of its study lies in classifying and organizing

1564-729: The Assemblies of God Theological Seminary in Springfield, Missouri. The only Judeo-Christian seminary for theology is the 'Idaho Messianic Bible Seminary' which is part of the Jewish University of Colorado in Denver . In some contexts, scholars pursue theology as an academic discipline without formal affiliation to any particular church (though members of staff may well have affiliations to churches), and without focussing on ministerial training. This applies, for instance, to

1632-553: The Church Fathers ). In the Renaissance , especially with Florentine Platonist apologists of Dante 's poetics, the distinction between 'poetic theology' ( theologia poetica ) and 'revealed' or Biblical theology serves as stepping stone for a revival of philosophy as independent of theological authority. It is in the last sense, theology as an academic discipline involving rational study of Christian teaching, that

1700-914: The Mass . During the High Middle Ages, theology was the ultimate subject at universities, being named "The Queen of the Sciences". It served as the capstone to the Trivium and Quadrivium that young men were expected to study. This meant that the other subjects (including philosophy ) existed primarily to help with theological thought. In this context, medieval theology in the Christian West could subsume fields of study which would later become more self-sufficient, such as metaphysics (Aristotle's " first philosophy ", or ontology (the science of being). Christian theology's preeminent place in

1768-402: The early medieval period , most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. Christian theological learning was, therefore, a component in these institutions, as

1836-480: The 1980s, as some in the Christian counseling community began to seek a more balanced approach that integrated psychological insights with biblical principles. Prior to this movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s, counseling had become something more secular and was no longer closely associated with the church. This shift likely began during the 19th century when developments in science and philosophy challenged traditional religious worldviews. Charles Darwin 's On

1904-438: The Bible. While this tactic is still in progress and continuing to be looked at, there have been significant efforts to try and integrate the two. Stanton Jones and Richard Buteman came up with a list of three different methods on how to integrate psychology and the Christian faith. The methods are called pragmatic eclecticism, metatheoretical eclecticism, and theoretical integration. The first method, pragmatic eclecticism, looks at

1972-459: The Christian church "an indispensable corrective to several trends that are eating away at the Church's spiritual vitality". Derek Tidball said that Adams made an "enormous contribution to the revival of biblical pastoral theology." According to Ian F. Jones, Tim Clinton, and George Ohlschlager, "Jay Adams brought a biblical revolution to Christian and pastoral counseling in the 1970s, challenging

2040-520: The Christian church, to assist in the propagation of Christianity, to draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons. Islamic theological discussion that parallels Christian theological discussion is called Kalam ; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of Sharia or Fiqh . Kalam...does not hold

2108-528: The Deity". The Latin author Boethius , writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality; as opposed to physica , which deals with corporeal , moving realities. Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage. In patristic Greek Christian sources, theologia could refer narrowly to devout and/or inspired knowledge of and teaching about

Christian counseling - Misplaced Pages Continue

2176-754: The Department of Theological Studies at Concordia University in Canada , and to many university departments in the United Kingdom , including the Faculty of Divinity at the University of Cambridge , the Department of Theology and Religion at the University of Exeter , and the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Leeds . Traditional academic prizes, such as the University of Aberdeen 's Lumsden and Sachs Fellowship , tend to acknowledge performance in theology (or divinity as it

2244-526: The English theology . Through several variants (e.g., theologie , teologye ), the English theology had evolved into its current form by 1362. The sense that the word has in English depends in large part on the sense that the Latin and Greek equivalents had acquired in patristic and medieval Christian usage although the English term has now spread beyond Christian contexts. Greek theologia (θεολογία)

2312-614: The Origin of Species (1859) questioned the biblical account of creation, causing panic among religious communities that held a literalist view of the Genesis narrative. In a similar vein, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), known as the "father of experimental psychology", sought to explain psychological phenomena in naturalistic terms through careful observation and introspection. His approach rejected theistic explanations for human behavior, favoring naturalistic and introspective methods. Wundt’s work

2380-724: The Philosophy of the Future : "The task of the modern era was the realization and humanization of God – the transformation and dissolution of theology into anthropology." This mirrored his earlier work The Essence of Christianity (1841), for which he was banned from teaching in Germany, in which he had said that theology was a "web of contradictions and delusions". The American satirist Mark Twain remarked in his essay " The Lowest Animal ", originally written in around 1896, but not published until after Twain's death in 1910, that: [Man]

2448-589: The aid of God throughout the process. The aim of Christian counseling is to help people regain a sense of hope for their life that is found in Jesus Christ . Christian counseling believes that at the core of what they do is to help others achieve a better understanding of themselves and God which is rooted in the Holy Spirit 's conviction. Christian counselors seek to make people aware of the sin in their lives that has caused them suffering but also come to know

2516-498: The best solutions for resolving patients' problems based on previous research comparing different methods that have been used. The second method is concerned with the effectiveness of the counselor and looks at the tactics they are using that are beneficial and those that are not. The third method takes theories that are previously existing and makes that the baseline from which further research can build upon. What all integrators of Christianity and psychology do believe as underlying truth

2584-523: The context of the Jewish community and synagogue , including through rabbinical discussion of Jewish law and Midrash (rabbinic biblical commentaries). Jewish theology is also linked to ethics , as it is the case with theology in other religions, and therefore has implications for how one behaves. Some academic inquiries within Buddhism , dedicated to the investigation of a Buddhist understanding of

2652-427: The development and growth of Christian knowledge" they "provide the academic training for the future clergy and teachers of religious instruction at German schools." In the United States, several prominent colleges and universities were started in order to train Christian ministers. Harvard , Georgetown , Boston University , Yale , Duke University , and Princeton all had the theological training of clergy as

2720-496: The early 19th century, various different approaches have emerged in the West to theology as an academic discipline. Much of the debate concerning theology's place in the university or within a general higher education curriculum centres on whether theology's methods are appropriately theoretical and (broadly speaking) scientific or, on the other hand, whether theology requires a pre-commitment of faith by its practitioners, and whether such

2788-532: The essential nature of God. In scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the doctrines of the Christian religion , or (more precisely) the academic discipline that investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in Peter Lombard 's Sentences , a book of extracts from

Christian counseling - Misplaced Pages Continue

2856-424: The existence of previously resolved questions, and develop by making analogies from them to draw new inferences in new situations. The study of theology may help a theologian more deeply understand their own religious tradition , another religious tradition, or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity without reference to any specific tradition. Theology may be used to propagate , reform, or justify

2924-410: The first step is to examine the "stuff of life". Afterwards it is upon the counsellor to tackle four central modules, namely "Growth and Fruit", "Response and Thorns", "Motives and Heart", and "Transformation". In closing, Polwison recommends to focus on looking to Jesus in the final module which he refers to as "Cross-Based Solutions". Jay E. Adams published Competent to Counsel in 1970, criticizing

2992-465: The immense worth and value they have as a person to God. Regarding the field of Christian counselling the American author David Powlison offers a diagnostic in tabular form, also known as Powlison's Diagnostic Questions Diagram. Thus, the diagram is utilized through an array of questions as the counsellor and the counselled proceed through the diagnostic modules. Powlison talks mainly about six modules;

3060-609: The influence of psychology throughout Christian counseling. He began the Nouthetic counseling movement which teaches that the Bible alone is sufficient for all counseling. While Nouthetic counseling is strictly based on the Biblical scriptures and the power of the Holy Spirit separate from any psychological implementations, Christian counseling tries to implement psychology and Christianity still keeping God and biblical truths in

3128-561: The leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for 'theology' in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Some Universities in Germany established departments of islamic theology. (i.e. ) In Jewish theology, the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within

3196-770: The lists of maladaptive behaviors listed under each diagnostic category were actually behaviors emanating from our volitional nature, rather than an illness. Maladaptive behaviors, he maintained, are a matter of sin and therefore subject to confrontation and education in God's word, exhorting the client to choose behavior that is obedient to God's word, thus removing the sin in their life. Adams disagreed with any attempt to reclassify behavior that removed people from complete responsibility for their choices. Adams gained converts but also lost popularity among some groups due to controversies surrounding his approach. Competent to Counsel (1970) introduced his model of Nouthetic counseling , which

3264-526: The manifestations of thousands of gods and their aspects. In recent decades the study of Hinduism has also been taken up by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College . There are also other traditions of Hindu theology, including the various theologies of Shaivism (which include dualistic and non-dualistic strands) as well as

3332-593: The movement. His publication of the Journal of Biblical Counseling provided a platform for reflection and improvement within the field. Powlison’s efforts encouraged Biblical counselors to critically evaluate and enhance their methods, fostering a more robust integration of faith and counseling. Efforts to combine counseling, psychotherapy or other scientific or academic endeavors with Christian or other religious perspectives or approaches are sometimes called "integration". Integration of academic subjects with theology has

3400-422: The natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument ( experiential , philosophical , ethnographic , historical , and others) to help understand , explain , test, critique , defend or promote any myriad of religious topics . As in philosophy of ethics and case law , arguments often assume

3468-653: The picture. While they do not take psychology as the absolute answer or solution to problems that people face, it is used as a tool in unity with Christianity to help people have a deeper understanding of themselves and God. Jay E. Adams Jay Edward Adams (January 30, 1929 – November 14, 2020) was an American Presbyterian preacher and author who was known for his development in the mid and late 20th century of counseling based on Biblical scriptures. He published more than 100 books related to this topic, which have been translated into 16 languages. After decades in practice, Adams wrote Competent to Counsel (1970), which

SECTION 50

#1732791232479

3536-404: The recommended techniques are ineffective. Also, patients who are not helped by nouthetic counseling often consider themselves religious failures, adding to their problems. Further criticism comes from The Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology and Counseling, which states that "Adams seems to be not fully knowledgeable regarding the theories he criticizes" and that "confrontation is also essential to

3604-562: The study of religions that worship a supposed deity (a theos ), i.e. more widely than monotheism ; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak and reason about this deity (in logia ). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically). Hierology has been proposed, by such people as Eugène Goblet d'Alviella (1908), as an alternative, more generic term. As defined by Thomas Aquinas , theology

3672-526: The study of historical or contemporary practices or of those traditions' ideas using intellectual tools and frameworks that are not themselves specifically tied to any religious tradition and that are normally understood to be neutral or secular. In contexts where 'religious studies' in this sense is the focus, the primary forms of study are likely to include: Sometimes, theology and religious studies are seen as being in tension, and at other times, they are held to coexist without serious tension. Occasionally it

3740-513: The study of the nature of what a Buddha is. In Mahayana Buddhism , a central concept in its buddhology is the doctrine of the three Buddha bodies (Sanskrit: Trikāya ). This doctrine is shared by all Mahayana Buddhist traditions. Within Hindu philosophy , there are numerous traditions of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed Brahman , Paramatma , Ishvara , and/or Bhagavan in some schools of Hindu thought) and of

3808-402: The term natural theology , which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation) or that are specific to another religion (such as below). Theology can also be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology". The term theology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to

3876-573: The term passed into English in the 14th century, although it could also be used in the narrower sense found in Boethius and the Greek patristic authors, to mean rational study of the essential nature of God, a discourse now sometimes called theology proper . From the 17th century onwards, the term theology began to be used to refer to the study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian or correlated with Christianity (e.g., in

3944-525: The texts of the Old Testament and the New Testament as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian better understand Christian tenets, to make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions, to defend Christianity against objections and criticism, to facilitate reforms in

4012-1075: The theologies of the Goddess centered Shakta traditions which posit a feminine deity as the ultimate. In Japan, the term theology ( 神学 , shingaku ) has been ascribed to Shinto since the Edo period with the publication of Mano Tokitsuna's Kokon shingaku ruihen ( 古今神学類編 , 'categorized compilation of ancient theology'). In modern times, other terms are used to denote studies in Shinto—as well as Buddhist—belief, such as kyōgaku ( 教学 , 'doctrinal studies') and shūgaku ( 宗学 , 'denominational studies'). English academic Graham Harvey has commented that Pagans "rarely indulge in theology". Nevertheless, theology has been applied in some sectors across contemporary Pagan communities, including Wicca , Heathenry , Druidry and Kemetism . As these religions have given precedence to orthopraxy , theological views often vary among adherents. The term

4080-472: The theory of Adams." However, it also states that this confrontation "is defined as caring confrontation." Mark McMinn has said, however, that "Dr. Adams has received a great deal of unfair, uninformed criticism from the Christian counseling community. Although I do not share Dr. Adams' opinion on confronting sin in counseling, I do respect his pioneering work in biblical counseling." Adams wrote more than 100 books, including: Theology Theology

4148-476: The university started to come under challenge during the European Enlightenment , especially in Germany. Other subjects gained in independence and prestige, and questions were raised about the place of a discipline that seemed to involve a commitment to the authority of particular religious traditions in institutions that were increasingly understood to be devoted to independent reason. Since

SECTION 60

#1732791232479

4216-440: The world, prefer the designation Buddhist philosophy to the term Buddhist theology , since Buddhism lacks the same conception of a theos or a Creator God . Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is in fact appropriate, can only do so, he says, because "I take theology not to be restricted to discourse on God.... I take 'theology' not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism

4284-511: Was based on his book Competent to Counsel , published in 1970, when he was about 40 years old. From its ideas, Adams further developed what is known as nouthetic counseling . Over time, Adams became a popular advocate of "strictly biblical approaches" to counseling, described as having perspectives that have continued to influence evangelical Christianity in the early 21st century. In the late 20th century, John F. MacArthur said that Adams, through his book Competent to Counsel (1970), gave

4352-400: Was highly influential for biblical pastoral theology. He also founded The Institute for Nouethetic Studies , putting together a curriculum to support such work. It has trained practitioners and also served as a center of resources for this practice and related studies. His approach was evangelical and conservative. According to an interview by Aaron Blumer, Adams' major influence on counseling

4420-555: Was pivotal in transforming psychology from a branch of philosophy to an experimental science. In addition to Wundt, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) offered secular explanations for religious belief. Freud proposed that belief in God often stems from an individual's relationship with their father. He argued that the "father complex," shaped by the Oedipus complex and early familial relationships, influenced one’s perception of God as an exalted father figure. Freud also developed psychotherapy as

4488-765: Was rooted in a strict biblical framework and focused on exhorting clients to change their behavior, aligning it with Christian teachings. His model encouraged counselors to use various scriptures to guide clients in their journey toward repentance and spiritual transformation. The term "nouthetic" derives from the Greek word noutheteo , meaning "to admonish," and Adams emphasized the role of the counselor in directly confronting sin and encouraging obedience to God’s commands. However, Adams' rigid approach to counseling and its strict biblical orientation faced criticism from those who believed his methods were overly prescriptive and not adaptable to more secular or psychological approaches to therapy. Despite his influence, Adams' popularity waned in

4556-464: Was the study of church or canon law : universities played an important role in training people for ecclesiastical offices, in helping the church pursue the clarification and defence of its teaching, and in supporting the legal rights of the church over against secular rulers. At such universities, theological study was initially closely tied to the life of faith and of the church: it fed, and was fed by, practices of preaching , prayer and celebration of

4624-718: Was used with the meaning 'discourse on God' around 380 BC by Plato in The Republic . Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into mathematike , physike , and theologike , with the latter corresponding roughly to metaphysics , which, for Aristotle, included discourse on the nature of the divine. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of such discourse: Some Latin Christian authors, such as Tertullian and Augustine , followed Varro's threefold usage. However, Augustine also defined theologia as "reasoning or discussion concerning

#478521