198-563: The Christmas season or the festive season ; also known as the holiday season or the holidays , is an annual period generally spanning from late November or December to early January. Incorporating Christmas Day and New Year's Day , the various celebrations during this time create a peak season for the retail sector (Christmas/holiday "shopping season") extending to the end of the period ("January sales"). Christmas window displays and Christmas tree lighting ceremonies are customary traditions in various locales. In Western Christianity ,
396-658: A Festival in the Lutheran Churches , a solemnity in the Roman Catholic Church , and a Principal Feast of the Anglican Communion . Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost. As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Day church service plays an important part in
594-463: A Nativity play ; an exchange of Christmas cards ; attending church services ; a special meal ; and displaying various Christmas decorations , including Christmas trees , Christmas lights , nativity scenes , garlands , wreaths , mistletoe , and holly . Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus , Father Christmas , Saint Nicholas , and Christkind , are associated with bringing gifts to children during
792-406: A carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms : gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves . The poet Catullus called it "the best of days." The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was Hippolytus of Rome (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at
990-555: A forum , temples and the same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban population required an enormous supply of food, which was a complex logistical task, including acquiring, transporting, storing and distribution of food for Rome and other urban centers. Italian farms supplied vegetables and fruits, but fish and meat were luxuries. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from Hispania , Gaul and Africa. There
1188-542: A religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world . It is a feast central to Christianity . In the liturgical year , preparation for Christmas begins on the First Sunday of Advent (the fourth Sunday before), and it is followed by Christmastide , which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night . Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries ,
1386-467: A Christian context. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival -like state in the Middle Ages , to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation. The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as
1584-479: A Christmas greeting in the United States for more than 100 years. The increasing usage of "happy holidays" has been the subject of some controversy in the United States . Advocates claim that "happy holidays" is an inclusive greeting that is not intended as an attack on Christianity or other religions, but is rather a response to what they say is the reality of a growing non-Christian population. Opponents of
1782-587: A cultural legacy that survives in part today. The Roman Empire began when Augustus became the first emperor of Rome in 31 BC and ended in the west when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus , was deposed by Odoacer in AD 476. The Roman Empire, at its height ( c. AD 100 ), was the most extensive political and social structure in Western civilization . By 285 AD, the Empire had grown too vast to be ruled from
1980-530: A customary holiday since time immemorial , it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland. Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no." The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of
2178-599: A distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies. These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory. They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas. Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public. During
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#17327660026082376-491: A family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation." Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from
2574-670: A gift card than merchandise, an increase from the previous year's 35 percent. Also, resistance to giving gift cards continued to decline: 19 percent said they would not like to give gift cards because they're too impersonal (down from 22 percent last year). Consumers said that the cards are popular gifts for adults, teens and children alike, and almost half (46 percent) intend to buy them for immediate family; however, they are hesitant to buy them for spouses or significant others, with only 14 percent saying they plan to buy them for those recipients. Some stores in Canada hold Boxing Week sales (before
2772-519: A language used to cross international borders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. A deep knowledge of classical Latin was a standard part of the educational curriculum in many western countries until well into the 20th century, and is still taught in many schools today. Although it was eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in general. Roman literature
2970-456: A larger cultural clash dubbed by some commentators as the " War on Christmas ". The Rev. Barry W. Lynn, the executive director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State , has stated the uproar is based on "stories that only sometimes even contain a grain of truth and often are completely false." Christmas Day Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ , observed primarily on December 25 as
3168-688: A lot of seasonal activities and traditions to offer around Christmas time. December 25 and 26 are Public Holidays that makes most shops open for shopping. Locals and tourists love to watch the 30-meter Swarovski Christmas tree in the Central as well as the Christmas light displays on buildings on Victoria Harbour . A huge party in Hong Kong called Winterfest is celebrated every year which involves malls, shops, theme parks and other attractions. South Korea's population are 30 percent Christian and Christmas
3366-455: A low-end estimate of 450,000. A substantial proportion of the population under the city's jurisdiction lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of at least 10,000 and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. The most urbanized part of the Empire was Italy, which had an estimated rate of urbanization of 32%, the same rate of urbanization of England in 1800. Most Roman towns and cities had
3564-813: A major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party." The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War , England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647. Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury
3762-422: A more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen , make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world. Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of
3960-417: A much more fundamental part of life than in modern times. Initially in Rome poetry was not considered a suitable occupation for important citizens, but the attitude changed in the second and first centuries BC. In Rome poetry considerably preceded prose writing in date. As Aristotle pointed out, poetry was the first sort of literature to arouse people's interest in questions of style. The importance of poetry in
4158-722: A play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl , and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve. Following the Protestant Reformation , many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church , continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629,
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#17327660026084356-621: A predominantly Muslim country, also celebrated Christmas as a public holiday. Every year, Ministry of Religious Affairs holds the National Christmas Celebration of the Republic of Indonesia . The program started in 1993 as a suggestion from Tiopan Bernhard Silalahi, who was Minister of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform in the Sixth Development Cabinet , who has Protestant background, to
4554-680: A protest against the holiday. Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades. European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany , "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of
4752-683: A provincial governorship in Asia Minor. The letters also contain much about Cicero's family life, and its political and financial complications. Roman philosophical treatises have had great influence on the world, but the original thinking came from the Greeks. Roman philosophical writings are rooted in four 'schools' from the age of the Hellenistic Greeks. The four 'schools' were that of the Epicureans , Stoics , Peripatetics , and
4950-586: A record of the whole of Roman history. This work filled eighty books and was known as the Annales maximi . The composition recorded the official events of the State, such as elections and commands, civic, provincial and cult business, set out in formal arrangements year by year. During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there was a golden age of historical literature. Works such as the Histories of Tacitus ,
5148-489: A sacred and festive season, and established the duty of Advent fasting in preparation for the feast." This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east." The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund
5346-880: A sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in Godey's Lady's Book , Philadelphia in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America. In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall , Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned, and he used
5544-636: A system of affixes attached to word stems . Like other Indo-European languages, Latin gradually became much more analytic over time and acquired conventionalized word orders as it lost more and more of its case system and associated inflections. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet , is based on the Old Italic alphabet , which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet . The Latin alphabet is still used today to write most European and many other languages. Most of
5742-464: A table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a triclinium . Fingers were used to take foods which were prepared beforehand and brought to the diners. Spoons were used for soups. Wine in Rome did not become common or mass-produced until around 250 BC. It was more commonly produced around the time of Cato the Elder , who mentions in his book De agri cultura that
5940-575: A term referring to a countdown to Christmas Day from the beginning of December (although in retail planning the countdown to Christmas usually begins at the end of the summer season , and the beginning of September). Beginning in the mid-20th century, as the Christian-associated Christmas holiday and liturgical season, in some circles, became increasingly commercialized and central to American economics and culture while religio-multicultural sensitivity rose, generic references to
6138-406: A variety of comestibles. Sometimes, dancing girls would entertain the diners. Women and children ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend such dinner parties. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn
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6336-651: A woman called Lesbia. Under the reign of the Emperor Augustus , Horace continued the tradition of shorter poems, with his Odes and Epodes . Martial , writing under the Emperor Domitian , was a famed author of epigrams , poems which were often abusive and censured public figures. Roman prose developed its sonority, dignity, and rhythm in persuasive speech . Rhetoric had already been key to many great achievements in Athens, so after studying
6534-476: Is a Public Holiday . According to the Washington Post , "Koreans prefer cash Christmas gifts over more creative presents." Singapore widely celebrates Christmas which is a Public Holiday in this country. For six weeks, mid-November to early January, the 2.2-kilometre (1.4 mi) stretch of Orchard Road glitters with lights from decorated trees and building facades of malls and hotels. Indonesia,
6732-454: Is a "myth that the holiday shopping season starts with Thanksgiving and ends with Christmas. January is a key part of the holiday season." stating that for the U.S. e-commerce sector January sales volumes matched December sales volumes in the 2004–2005 Christmas and holiday season. Many people find this time particularly stressful. As a remedy, and as a return to what they perceive as the root of Christmas, some practice alternative giving . In
6930-462: Is a sentence in the Chronograph of 354 . Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336. Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian , the early Church Fathers John Chrysostom , Augustine of Hippo , and Jerome attested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward
7128-536: Is a shortened form of 'Christ's Mass '. The word is recorded as Crīstesmæsse in 1038 and Cristes-messe in 1131. Crīst ( genitive Crīstes ) is from the Greek Χριστός ( Khrīstos , 'Christ'), a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ ( Māšîaḥ , ' Messiah '), meaning 'anointed'; and mæsse is from the Latin missa , the celebration of the Eucharist . The form Christenmas
7326-531: Is another abbreviation of the Greek word). The holiday has had various other English names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter", or, more rarely, as Nātiuiteð (from the Latin nātīvitās below). Nativity , meaning 'birth', is from the Latin nātīvitās . In Old English , Gēola (' Yule ') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which
7524-623: Is broadcast on Irish television, which features all the popular toys throughout the year being demonstrated and showcased before the holiday season and shopping sprees commence. The Netherlands and Belgium have a double holiday. The first one, the arrival of the Bishop Saint Nicholas and Black Peter, starts about mid November, with presents being given on December 5 or 6. This is a separate holiday from Christmas, Bishop Saint Nick (Sinterklaas) and Santa Claus (Kerstman) being different people. The Netherlands and Belgium often do not start
7722-578: Is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians , as well as culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the holiday season surrounding it. The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament , known as the Nativity of Jesus , says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem , in accordance with messianic prophecies . When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city,
7920-529: Is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice , which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship ; according to eighth-century biographer Æddi Stephanus , Saint Boniface (634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir tree , which he stated
8118-408: Is now lost. In the second and early first centuries BC an attempt was made, led by Cato the Elder, to use the records and traditions that were preserved, in order to reconstruct the entire past of Rome. The historians engaged in this task are often referred to as the "Annalists", implying that their writings more or less followed chronological order. In 123 BC, an official endeavor was made to provide
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8316-528: The Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar and History of Rome by Livy have been passed down through generations. Unfortunately, in the case of Livy, much of the script has been lost and it is left with a few specific areas: the founding of the city, the war with Hannibal , and its aftermath. In the ancient world, poetry usually played a far more important part of daily life than it does today. In general, educated Greeks and Romans thought of poetry as playing
8514-461: The Academy . Epicureans believed in the guidance of the senses, and identified the supreme goal of life to be happiness, or the absence of pain. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium, who taught that virtue was the supreme good, creating a new sense of ethical urgency. The Peripatetics were followers of Aristotle, guided by his science and philosophy. The Academy was founded by Plato and was based on
8712-465: The Colosseum to watch events such as events involving gladiators , combats between men, or fights between men and wild animals. The Circus Maximus was used for chariot racing. Life in the countryside was slow-paced but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying
8910-554: The Eastern Roman Empire , while the various dialects of Vulgar Latin used in the Western Roman Empire evolved into the modern Romance languages still used today. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and developed various dialects in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages beginning in around
9108-552: The Epiphany . As the economic impact involving the anticipatory lead-up to Christmas Day grew in America and Europe into the 19th and 20th centuries, the term "Christmas season" began to also encompass the liturgical Advent season, the period observed in Western Christianity from the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day until Christmas Eve. The term " Advent calendar " continues to be widely known in Western parlance as
9306-553: The Euphrates . Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome , its famed seven hills , and its monumental architecture such as the Colosseum , Trajan's Forum , and the Pantheon . The city also had several theaters and gymnasia , along with many taverns , baths and brothels . Throughout the territory under ancient Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas , and in
9504-536: The First Punic War . A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero , a self-distinguished linguist, translator, and philosopher, in particular, were popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity. Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in
9702-670: The Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Communion ), the season continues through Twelfth Night , the day before the Epiphany , which is celebrated either on January 6 or on the Sunday between January 2 and 8. In other churches (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church ), it continues until the feast of the Baptism of the Lord, which falls on the Sunday following the Epiphany, or on the Monday following
9900-557: The Mellandagsrea (between days sell off) traditionally begins on December 27 (nowadays often December 26 or even December 25) and lasts during the rest of the Christmas holiday. It is similar to Black Friday , but lasts longer. They last 34–35 days. Black Friday itself has also gained publicity in Sweden since the early-2010s. The Swedish Christmas and holiday season continues over Epiphany , and finally ends on St. Knut's Day when
10098-528: The Modern English period, the revival of interest in classical culture during the Renaissance led to a great deal of conscious adaptation of words from Classical Latin authors into English. Although Latin is an extinct language with very few contemporary fluent speakers, it remains in use in many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through Ecclesiastical Latin , the traditional language of
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#173276600260810296-544: The Puritans and Jehovah's Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical. Prior to and through the early Christian centuries, winter festivals were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached. Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy , and
10494-583: The Roman Catholic Church and one of the official languages of the Vatican City . Although distinct from both Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ecclesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Latin . More Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin . Due to both the prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe's lingua franca ,
10692-621: The Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, to which he then added nine months. There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century, the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and Baptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 8, while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the Winter solstice ); and that by the last quarter of
10890-904: The Star of Bethlehem ; in that country it is known in Spanish as the Flower of the Holy Night . Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe , red amaryllis , and Christmas cactus . Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs , snowmen , and other Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example,
11088-599: The Victorian era Christmas traditions it typifies, and the term's new meaning appearing in the book popularized the phrase "Merry Christmas". The alternative "Happy Christmas" gained usage in the late 19th century, and in the United Kingdom and Ireland is a common spoken greeting, along with "Merry Christmas." One reason may be the Victorian middle-class influence in attempting to separate wholesome celebration of
11286-581: The Virgin Mary . In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in a manger . Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews . King Herod orders
11484-484: The Yule log , Yule boar , and the Yule goat . Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt ), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings". On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to
11682-411: The capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill , from which the word palace is derived. The vast majority of Rome's population lived in the city center, packed into Insulae (apartment blocks). The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of that time, with a population that may well have exceeded one million people, with a high-end estimate of 3.6 million and
11880-477: The massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later returns to Nazareth. In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date". The earliest evidence of Christ's birth being marked on December 25
12078-480: The nativity scene , on government property; of that 72%, "survey data finds that a plurality (44%) of Americans say Christian symbols, such as nativity scenes, should be allowed on government property even if they are not accompanied by symbols from other faiths." Six in ten Americans attend church services during Christmastime, and "among those who don't attend church at Christmastime, a majority (57%) say they would likely attend if someone they knew invited them." In
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#173276600260812276-412: The singing of carols . The precise definition of feasts and festival days that are encompassed by the Christmas and holiday season has become controversial in the United States over recent decades. While in other countries the only holidays included in the "season" are Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, St. Stephen's Day/ Boxing Day , New Year's Eve, New Year's Day and Epiphany , in recent times, this term in
12474-537: The three kings cake was renamed the "equality cake" under anticlerical government policies . In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services became widespread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor, along with Washington Irving , Charles Dickens , and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving), or Father Christmas (for Dickens). In
12672-401: The "father of the American Christmas card". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday . During the First World War and particularly (but not exclusively) in 1914, a series of informal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at
12870-470: The 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years. As in England, Puritans in Colonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas. The Pilgrims of New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally. Puritans such as Cotton Mather condemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of
13068-432: The 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as
13266-401: The 4.6 cards they planned to buy the previous year. One in six consumers (16 percent) planned to buy 10 or more cards, compared with 11 percent the previous year. Consumers also spent more in total on gift cards and more per card: $ 36.25 per card on average compared with $ 30.22 last year. Gift cards continued to grow in acceptance: Almost four in 10 consumers surveyed (39 percent) would rather get
13464-458: The 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts. The earliest suggestions of a feast of the Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from Clement of Alexandria , but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361, when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 that year. In the Christian tradition , the Christmas season is a period beginning on Christmas Day (December 25). In some churches (e.g.,
13662-561: The 9th century. Many of these languages, including French , Italian , Portuguese , Romanian , and Spanish , flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin— Britannia was a Roman province , but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions—English today borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words. Old English borrowings were relatively sparse and drew mainly from ecclesiastical usage after
13860-419: The Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ's Nativity , a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, Chico , states that Martin Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America." Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church , Christmas
14058-521: The Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful Kraków szopka in Poland, which imitate Kraków 's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi ( Neapolitan , Genoese and Bolognese ), or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called santons . In certain parts of
14256-635: The Christianization of England. When William the Conqueror invaded England from Normandy in 1066, he brought with him a considerable number of retainers who spoke Anglo-Norman French , a Romance language derived from Latin. Anglo-Norman French remained the language of the English upper classes for centuries, and the number of Latinate words in English increased immensely through borrowing during this Middle English period. More recently, during
14454-528: The Christmas and holiday season "is generally considered to begin with the winter solstice and end after the Lantern Festival ". In some stores and shopping malls, Christmas merchandise is advertised beginning after Halloween or even earlier in late October, alongside Halloween items. In the UK and Ireland, Christmas food generally appears on supermarket shelves as early as September or even August, while
14652-417: The Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world. The English word Christmas
14850-517: The Christmas season from public insobriety and associated asocial behaviour, at a time when merry also meant ' intoxicated ' – Queen Elizabeth II is said to have preferred "Happy Christmas" for this reason. In her annual Christmas messages to the Commonwealth, Queen Elizabeth used "Happy Christmas" far more often than "Merry Christmas." The latter was used only four times during her reign: in 1962, 1967, 1970 and 1999; "Happy Christmas"
15048-646: The Christmas season is traditionally synonymous with Christmastide , which runs from December 25 (Christmas Day) to January 5 ( Twelfth Night or Epiphany Eve ), popularly known as the 12 Days of Christmas . Christmas in Italy begins on 8 December, with the Feast of the Immaculate Conception , the day on which traditionally the Christmas tree is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with
15246-523: The Christmas season until December 6 or 7, i.e. after Sinterklaas has finished. In France, the January sales are restricted by legislation to no more than four weeks in Paris, and no more than six weeks for the rest of the country, usually beginning on the first Wednesday in January, and are one of only two periods of the year when retailers are permitted to hold sales. In Italy, the January sales begin on
15444-494: The Christmas season with an Epiphany season lasting until Candlemas (February 2), which is traditionally the 40th day of the Christmas – Epiphany season; meanwhile, in the Lutheran Churches and the Methodist Churches , Epiphanytide lasts until the first day of Lent, Ash Wednesday . The Pew Research Center found that as of 2014, 72% of Americans support the presence of Christian Christmas decorations, such as
15642-785: The Christmas shopping season itself starts from mid-November, when the high street Christmas lights are switched on. Secular icons and symbols, such as Santa Claus , the Nutcracker , Jack Frost , Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and Frosty the Snowman , are on display in addition to Christian displays of the nativity. Public holiday celebrations and observances similarly range from midnight mass to Christmas tree lighting ceremonies, Santa Claus parades , sleigh ridings , church services , decorations , traditions , festivals, outdoor markets , feasts , social gatherings and
15840-426: The Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem , a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897. Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus . Additionally, in
16038-565: The Epiphany if the Epiphany is moved to January 7 or 8. If the Epiphany is kept on January 6, the Church of England 's use of the term Christmas season corresponds to the Twelve Days of Christmas , and ends on Twelfth Night. This short Christmas season is preceded by Advent , which begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day, coinciding with the majority of the commercialized Christmas and holiday season. The Anglican Communion follows
16236-453: The Greeks the Romans ranked oratory highly as a subject and a profession. Written speeches were some of the first forms of prose writing in ancient Rome, and other forms of prose writing in the future were influenced by this. Sixteen books of Cicero 's letters have survived, all published after Cicero's death by his secretary, Tito. The letters provide a look at the social life in the days of
16434-583: The Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. By the High Middle Ages , the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and
16632-558: The Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days". Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been
16830-427: The Roman Empire was so strong that Quintilian , the greatest authority on education, wanted secondary schools to focus on the reading and teaching of poetry, leaving prose writings to what would now be referred to as the university stage. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of
17028-638: The Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar , which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar , which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, believing that God came into
17226-539: The Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers all came from the Greek East . Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. Against this human background, both the urban and rural setting, one of history's most influential civilizations took shape, leaving behind
17424-544: The Sceptic Pyro's idea that real knowledge could be acquired. The Academy also presented criticisms of the Epicurean and Stoic schools of philosophy. The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius . Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence , a freed Roman slave captured during
17622-409: The U.S. began to expand to include Yule , Hanukkah , Kwanzaa , Thanksgiving , Black Friday and Cyber Monday . The expansion of the holiday season in the U.S. to encompass Thanksgiving is believed to have begun in the 1920s, when in major department stores Macy's and Gimbels launched competing Thanksgiving Day parades to promote Christmas sales. Due to the phenomenon of Christmas creep and
17820-490: The U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so." In Reading, Pennsylvania , a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate
18018-416: The UK in 2010, up to £8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales. Retailers in the UK call Christmas the "golden quarter", that is, the three months of October to December is the quarter of the year in which the retail industry hopes to make the most money. In Ireland, around early December or late November each year, The Late Late Toy Show
18216-576: The United States after the American Revolution , when it was considered an English custom. George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time. With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France , Christian Christmas religious services were banned and
18414-444: The United States and before Halloween in Canada. In the UK and Ireland retailers call Christmas the "golden quarter", that is, the three months of October through December is the quarter of the year in which the retail industry hopes to make the most profit. In the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. In
18612-477: The United States, the holiday season "is generally considered to begin with the day after Halloween and end after New Year's Day". According to Axelrad, the season in the United States encompasses at least Christmas and New Year's Day, and also includes Saint Nicholas Day . The U.S. Fire Administration defines the "winter holiday season" as the period from December 1 to January 7. According to Chen et al., in China,
18810-534: The United States, the holiday season is a particularly important time for retail shopping, with shoppers spending more than $ 600 billion during the 2013 holiday season, averaging about $ 767 per person. During the 2014 holiday shopping season, retail sales in the United States increased to a total of over $ 616 billion, and in 2015, retail sales in the United States increased to a total of over $ 630 billion, up from 2014's $ 616 billion. The average US holiday shopper spent on average $ 805. More than half of it
19008-595: The Younger was also known as a heavy drinker, frequently found stumbling home disoriented and the worse for wear in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens. During the Imperial period, staple food of the lower class Romans (plebeians) was vegetable porridge and bread , and occasionally fish , meat , olives and fruits . Sometimes, subsidized or free foods were distributed in cities. The patrician's aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties and wines and
19206-469: The anniversary of the Savior's birth." The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois , "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called
19404-487: The basics of reading , writing and counting . By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin , Greek , grammar and literature , followed by training for public speaking . Oratory was an art to be practiced and learned and good orators commanded respect; becoming an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning . Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education. School
19602-426: The battlefield. The toga pulla was worn in mourning. Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals , senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors such as white, yellow, or green. The bulla was a locket -like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her lunula to
19800-500: The books until January, extending the length of the season makes sense". According to the Deloitte 2007 Holiday Survey, for the fourth straight year, gift cards were expected to be the top gift purchase in 2007, with more than two-thirds (69 percent) of consumers surveyed planning to buy them, compared with 66 percent in 2006. In addition, holiday shoppers planned to buy even more cards that year: an average of 5.5 cards, compared with
19998-573: The central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Roman Empire . In the east, the Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of Western culture. The center of
20196-561: The children have a Knut's party . In Bosnia ( Republika Srpska ), Montenegro and Serbia, holiday sales starts in the middle of December and last for at least one month. The Philippines reportedly has the longest Christmas season , extending from September to January 9 (the feast of the Black Nazarene ). Over the country, parols (star shaped lanterns) are hung and lights are lit. Simbang Gabi or dawn masses start December 16 and run for nine days until Christmas Eve. Hong Kong has
20394-458: The city that would become Rome. Lucretius , in his On the Nature of Things , attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Later Ovid produced his Metamorphoses , written in dactylic hexameter verse, the meter of epic, attempting a complete mythology from the creation of
20592-564: The context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, is symbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent the Light of the World —Jesus—born in Bethlehem. Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected. The Christmas tree
20790-481: The countryside in settlements with less than 10,000 inhabitants. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large number of slaves and many received wages, but in some rural areas poverty and overcrowding were extreme. Rural poverty stimulated
20988-715: The cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is in Turkey , being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival. Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity ; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in
21186-402: The cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England , Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree. While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in
21384-700: The custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries. The pre-Christian Germanic peoples —including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule , held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule , today used as a synonym for Christmas . In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including
21582-523: The day often involved boisterous behavior. Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros , but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. At
21780-448: The early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family , which was not only marked by biological relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas ("paternal power"). The pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife (if she was given to him cum manu , otherwise the father of the wife retained patria potestas ), his children,
21978-409: The early-19th century, writers imagined Tudor -period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol , which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion. Dickens sought to construct Christmas as
22176-550: The earth to his own time. He unifies his subject matter through the theme of metamorphosis. It was noted in classical times that Ovid's work lacked the gravitas possessed by traditional epic poetry. Catullus and the associated group of Neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with
22374-461: The end of the fourth century. December 25 was the traditional date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire, where most Christians lived, and the Roman festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus , the 'Invincible Sun') had been held on this date since 274 AD. In the East , the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6. This holiday
22572-450: The end of the year) for income tax purposes. What has become known as "Christmas creep" refers to a merchandising phenomenon in which merchants and retailers exploit the commercialized status of Christmas by moving up the start of the holiday shopping season. The term was first used in the mid-1980s, and is associated with a desire of merchants to take advantage of particularly heavy Christmas-related shopping well before Black Friday in
22770-432: The end-of-the-year festive period. "Holiday season" has also spread in varying degrees to Canada; however, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the phrase "holiday season" has been the subject of some controversy. The winter solstice (in the northern hemisphere occurring in late December) may have been a special moment of the annual cycle for some cultures even during Neolithic times. This is attested by physical remains in
22968-407: The falling republic, providing pictures of the personalities of this epoch. The letters of Cicero are vast and varied, and provide pictures of the personalities of this epoch. Cicero's personality is most clearly revealed, emerging as a vain vacillating, snobbish man. Cicero's passion for the public life of the capital also emerges from his letters, most clearly when he was in exile and when he took on
23166-526: The feast of St. Martin of Tours ), now known as Advent. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days. In 567, the Council of Tours put in place the season of Christmastide , proclaiming "the twelve days from Christmas to Epiphany as
23364-589: The fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing. During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. It was restored as a legal holiday in England with the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England. Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland,
23562-604: The first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole . The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys 's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of " The First Noel ", " I Saw Three Ships ", " Hark the Herald Angels Sing " and " God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen ", popularized in Dickens's A Christmas Carol . In Britain, the Christmas tree
23760-445: The first commercial Christmas card , produced by Henry Cole in England in 1843. Also in 1843, Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol was published, during the mid Victorian revival of the holiday. The word "merry" was then beginning to take on its current meaning of "jovial, cheerful, jolly and outgoing." " Merry Christmas " in this new context figured prominently in A Christmas Carol . The cynical Ebenezer Scrooge rudely deflects
23958-629: The first weekend in January, and last for at least six weeks. In Croatia and Bosnia (predominantly Sarajevo) the sales periods are regulated by the Consumer Protection Act. The January sales period starts on December 27 and can last up to 60 days. In Germany, the Winterschlussverkauf (winter sale before the season ends) was one of two official sales periods (the other being the Sommerschlussverkauf ,
24156-566: The following century. The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by the sixth century . In the Early Middle Ages , Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi . However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11,
24354-407: The friendly greeting: "If I could work my will ... every idiot who goes about with 'merry Christmas' on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding ." After the visit from the ghosts of Christmas effects his transformation, Scrooge exclaims; "I am as merry as a school-boy. A merry Christmas to everybody!" and heartily exchanges the wish to all he meets. The instant popularity of A Christmas Carol ,
24552-470: The gossip-crazy society of the city bound to come to light and easily verified—was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals employed by some of Rome's greatest orators like Cicero and Julius Caesar . Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony , Cicero's own son Marcus ( Cicero Minor ) and the emperor Tiberius whose soldiers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Mero (lit. "Boozer of Pure Wine," Sueton Tib. 42,1). Cato
24750-411: The greeting generally claim it is a secular neologism intended to de-emphasize Christmas or even supplant it entirely. "Happy holidays" has been variously characterized by critics as politically correct , materialistic , consumerist , atheistic , indifferentist , agnostic, anti-theist , anti-Christian , or even a covert form of Christian cultural imperialism . The phrase has been associated with
24948-533: The holiday season (the "Christmas shopping season") and a period of sales at the end of the season, the "January sales". Although once dedicated mostly to white sales and clearance sales , the January sales now comprise both winter close-out sales and sales comprising the redemption of gift cards given as presents. Young-Bean Song, director of analytics at the Atlas Institute in Seattle, states that it
25146-464: The household gods, along with her toys, to signify maturity and womanhood. Men typically wore a toga, and women wore a stola . The woman's stola was a dress worn over a tunic, and was usually brightly colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A palla , or shawl, was often worn with the stola . Since the beginning of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient Romans had very simple food habits. Simple food
25344-409: The informal inclusion of Thanksgiving, the Christmas and holiday season has begun to extend earlier into the year, overlapping Veterans / Remembrance / Armistice Day , Halloween and Guy Fawkes Night . The exchange of gifts is central to the Christmas and holiday season, and the season thus also incorporates a "holiday shopping season". This comprises a peak time for the retail sector at the start of
25542-429: The inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds , who then spread the word. There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth . In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman calendar. It is nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also
25740-574: The largely non-Christian nations of China and Japan, where Christmas is celebrated primarily due to cultural influences of predominantly Christian countries. They have somewhat decreased in popularity in the United States and Canada in recent decades, but polls in 2005 indicated that they remained more popular than "happy holidays" or other alternatives. "Merry," derived from the Old English myrige , originally meant merely ' pleasant, agreeable ' rather than ' joyous ' or ' jolly ' (as in
25938-434: The last Saturday before Christmas Day (i.e., Super Saturday ) than on Black Friday. A survey conducted in 2005 by GfK NOP discovered that "Americans aren't as drawn to Black Friday as many retailers may think", with only 17 percent of those polled saying that they will begin holiday shopping immediately after Thanksgiving, 13 percent saying that they plan to finish their shopping before November 24 and 10 percent waiting until
26136-503: The last day before performing their holiday gift shopping. According to a survey by the Canadian Toy Association, peak sales in the toy industry occur in the Christmas and holiday season, but this peak has been occurring later and later in the season every year. In 2005, the kick-off to the Christmas and holiday season for online shopping , the first Monday after US Thanksgiving, was named Cyber Monday . Although it
26334-529: The layouts of late Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Stonehenge in England and Newgrange in Ireland. The primary axes of both of these monuments seem to have been carefully aligned on a sight-line pointing to the winter solstice sunrise (Newgrange) and the winter solstice sunset (Stonehenge). It is significant that the Great Trilithon was oriented outwards from the middle of
26532-614: The legend of Baldr ); it is an evergreen parasitic plant that grows on trees, especially apple and poplar, and turns golden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed. Mistletoe has sticky white berries, one of which was traditionally removed whenever someone was kissed under it. This is probably a fertility ritual. The mistletoe berry juice resembles semen. Other traditional decorations include bells , candles , candy canes , stockings , wreaths , and angels . The wreaths and candles in each window are
26730-415: The migration of population to urban centers until the early 2nd century when the urban population stopped growing and started to decline. Starting in the middle of the 2nd century BC, private Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture from the conservative moralists. By the time of Augustus , cultured Greek household slaves taught
26928-612: The monument, i.e. its smooth flat face was turned towards the midwinter Sun. Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honor of the deity Saturn , the god of time, held on December 17 of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through December 23. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn , in the Roman Forum , and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and
27126-445: The most common used venue was Jakarta Convention Center . But since 2014, the tradition was changed by the newly elected President of Indonesia Joko Widodo , and is now held in a different city each year. A selection of goodwill greetings are often used around the world to address strangers, family, colleagues or friends during the season. Some greetings are more prevalent than others, depending on culture and location. Traditionally,
27324-459: The noontime preparations. In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the tunica angusticlavi ; senators wore tunics with purple stripes ( clavi ), called tunica laticlavi . Military tunics were shorter than
27522-421: The notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of low quality wine of more than 0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms. Drinking non-watered wine on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign of alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were already recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic—in
27720-412: The observance of Christmas, claiming it undermined Islam . In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled in Bethlehem , the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus. Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited the ongoing Israel–Hamas war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations. Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around
27918-440: The ones worn by civilians. The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia , wore the toga praetexta , which was a toga with a crimson or purple border, also worn by magistrates in office. The toga virilis , (or toga pura ) or man's toga was worn by men who had come of age to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on
28116-452: The pagan practice. Among countries with a strong Christian tradition , a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as the Koleda , which shares parallels with the Christmas carol . Christmas Day (inclusive of its vigil , Christmas Eve), is
28314-549: The patrician curule aedile . Over time, Roman law evolved considerably, as well as social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family members. Justice greatly increased, as well. The Romans became more efficient at considering laws and punishments. Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the Forum , the central business district , where most of the Romans would go for marketing, shopping, trading, banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum
28512-575: The period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories. Music was a major part of everyday life in ancient Rome. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres. Some of
28710-431: The phrase "merry month of May"). Christmas has been celebrated since at least the 4th century CE, the first known usage of any Christmas greeting dates was in 1534. " Merry Christmas and a happy new year " (thus incorporating two greetings) was in an informal letter written by an English admiral in 1699. The same phrase is contained in the title of the English carol " We Wish You a Merry Christmas ," and also appears in
28908-518: The phrases in the US. In North America, "happy holidays" has, along with the similarly generalized "season's greetings", become a common seasonal expression, both spoken as a personal greeting and used in advertisements, on greeting cards, and in commercial and public spaces such as retail businesses, public schools, and government agencies. Its use is generally confined to the period between American Thanksgiving and New Year's Day. The phrase has been used as
29106-418: The pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom . The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion ; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of
29304-436: The plebeian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the gens . He was not allowed to form his own gens. The authority of the pater familias was unlimited, be it in civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king's duty was to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres). During
29502-569: The practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world. An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings. Portrait sculpture during
29700-486: The predominant greetings of the season have been "Merry Christmas", "Happy Christmas", and "Happy New Year". In the mid-to-late 20th century in the United States, more generic greetings such as "Happy Holidays" and "Season's Greetings" began to rise in cultural prominence, and this would later spread to other Western countries including Canada, Australia and to a lesser extent some European countries. A 2012 poll by Rasmussen Reports indicated that 68 percent of Americans prefer
29898-484: The previous year. Analysts had predicted the peak on December 12, noting that Mondays are the most popular days for online shopping during the holiday shopping season, in contrast to the middle of the week during the rest of the year. They attribute this to people "shopping in stores and malls on the weekends, and ... extending that shopping experience when they get into work on Monday" by "looking for deals ... comparison shopping and ... finding items that were out of stock in
30096-417: The ratio of wine to water in the drinking wine. Wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Mulsum was honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was honeyed water. The per-person-consumption of wine per day in the city of Rome has been estimated at 0.8 to 1.1 gallons for males, and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even
30294-634: The recognition of the Christmas season . Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 million people at Christmas services in 2015. Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across
30492-503: The sales. Since a legislative reform to the corresponding law in 2004, season sales are now allowed over the whole year and are no longer restricted to season-related goods. However, voluntary sales still called "Winterschlussverkauf" take place further on in most stores at the same time every year. In Sweden, where the week of the first Advent Sunday marks the official start of the Christmas and holiday season, continuing with Saint Lucy's Day on December 13, followed up by Christmas before
30690-624: The same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantly Moravian settlers of Bethlehem , Nazareth , and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in
30888-551: The season that omitted the word "Christmas" became more common in the corporate and public sphere of the United States, which has caused a semantics controversy that continues to the present. By the late 20th century, the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah and the new African American cultural holiday of Kwanzaa began to be considered in the U.S. as being part of the "holiday season", a term that as of 2013 had become equally or more prevalent than "Christmas season" in U.S. sources to refer to
31086-432: The sender pays) prior to Christmas Eve; this day is usually on or near December 16. Four of the largest 11 online shopping days in 2005 were December 11 to 16, with an increase of 12 percent over 2004 figures. In 2011, Cyber Monday was slightly busier than Green Monday and Free Shipping Day, although all three days registered sales of over US$ 1 billion, and all three days registered gains ranging from 14 to 22 percent over
31284-478: The slaves (legally objects, mancipia, i.e., "kept in the [master's] hand") there were plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To deal with this problem, the so-called clientela was created. By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patrician (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by mediation of his patrician pater familias . Everything
31482-419: The splendor of nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days, and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their masters. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from
31680-673: The start and new winter merchandise for the January sales. Michael P. Niemira, chief economist and director of research for the Shopping Center Council, stated that he expected gift certificate usage to be between US$ 30 billion and US$ 40 billion in the 2006–2007 holiday shopping season. On the basis of the growing popularity of gift certificates, he stated that "To get a true picture of holiday sales, one may consider measuring October, November, December and January sales combined as opposed to just November and December sales.", because with "a hefty amount of that spending not hitting
31878-413: The stores". In 2006, the average US household was expected to spend about $ 1,700 on Christmas and holiday spendings. Retail strategists such as ICSC Research observed in 2005 that 15 percent of holiday expenditures were in the form of gift certificates, a percentage that was rising. So they recommended that retailers manage their inventories for the entire holiday shopping season, with a leaner inventory at
32076-400: The summer sales). It begins on the last Monday in January and lasts for 12 days, selling left-over goods from the holiday shopping season, as well as the winter collections. However, unofficially, goods are sold at reduced prices by many stores throughout the whole of January. By the time the sales officially begin the only goods left on sale are low-quality ones, often specially manufactured for
32274-524: The surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin . In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire , Greek was the main lingua franca as it had been since the time of Alexander the Great , while Latin was mostly used by the Roman administration and military. Eventually Greek would supplant Latin as both the official written and spoken language of
32472-484: The tale, "Merry Christmas" , was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism , which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances. The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser , with the phrase "Bah! Humbug!" becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit. In 1843,
32670-459: The then President of Indonesia Soeharto . Since that, National Christmas Celebration has been held every year, except in 2004, which was canceled as a condolence for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , and in 2018, which was canceled as a condolence for the victims of the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami . Until 2013, National Christmas Celebration was always held in Jakarta ,
32868-748: The three gifts of the Magi , symbolizing royalty. The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer , Martin Bucer . In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees." When decorating
33066-580: The time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. This included patricians and plebeians . Women, slaves, and children were not allowed to vote. There were two assemblies: the comitia centuriata and the comitia populi tributa , which were made up of all the citizens of Rome. In the comitia centuriata the Romans were divided according to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group
33264-418: The totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies." As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditional Christian cultures , several Muslim-majority countries began to ban
33462-528: The tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories. In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas ). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started
33660-533: The use of "Merry Christmas", while 23 percent preferred "Happy Holidays". A similarly timed Canadian poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid indicated that 72 percent of Canadians preferred "Merry Christmas." The greetings and farewells "Merry Christmas" and "Happy Christmas" are traditionally used in English-speaking countries, starting a few weeks before December 25 every year. Variations are: These greetings and their equivalents in other languages are popular not only in countries with large Christian populations, but also in
33858-438: The vineyard was the most important aspect of a good farm. Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap; however, it was always mixed with water. This was the case even during explicit evening drinking events ( comissatio ) where an important part of the festivity was choosing an arbiter bibendi ("judge of drinking") who was, among other things, responsible for deciding
34056-527: The wives of his sons (again if married cum manu which became rarer towards the end of the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen (liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at will, even having them put to death. Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Roman law
34254-403: The world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night . The tradition of the Nativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity
34452-489: The world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity rather than knowing Jesus's exact birth date is considered to be the primary purpose of celebrating Christmas. The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian , Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift giving ; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath ; Christmas music and caroling ; watching Christmas movies ; viewing
34650-411: The world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of
34848-442: The world, notably Sicily , living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families,
35046-498: Was a Roman senator, as well as the first man to write history in Latin. Although theoretically opposed to Greek influence, Cato the Elder wrote the first Greek inspired rhetorical textbook in Latin (91), and combined strains of Greek and Roman history into a method combining both. One of Cato the Elder's great historical achievements was the Origines , which chronicles the story of Rome from Aeneas to his own day, but this document
35244-483: Was a habit with most Roman citizens . There were separate baths for men and women. The main difference was that the women's baths were smaller than the men's, and did not have a frigidarium (cold room) or a palaestra (exercise area). Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of cost, were available in ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of the events, they were scheduled during daytime, afternoons, evenings, or late nights. Huge crowds gathered at
35442-527: Was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity . The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language. Since the 16th century, the poinsettia , a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of
35640-471: Was a peak, that was not the busiest online shopping day of that year. The busiest online shopping days were December 12 and 13, almost two weeks later; the second Monday in December has since become known as Green Monday . Another notable day is Free Shipping Day, a promotional day that serves as the last day in which a person can order a good online and have it arrive via standard shipping (the price of which
35838-422: Was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces of the Roman Empire, since its roads and transportation technology were very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th-century Europe. The later city of Rome did not fill the space within its ancient Aurelian Walls until after 1870. The majority of the population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome lived in
36036-468: Was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion , and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to them or others. Before sunrise , children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Elders would dress, take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the afternoon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going to a public bath at least once daily
36234-552: Was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal. The term derives from Middle English Cristenmasse , meaning 'Christian mass'. Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in the Greek [Χριστός] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |literal= ( help ) , although some style guides discourage its use. This abbreviation has precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where Χρ̄
36432-445: Was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts . However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery " or the "rags of the Beast ". In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became
36630-484: Was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on
36828-561: Was eventually equated with Christian Christmas. 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in " The First Nowell ") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël , itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning 'birth (day)'. Koleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times. The gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem to
37026-499: Was found in the early Christian Roman catacomb of Saint Valentine . It dates to about AD 380. Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, Milan . Ancient Roman culture The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the almost 1,200-year history of the civilization of Ancient Rome . The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic , later the Roman Empire , which at its peak covered an area from present-day Lowland Scotland and Morocco to
37224-407: Was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works currently discovered are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Roman Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. The Greeks and Romans had a tradition of historical scholarship that continues to influence writers to this day. Cato the Elder
37422-434: Was generally consumed at around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called ientaculum , lunch was prandium , and dinner was called cena . Appetizers were called gustatio , and dessert was called secunda mensa ("second table"). Usually, a nap or rest followed this. The family ate together, sitting on stools around
37620-440: Was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-born Queen Charlotte . In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights , ornaments , and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert , by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain. An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created
37818-494: Was mostly for boys, but some wealthy girls were tutored at home; however, girls could still go to school sometimes. The native language of the Romans was Latin , an Italic language of the Indo-European family . Several forms of Latin existed, and the language evolved considerably over time, eventually becoming the Romance languages spoken today. Initially a highly inflectional and synthetic language , older forms of Latin rely little on word order , conveying meaning through
38016-544: Was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that they were considered like any other moveable property . Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation, although outrageous cruelty continued. In AD 4, the Lex Aelia Sentia specified minimum age limits for both owners (20) and slaves (30) before formal manumission could occur. Apart from these families (called gentes ) and
38214-416: Was not primarily about Christ's birth, but rather his baptism . Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro- Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria in
38412-450: Was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. " Misrule "—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there
38610-512: Was special Christmas ale. Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy , holly , and other evergreens. Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that
38808-437: Was spent on family shopping. It is traditionally considered to commence on the day after American Thanksgiving , a Friday colloquially known as either Black Friday or Green Friday. This is widely reputed to be the busiest shopping day of the entire calendar year. However, in 2004 the VISA credit card organization reported that over the previous several years VISA credit card spending had in fact been 8 to 19 percent higher on
39006-423: Was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The comitia centuriata elected the praetors (judicial magistrates), the censors , and the consuls . The comitia tributa comprised thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The comitia tributa elected the quaestors (financial magistrates) and
39204-414: Was used on almost every broadcast since 1956. One year included both greetings, and "blessed Christmas" was used in 1954 and 2007. In the American poet Clement Moore 's A Visit from St. Nicholas (1823), the final line, originally written as "Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night", has been changed in many later editions to "Merry Christmas to all," perhaps indicating the relative popularity of
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