51-492: The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 ( Pub. L. 100–383 , title I, August 10, 1988, 102 Stat. 904 , 50a U.S.C. § 1989b et seq.) is a United States federal law that granted reparations to Japanese Americans who had been wrongly interned by the United States government during World War II and to "discourage the occurrence of similar injustices and violations of civil liberties in
102-723: A board of elected officials, consisting of the officers and district governors. In 1929, several already-established Nisei organizations merged to form the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), most prominent among them Fresno's American Loyalty League ( アメリカ忠誠協会 , Amerika Chūsei Kyōkai ) (headed by Nisei UC educated dentist Dr. Thomas T. Yatabe, 1897–1977), the Seattle Progressive Citizens League ( シアトル革新市民連盟 , Siatoru Kakushin Shimin Renmei ) , and
153-572: A call for a national conference of minorities, elimination of racial discrimination in housing and employment, challenge of the alien land laws, creation of a research clearinghouse on the evacuation, and assistance of returning Nisei veterans. The 1970 JACL convention was marred by the murder of Evelyn Okubo , an 18-year-old activist and attendee, by a black man. Nevertheless, the JACL continued its commitment to racial justice for all Americans, including African-Americans. The 2013 JACL National Convention
204-491: A documentary of the 90 years of history since the foundation of the JACL. Nishikawa intends for the documentary to "chronicle the history of the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), the oldest and largest Asian American civil rights organization in the U.S." The project has received a grant of $ 165,000 from the Japanese American Confinement Sites (JACS) and a grant award of $ 25,000 through
255-571: A failure of political leadership" as opposed to legitimate security reasons. A total of 82,219 received redress checks. Because the law was restricted to American citizens and legal permanent residents, ethnic Japanese who had been taken from their homes in Latin America (mostly from Peru) were not granted reparations, regardless of whether they had remained in the United States, had returned to Latin America or had been deported to Japan after
306-410: A push from senator Daniel Inouye and congressmen Robert Matsui , Spark Matsunaga and Norman Mineta, Congress appointed a committee to study the effects of the incarceration and the potential for redress. The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians held investigative hearings in 11 U.S. cities, at which more than 750 people provided testimony of their experiences during and after
357-519: A vote of 69 to 27, with 4 members not voting. A large majority of Democrats voted for the bill (44 in favor vs. 7 opposed), while a more narrow majority of Senate Republicans also voted for the bill (25 in favor vs. 20 opposed). Act of Congress#Public law, private law, designation An act of Congress is a statute enacted by the United States Congress . Acts may apply only to individual entities (called private laws ), or to
408-482: Is promulgated , or given the force of law, in one of the following ways: The president promulgates acts of Congress made by the first two methods. If an act is made by the third method, the presiding officer of the house that last reconsidered the act promulgates it. Under the United States Constitution , if the president does not return a bill or resolution to Congress with objections before
459-544: Is an Asian American civil rights charity, headquartered in San Francisco, with regional chapters across the United States. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) describes itself as the oldest and largest Asian American civil rights organization in the United States, focusing on civil and human rights of all Americans, particularly the Asian Pacific American community. The organization
510-547: Is deprecated by some dictionaries and usage authorities. However, the Bluebook requires "Act" to be capitalized when referring to a specific legislative act. The United States Code capitalizes "act". The term "act of Congress" is sometimes used in informal speech to indicate something for which getting permission is burdensome. For example, "It takes an act of Congress to get a building permit in this town." An act adopted by simple majorities in both houses of Congress
561-755: Is funded by a grant from the National Park Service . Organizational partners include the Council on American-Islamic Relations, the Tule Lake Pilgrimage Committee, the National Japanese American Historical Society, Nikkei for Civil Rights and Redress, Kizuna, and Friends of Minidoka. This three-day annual leadership training summit is a joint program organized by the JACL which includes participants from OCA National (formerly
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#1732772538424612-430: The 111th United States Congress . Public laws are also often abbreviated as Pub. L. No. X–Y. When the legislation of those two kinds are proposed, it is called public bill and private bill respectively. The word "act", as used in the term "act of Congress", is a common, not a proper noun . The capitalization of the word "act" (especially when used standing alone to refer to an act mentioned earlier by its full name)
663-590: The Imperial Japanese Navy 's attack on Pearl Harbor , the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began arresting Japanese American community leaders (mostly Issei Japanese language school teachers, priests, martial arts instructors, and business owners). Members of the JACL testified at government hearings to promote a picture of Nisei as loyal and patriotic Americans, an effort to counteract rumors of fifth column activity that had spread in
714-722: The Organization of Chinese Americans ). Workshop topics range from coalition building techniques to the strategy of successful lobbying . The JACL's Youth Leadership Summit was first established in 2010 and has been held annually in Chicago, Portland, and Washington DC. The JACL launched a National Scholarship and Awards Program in 1946. It offer scholarships to students at the entering freshman, undergraduate, graduate, law, financial need and creative & performing arts. All scholarships are one-time awards. JACL National and film producer Lane Nishikawa are working together to create
765-575: The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion, removal, and detention , arguing that it is permissible to curtail the civil rights of a racial group when there is a "pressing public necessity." Some compensation for property losses was paid in 1948, but most internees were unable to fully recover their losses. In the 1960s and 1970s, a renewed movement formed within the Japanese American community to obtain redress for
816-662: The West Coast of the United States during World War II . Some 5,500 Japanese American men arrested by the FBI immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor were sent directly to internment camps run by the Department of Justice , and approximately 5,000 were able to "voluntarily" relocate to other parts of the country before forced evacuations began. The remainder – over 110,000 men, women and children – were sent to "relocation centers", hastily constructed camps in remote portions of
867-553: The incarceration of Japanese Americans , aiding U.S. intelligence agencies in identifying "disloyal" Issei , and taking a hardline stance against draft resisters in camp. These issues remain a source of division within the Japanese American community and the organization itself. After the war, the JACL returned its primary focus to civil rights legislation, lobbying Congress and bringing lawsuits to overturn or amend laws regarding interracial marriage , segregation , and race-based restrictions on immigration and naturalization . In
918-478: The 1,500 from the mainland. Following the war, the JACL began a long series of legislative efforts to establish rights for Japanese Americans. The JACL embarked on a campaign to repeal California's Alien Land Law , which had prohibited all Japanese aliens (i.e. immigrants) from purchasing and owning land in the state. In 1948, the JACL succeeded in gaining passage of the Evacuation Claims Act ,
969-500: The 1970s, after some initial disagreement among leaders, the organization became involved in the movement for redress for the wartime incarceration. The influence of JACL lobbyists was a key factor in the passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 , which formally acknowledged the unconstitutionality of and provided reparations for the incarceration. A younger generation of JACL leadership has made an effort to acknowledge
1020-778: The Constitution may be declared unconstitutional by the courts. A judicial declaration that an act of Congress is unconstitutional does not remove the act from the Statutes at Large or the United States Code; rather, it prevents the act from being enforced. However, the act as published in annotated codes and legal databases is marked with annotations indicating that it is no longer good law. Japanese American Citizens League The Japanese American Citizens League ( 日系アメリカ人市民同盟 , Nikkei Amerikajin Shimin Dōmei )
1071-545: The JACL has championed the cause of reparations for slavery . In addition to endorsing local proposals for reparations, JACL has demanded the Biden administration begin the process of studying federal reparations for African Americans . JACL representatives testified in favor of the creation of the Philadelphia Reparations Task Force . The Bridging Communities Program brings youth from
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#17327725384241122-571: The JACL's National Committee for Redress proposed the creation of a federal commission to investigate the incarceration. The following year, the JACL, with help from Senators Daniel Inouye and Spark Matsunaga , pushed a bill through Congress to create the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC). In 1983, the CWRIC published its findings and recommended an official Government apology and redress payments to survivors. This
1173-556: The Japanese and Asian American community together with Muslim and Arab American youth. High school students attend workshops on identity, community, organizing, culture, and empowerment. The program involves visits to the Tule Lake Relocation Center , Manzanar , and Minidoka National Historic Site concentration camps, which first confined Japanese Americans during World War II . The Bridging Communities program
1224-477: The Midwest. The organization argued for the right of Japanese Americans to serve in the U.S. military . In Hawaii, where at that time the JACL did not exist, many community leaders actively supported for men of Japanese descent to serve in the military resulting in the formation of the 100th Infantry Battalion , and the 442nd Regiment Combat Team , when 10,000 signed up with eventually 2,686 being chosen to join
1275-559: The Office of Redress Administration, one of two government agencies created to carry out the 1988 act's implementation. The other, the Civil Liberties Public Education Fund, was established in order to meet the redress bill's provision to educate the public about the incarceration. $ 50 million was authorized "to sponsor research and public educational activities" in 1988, but anti-spending lobbying put
1326-654: The San Francisco-based New American Citizens League ( 新アメリカ市民協会 , Shin Amerika Shimin Kyōkai ) (headed by Nisei UC educated lawyer Saburo Kido [ ja ] , 1902–1977). Aiming towards professionals and small business owners among the Nisei, the JACL sought to promote free enterprise, self-reliance, and loyalty to the United States. The organization thus excluded a hyphen from its name. Due in part to
1377-457: The U.S. House of Representatives passed the bill (which symbolically shared its number with that of the 442nd Infantry Regiment ) by a vote of 243 to 141, with 38 members not voting. The majority of Democrats in the House voted for the bill (180 in favor vs. 43 opposed) while a majority of Republicans voted against it (63 in favor vs. 98 opposed). On April 20, 1988, the U.S. Senate passed the bill by
1428-569: The US, organized into seven district counciles: Central California District Council, Eastern District Council, Intermountain District Council, Midwest District Council, Northern California-Western Nevada-Pacific District Council, Pacific Northern District Council, and Pacific Southwest District Council. The JACL did not exist in Hawaii during the years prior to and after World War II; a chapter
1479-524: The active support of James Sakamoto and other Seattle activists, the nascent JACL chose to hold its first national conference in Seattle in 1930. It soon after began work to expand the citizenship rights of Japanese and other Asian Americans , who were considered unassimilable to American society and therefore ineligible for naturalization under the Immigration Act of 1924 . Their first target
1530-704: The assistance of the San Diego Chapter JACL. JACL's Anti-Hate Program was created in response to the increased rates of Asian American hate crimes and anti-Asian sentiments following COVID-19. The JACL states that they aim to "eradicate the use of negative stereotypes and misperceptions about Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. To accomplish this, the JACL monitors and combats hate crimes and hate incidents including defamation and racial/ethnic profiling." The site lists resources in response to anti-Asian sentiment and hate crimes, state hate crime laws, and responses to hate. The first JACL National Convention
1581-407: The consequences of its wartime actions, officially apologizing for its condemnation of Nisei draft resisters in 2002. Today, the national organization consists of 100-plus chapters, mostly located in major cities and metropolitan areas across the US. These chapters are separated geographically into seven district councils, each of which is headed by a district governor. The organization is guided by
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1632-460: The education program on hold until 1994 and reduced the final amount to $ 5 million. President Bill Clinton appointed an advisory board in 1996, and the CLPEF was used to fund various educational programs and grants from 1997 to 1998. The Civil Liberties Act of 1988, Restitution for World War II internment of Japanese-Americans and Aleuts , states that it is intended to: On September 17, 1987,
1683-434: The exclusion of Japanese Americans from the West Coast . Instead, arguing it would better serve the community to follow government orders without protest, the organization advised the approximately 120,000 affected to go peacefully and distanced itself from those who actively opposed the order. In an interview after the war, civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins criticized these actions of the JACL. "The JACL pretended to be
1734-499: The first of a series of efforts to rectify the losses and injustices of the World War II incarceration. In 1949, the JACL initiated efforts in the U.S. Congress to gain the right of Japanese immigrants to become naturalized citizens of the U.S. In 1970, the JACL endorsed a resolution, introduced by member Edison Uno , to urge Congress to compensate each camp survivor for each day they had spent in confinement. Later, in 1979,
1785-700: The future". The act was sponsored by California Democratic congressman and former internee Norman Mineta in the House and Hawaii Democrat Senator Spark Matsunaga in the Senate. The bill was supported by the majority of Democrats in Congress, while the majority of Republicans voted against it. The act was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan . The act granted each surviving internee $ 20,000 in compensation, equivalent to $ 44,000 in 2023, with payments beginning in 1990. The legislation stated that government actions had been based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and
1836-474: The general public ( public laws ). For a bill to become an act, the text must pass through both houses with a majority, then be either signed into law by the president of the United States , be left unsigned for ten days (excluding Sundays) while Congress remains in session, or, if vetoed by the president, receive a congressional override from 2 ⁄ 3 of both houses. In the United States, acts of Congress are designated as either public laws , relating to
1887-407: The general public, or private laws , relating to specific institutions or individuals. Since 1957, all Acts of Congress have been designated as "Public Law X–Y" or "Private Law X–Y", where X is the number of the Congress and Y refers to the sequential order of the bill (when it was enacted). For example, P. L. 111–5 ( American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) was the fifth enacted public law of
1938-588: The law is accomplished by the president, or the relevant presiding officer in the case of an overridden veto, delivering the act to the archivist of the United States . The archivist provides for its publication as a slip law and in the United States Statutes at Large after receiving the act. Thereafter, the changes are published in the United States Code . Through the process of judicial review , an act of Congress that violates
1989-624: The nation's interior run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA). President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066 , which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the continental Pacific coast region, including all of Alaska and California , and parts of Oregon , Washington , and Arizona , except for those in government custody. In 1944,
2040-422: The spokesman for all Japanese Americans, but they wouldn't stand up for their people ... They led their people like a bunch of goddam doves to the concentration camps." Throughout the war, the JACL made efforts to ensure some measure of protection and comfort for Japanese Americans resettling outside government concentration camps, providing loans and establishing offices in Chicago to assist families resettling in
2091-430: The time limit expires, then the bill automatically becomes an act; however, if the Congress is adjourned at the end of this period, then the bill dies and cannot be reconsidered (see pocket veto ). If the president rejects a bill or resolution while the Congress is in session, a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress is needed for reconsideration to be successful. Promulgation in the sense of publishing and proclaiming
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2142-420: The wake of Pearl Harbor. At the same time, the JACL aided FBI and Naval Intelligence officials to identify potentially disloyal Issei, a move many Japanese Americans argued tried to buy political safety for a small segment of the community at the expense of its more vulnerable members. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , JACL leadership did not question the constitutionality of
2193-539: The war. In 1983, the commission published its findings in the report Personal Justice Denied , writing that the displacement of Japanese Americans during the war had been the result of "race prejudice, war hysteria and a failure of political leadership" and recommending monetary reparations be made to former internees. Although the bill to issue a formal apology and implement the CWRIC's recommendations, introduced in 1987, faced heavy resistance from President Reagan and Senate Republicans opposed to increased federal spending, it
2244-552: The war. In 1996, Carmen Mochizuki filed a class-action lawsuit and won a settlement of approximately $ 5,000 per eligible person. Of those affected, 145 received their settlement before funds were exhausted. In 1999, funds were approved for the Attorney General to pay compensation to the remaining claimants. The internment of Japanese Americans was the forced removal and confinement of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans (62% of whom were United States citizens) from
2295-493: The wartime incarceration. The Japanese American Citizens League introduced a resolution to seek individual reparations at its 1970 conference and soon after began working with community activists and political leaders to lobby for legislative action. In 1979, the National Council for Japanese American Redress filed a class-action lawsuit against the federal government on behalf of former camp inmates, and in 1980, after
2346-486: Was formed in 1929 out of existing Nisei organizations in California and Washington . In its early years, the JACL lobbied for legislation that expanded the citizenship rights of Japanese Americans, and local chapters organized meetings to encourage Nisei to become more politically active. During and leading up to World War II , the JACL was criticized for its decision not to use its political influence to fight
2397-525: Was granted with the passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 and signed by President Ronald Reagan . In 1994, at its national convention, the JACL passed a resolution affirming its commitment to and support of the basic human right of marriage, including the right to marry for same-sex couples . In 2012, the JACL was the first national civil rights membership organization to publicly and actively adopt this position, and praised President Barack Obama for his support for same-sex marriage . Since 2022,
2448-773: Was held July 24–26, 2013, in Washington, DC. The theme for the 44th convention was "Justice for All". As of 2022, the JACL is headquartered in San Francisco's Japantown neighborhood , directly neighboring the offices of the Japanese American Association of Northern California (Hokka Nichi Bei Kai /北加日米会), which describes itself as the oldest Japanese American Community organization (founded in 1895). The JACL also maintains an office in Washington DC, and (as of 2022) has over 100 chapters in
2499-517: Was held on August 29, 1930, in Seattle , Washington. The first post World War II National JACL Convention was held in Denver , Colorado. Adoption of a 14-point program of rebuilding which included Issei naturalization , reparations for discriminatory treatment during the war, re-examination of the constitutionality of the evacuation, stay of deportation on hardship cases involving Japanese nationals,
2550-453: Was signed into law on August 10, 1988. On October 9, 1990, a ceremony was held to present the first reparations checks. Nine elderly Issei received $ 20,000 each and a formal apology signed by President George H. W. Bush . United States Attorney General Dick Thornburgh presented the checks to the attendees, dropping to his knees to reach those in wheelchairs. Payments to surviving internees or their heirs continued until 1993, overseen by
2601-617: Was the Cable Act of 1922 , which revoked the citizenship of women who married men ineligible for citizenship, namely Asian immigrants . After a successful lobbying campaign, Congress amended the act in 1931. Next, the JACL began a campaign to allow Issei and other Asian American veterans of the First World War to become U.S. citizens. In 1935, the Nye-Lea Act secured citizenship rights for these men. In 1941, within hours of
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