153-760: The Cinque Ports Fleet was the a temporary formation of ships supplied to the crown from the Confederation of the Cinque Ports for particular naval expeditions during particular campaigns of the Kingdom of England from 1260 to 1558. The fleet was commanded by the Admiral of Cinque Ports Fleet also known as the Admiral-in-Chief of the Fleet. The Cinque Port Fleet was a collective of ships owned by
306-407: A book rather than the entertainments of tournaments or troubadours. He also had concern for ordinary people, ordaining early in his reign that those shipwrecked should be well-treated and prescribing heavy penalties for anyone who plundered their goods. The chronicler Ralph of Diceto records that when famine struck Anjou and Maine in 1176, Henry emptied his private stores to relieve distress among
459-485: A chaotic and troubled period, with all these problems resulting from Stephen's usurpation of the throne. Henry was also careful to show that, unlike his mother, he would listen to the advice and counsel of others. Various measures were immediately carried out although, since Henry spent six and a half years out of the first eight years of his reign in France, much work had to be done at a distance. The process of demolishing
612-514: A final rebellion. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer , Henry retreated to Chinon Castle in Anjou. He died soon afterwards and was succeeded by his son Richard I. Henry's empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his son John (who succeeded Richard in 1199), but many of the changes Henry introduced during his lengthy rule had long-term consequences. Henry's legal changes are generally considered to have laid
765-515: A group of royal justices to visit all the counties in England over a given period of time, with authority to cover both civil and criminal cases. A local jury had been used occasionally in previous reigns, but Henry made much wider use of them. Juries were introduced in petty assizes from around 1176, where they were used to establish the answers to particular pre-established questions, and in grand assizes from 1179, where they were used to determine
918-532: A harbour town at the mouth of the River Rother . The Rother estuary was always difficult to navigate, with many shallow channels and sandbanks. In the latter part of the thirteenth century a series of severe storms weakened the coastal defences of Romney Marsh , and the South England flood of February 1287 almost destroyed the town. The harbour and town were filled with sand, silt, mud and debris, and
1071-421: A heraldic design: a signet ring with either a leopard or a lion engraved on it. The design would be altered in later generations to form the royal arms of England . By the late 1140s, the active phase of the civil war was over, barring the occasional outbreak of fighting. Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with one another to secure their war gains and it increasingly appeared as though
1224-755: A key fortress loyal to Henry along the Thames Valley , under siege, possibly in an attempt to force a successful end to the English conflict while Henry was still fighting for his territories in France. Henry moved quickly in response, avoiding open battle with Louis in Aquitaine and stabilising the Norman border, pillaging the Vexin and then striking south into Anjou against Geoffrey, capturing one of his main castles, Montsoreau . Louis fell ill and withdrew from
1377-463: A naval campaign of 1339, and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and went into a decline during which it ceased to be a major port. It had no natural sheltered harbour. Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I, but the foundations were destroyed by the sea in storms. New Romney is now about a mile and a half from the seafront. It was originally
1530-642: A policy, it was to generally resist papal influence, increasing his own local authority. The 12th century saw the continuation of the ongoing reform movement within the Catholic Church, advocating greater clerical autonomy from royal authority and more influence for the papacy. This trend had already caused tensions in England, for example when King Stephen forced Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury, into exile in 1152. There were also long-running concerns over royal jurisdiction over members of
1683-407: A possible future rival to Henry. Rumours of a plot to kill Henry were circulating and, possibly as a consequence, Henry returned to Normandy for a period. Stephen fell ill with a stomach disorder and died on 25 October 1154, allowing Henry to inherit the throne sooner than had been expected. On landing in England on 8 December 1154, Henry quickly took oaths of loyalty from some of the barons and
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#17327799429681836-700: A rather half-hearted fashion, while the English Church attempted to broker a permanent peace between the two sides. In November the two leaders ratified the terms of a permanent peace. Stephen announced the Treaty of Winchester in Winchester Cathedral : he recognised Henry as his adopted son and successor, in return for Henry paying homage to him; Stephen promised to listen to Henry's advice, but retained all his royal powers; Stephen's son William would pay homage to Henry and renounce his claim to
1989-421: A siege. At the start of 1161 war seemed likely to spread across the region until a fresh peace was negotiated at Fréteval that autumn, followed by a second peace treaty in 1162, overseen by Pope Alexander III . Despite this temporary halt in hostilities, Henry's seizure of the Vexin started a second long-running dispute between him and the kings of France. Henry controlled more of France than any ruler since
2142-517: A term that described his ability to punish or financially destroy particular barons or clergy. In England, Henry initially relied on his father's former advisers whom he brought with him from Normandy and on some of Henry I's remaining officials, reinforced with some of Stephen's senior nobility who made their peace with Henry in 1153. During his reign, Henry, like his grandfather, increasingly promoted " new men ", minor nobles without independent wealth and lands, to positions of authority in England. By
2295-573: A trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots, and Bretons, and attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against
2448-471: A version of the confederation arms differenced by a chief on which the Lord Warden's "oar of Admiralty" appears. New Romney bears three gold lions on a blue field. Others incorporate elements from the confederation arms, or otherwise allude to them. Great Yarmouth , Norfolk, never a member of the confederation but closely associated with it through its herring fishery and fair, bears a variant on which
2601-410: A way of securing his other French territories and as a potential inheritance for one of his sons. Initially Henry's strategy was to rule indirectly through proxies, and accordingly, Henry supported Conan IV 's claims over most of the duchy, partly because Conan had strong English ties and could be easily influenced. Conan's uncle, Hoël , continued to control the county of Nantes in the east until he
2754-663: Is a historic group of coastal towns in south-east England – predominantly in Kent and Sussex , with one outlier ( Brightlingsea ) in Essex . The name is Old French , meaning "five harbours", and alludes to the original five members ( Hastings , New Romney , Hythe , Dover and Sandwich ). At its peak in the Late Middle Ages, the confederation included over 40 members. There is now a total of 14 members: five "head ports", two "ancient towns" and seven "limbs". The confederation
2907-461: Is not supported by French chronicles. If the agreements at Montmirail had been followed up, the acts of homage could potentially have confirmed Louis's position as king while undermining the legitimacy of any rebellious barons within Henry's territories and the potential for an alliance between them and Louis. In practice, Louis perceived himself to have gained a temporary advantage. Immediately after
3060-527: Is often termed the Henrician phase of the civil war. This time, Henry planned to form a northern alliance with King David I of Scotland , his great-uncle, and Ranulf of Chester , a powerful regional leader who controlled most of the north-west of England. Under this alliance, Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack York , probably with the help of Scots. The planned attack disintegrated after Stephen marched north to York, and Henry returned to Normandy. Henry
3213-697: Is partly because, to contemporaries, the differences between founding and patronizing a house was blurred; in the scholar Elizabeth Hallam 's words, "Henry II was 'patron and founder' of many houses where he had inherited this right from his ancestors and predecessors". In England, he provided steady patronage to the monastic houses, but established few new monasteries. Of those he did, three – Witham Charterhouse in Somerset, Waltham Abbey in Essex and Amesbury in Wiltshire – were founded as part of his penance for
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#17327799429683366-426: Is uncertain if Henry had a grand vision for his new legal system and the reforms seem to have proceeded in a steady, pragmatic fashion. Indeed, some scholars believe that in most cases he was probably not personally responsible for creating the new processes, but he was greatly interested in the law, seeing the delivery of justice as one of the key tasks for a king and carefully appointing good administrators to conduct
3519-799: The Confederation of the Cinque Ports that was commanded by the Warden of the Cinque Ports later called the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports , he was one of the Wardens of the Coast during the Middle Ages. It was one of two naval forces that could be drawn upon by the Monarch of England during times of crisis during Middle Ages . The cinque port fleet was not owned by the King therefore he had to avail of
3672-459: The Duchy of Brittany , which neighboured his lands and retained strong traditions of independence. The Breton dukes held little power across most of the duchy, which was mostly controlled by local lords. In 1148, Duke Conan III died and civil war broke out. Henry claimed to be the overlord of Brittany, on the basis that the duchy had owed loyalty to Henry I, and saw controlling the duchy both as
3825-754: The English Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury . This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Becket's murder in 1170. Soon after his accession Henry came into conflict with Louis VII of France , his feudal overlord , and the two rulers fought, over several decades, what has been termed a " cold war ". Henry expanded his empire at Louis's expense, taking Brittany and pushing east into central France and south into Toulouse ; despite numerous peace conferences and treaties, no lasting agreement
3978-581: The River Avon , preventing Stephen from forcing a decisive battle. In the face of the increasingly wintry weather, the two men agreed to a temporary truce, leaving Henry to travel north through the Midlands , where the powerful Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester, announced his support for the cause. Henry was then free to turn his forces south against the besiegers at Wallingford. Despite only modest military successes, he and his allies now controlled
4131-456: The Treaty of Wallingford , to leave England to Henry, and he inherited the kingdom at Stephen's death a year later. Henry was an energetic and ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the royal lands and prerogatives of his grandfather Henry I. During the early years of his reign Henry restored the royal administration in England, which had almost collapsed during Stephen's reign, and re-established hegemony over Wales. Henry's desire to control
4284-609: The Young Henry , to Louis's daughter Margaret . The marriage deal would have involved Louis granting the disputed territory of the Vexin to Margaret on her marriage to the Young Henry: while this would ultimately give Henry the lands that he claimed, it also implied that the Vexin was Louis's to give away in the first place, in itself a political concession. For a short while, a permanent peace between Henry and Louis looked plausible. Meanwhile, Henry turned his attention to
4437-436: The shire courts , hundred courts and in particular seignorial courts — to deal with most of these cases, hearing only a few personally. This process was far from perfect, and in many cases claimants were unable to pursue their cases effectively. While interested in the law, during the first years of his reign Henry was preoccupied with other political issues, and even finding the King for a hearing could mean travelling across
4590-490: The 1180s this new class of royal administrators was predominant in England, supported by various illegitimate members of Henry's family. The links between the nobility in Normandy and England had weakened during the first half of the 12th century and continued to do so under Henry. Henry drew his close advisers from the ranks of the Norman bishops and, as in England, recruited many "new men" as Norman administrators: few of
4743-520: The 11th century and the county became largely autonomous. Henry's mother was the legitimate daughter of Henry I , King of England and Duke of Normandy . She was born into a powerful ruling class of Normans , who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy, and her first husband had been Holy Roman Emperor Henry V . Henry I had during his own lifetime obtained pledges of fealty from his nobility, including from his nephew Stephen of Blois , promising to support Matilda's claim to
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4896-497: The 12th century. Some of their income came from their private estates, called demesne ; other income came from imposing legal fines and arbitrary amercements , and from taxes, which at that time were raised only intermittently. Kings could also raise funds by borrowing; Henry did this far more than earlier English rulers, initially through moneylenders in Rouen , turning later in his reign to Jewish and Flemish lenders. Ready cash
5049-426: The 14th century were recognised as having the same "head port" status as the original five ports. In deference to the literal meaning of "Cinque Ports", however, these two additional members were always distinguished under the title of the "Ancient Towns" (often spelled "Antient Towns"). The confederation is therefore sometimes referred to as "The five Cinque Ports and two Ancient Towns". The Ancient Towns were: Over
5202-465: The 15th century, New Romney, once a port of great importance at the mouth of the river Rother (until it became completely blocked by the shifting of sands during the South England flood of February 1287 ), was considered the central port in the confederation, and the place of assembly for the courts of Shepway and Brodhull. Much of Hastings was washed away by the sea in the 13th century. During
5355-594: The 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. During the Victorian expansion of the British Empire , historians were keenly interested in the formation of Henry's own empire, but they also criticised certain aspects of his private life and treatment of Becket. Henry was born in Maine at Le Mans on 5 March 1133,
5508-604: The 9th century Carolingians ; these lands, combined with his possessions in England, Wales, Scotland and later parts of Ireland, produced a vast domain often referred to by historians as the Angevin Empire . The empire lacked a coherent structure or central control; instead, it consisted of a loose, flexible network of family connections and lands. Different local customs applied within each of Henry's different territories although common principles underpinned some of these local variations. Henry travelled constantly across
5661-583: The Abbey St Nicolas in Angers in the early 1140s. Henry founded houses in England and France; he had done this sporadically before Becket's death, but, in Hallam's words, they "accelerated dramatically" following it. As part of his penance following the death of Becket, he built and endowed various hospitals—particularly for lepers —in France, for example at Mont-Saint-Aignan , which was dedicated to
5814-525: The Anarchy by historians, dragged on and degenerated into a stalemate. Henry most likely spent part of his childhood in his mother's household. In the late 1130s, he accompanied Matilda to Normandy, which would only be fully taken by Geoffrey around 1144. Henry's later childhood, probably from the age of seven, was spent in Anjou, where he was educated by Peter of Saintes, a noted grammarian . In late 1142, Geoffrey sent his nine-year-old son to Bristol ,
5967-518: The Barons of the Cinque Ports to hold a place of precedence below the lay magnates ( Lords Temporal ) but above the representatives of the shires and boroughs ( Knights of the Shire and burgesses ). During the deposition of Edward II , the chronicles made a specific point of noting the presence of the Barons in the embassy of deposition – "praecipue de portubus ... barones des Portez" ("especially
6120-596: The Becket murder, and built at considerable cost. Cirencester was also a foundation of significance, and comparable to those of his forebears. He was relatively conservative in religion, and when he did intervene in monastic affairs, it usually regarded houses with established links to his family, such as Reading Abbey, founded by his grandfather Henry I. In the struggle with Becket, contemporaries believed that he could have been influenced by his mother. Before his accession several charters, including to religious institutions, were issued in their joint names, such as that to
6273-477: The Channel and locating his peripatetic court. Nonetheless, he was prepared to take action to improve the existing procedures, intervening in cases which he felt had been mishandled and creating legislation to improve both ecclesiastical and civil court processes. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Henry delivered justice through the courts run by his officials across the duchy, and occasionally these cases made their way to
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6426-418: The Cinque Ports was appointed, an office frequently, and by the end of the 13th century permanently, combined with that of Constable of Dover Castle . The joint office survives to the present day, but is now a purely honorary title, with an official residence at Walmer Castle . The confederation had its own system of assemblies and common courts: All Freemen of the ports, termed "Portsmen", were deemed in
6579-412: The Cinque Ports. Several of the member ports have their own coats of arms, which in some cases are modified or derivative versions of the confederation arms. Thus, Sandwich bears arms identical to those of the confederation, but with the three ships' hulls silver. Hastings bears a variant on which the central half-lion-half-ship is replaced by a full lion, and the two ships' hulls are silver. Deal bears
6732-633: The Confessor (1042–1066). Certain south-eastern ports were granted the local profits of justice in return for providing ships. The ship service of Romney, Dover and Sandwich (but not the confederation itself) is noted in Domesday Book (1086). By 1135, the term Cinque Ports had come into use; and in 1155 a royal charter established the ports to maintain ships ready for the Crown in case of need. The earliest general charter granting liberties to
6885-466: The Count in an attempt to secure his southern frontiers; nonetheless, when Henry and Louis discussed the matter of Toulouse, Henry left believing that he had the French king's support for military intervention. Henry invaded Toulouse, only to find Louis visiting Raymond in the city. Henry was not prepared to directly attack Louis, who was still his feudal lord, and withdrew, contenting himself with ravaging
7038-419: The Count of Champagne and Odo II, Duke of Burgundy . Three years later the new Count of Flanders, Philip , concerned about Henry's growing power, openly allied himself with the French king. Louis's wife Adèle gave birth to a male heir, Philip Augustus , in 1165, and Louis was more confident of his own position than for many years previously. As a result, relations between Henry and Louis deteriorated again in
7191-511: The Duchy of Aquitaine, had become increasingly independent and was now ruled by Count Raymond V . The rulers of Aquitaine had made tenuous claims on the county by hereditary right; Henry now hoped to claim it on Eleanor's behalf, and encouraged by her, Henry first allied himself with Raymond's enemy Raymond Berenguer of Barcelona and then in 1159 threatened to invade himself to depose the Count of Toulouse. Louis married his sister Constance to
7344-517: The English church was considering promoting a peace treaty. On Louis VII 's return from the Second Crusade in 1149, he became concerned about the growth of Geoffrey's power and the potential threat to his own possessions, especially if Henry could acquire the English crown. In 1150, Geoffrey made Henry the Duke of Normandy and Louis responded by putting forward King Stephen's son Eustace as
7497-472: The English king and publicly gave homage for Toulouse to Henry and his heirs. One of the major international events surrounding Henry during the 1160s was the Becket controversy. When the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, died in 1161 Henry saw an opportunity to reassert his rights over the Church in England. Henry appointed Thomas Becket , his English Chancellor , as archbishop in 1162. According to
7650-749: The French throne in 1180. In 1173 Henry's heir apparent, "Young Henry", rebelled against his father; he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother. Several European states allied themselves with the rebels, and the Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry's vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them " new men " appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey led another revolt in 1183, during which Young Henry died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for Henry's youngest son, John . By 1189, Philip swayed Richard to his side, leading to
7803-434: The King himself. He also operated an exchequer court at Caen that heard cases relating to royal revenues and maintained king's justices who travelled across the duchy. Between 1159 and 1163, Henry spent time in Normandy conducting reforms of royal and church courts, and some measures later introduced in England are recorded as existing in Normandy as early as 1159. In 1163 Henry returned to England, intent on reforming
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#17327799429687956-694: The Loire and in western Touraine, but Henry had few officials elsewhere in the region. In Aquitaine, ducal authority remained very limited, despite increasing substantially during Henry's reign, largely owing to Richard's efforts in the late 1170s. Henry's wealth allowed him to maintain what was probably the largest curia regis , or royal court, in Europe. His court attracted huge attention from contemporary chroniclers, and typically comprised several major nobles and bishops, along with knights, domestic servants, prostitutes, clerks, horses and hunting dogs. Within
8109-569: The Mayor, Jurats and Common Council of the Ports to attend a coronation and is solely honorary in nature. "Since time immemorial ", the barons had held the right to hold a canopy above the monarch during the procession on foot between Westminster Hall and Westminster Abbey . This procession was discontinued after the Coronation of George IV in 1821, but for the Coronation of Edward VII in 1902
8262-543: The Norfolk coast, where they claimed rights of "den and strand" on the sandbank at the mouth of the River Yare . The settlement there gradually developed into the town of Yarmouth . The ports therefore became closely involved in the regulation of the annual autumn Herring Fair at Yarmouth, and this was probably the main incentive for the individual ports to work together collectively in confederation. A Lord Warden of
8415-464: The River Rother changed course, now running out into the sea near Rye, Sussex. New Romney ceased to be a port. Hythe is still on the coast. However, although it is beside a broad bay, its natural harbour has been removed by centuries of silting. Dover is still a major port. Sandwich is now 3 km (1.9 mi) from the sea and no longer a port. Ongoing changes in the coastline along
8568-407: The [Cinque] Ports ... the barones of the Ports"). Writs of summons to parliament were sent to the warden following which representative barons of the Cinque Ports were selected to attend parliament. Thus the warden's duty in this respect was similar to that of the sheriff who received the writs for distribution to the barons in the shires . The existence of common (i.e. communal) seals of
8721-452: The advance in shipbuilding techniques came a growth in towns such as Bristol and Liverpool and the wider development of ports such as London , Gravesend , Southampton , Chichester , Plymouth and the royal dockyards of Chatham , Portsmouth , Greenwich , Woolwich and Deptford . A further reason for the decline of many older ports may be ascribed to the development of the canal , turnpike and railway networks across Britain, and
8874-530: The age of feudalism to be barons , and thus members of the baronage entitled to attend the king's parliament – a privilege granted in 1322 in recognition of their earlier support of the Despensers, father and son . Termed "Barons of the Cinque Ports", they reflected an early concept that military service at sea constituted land tenure per baroniam making them quasi feudal barons . The early-14th-century treatise Modus Tenendi Parliamentum stated
9027-419: The age of fourteen. Taking his immediate household and a few mercenaries, he left Normandy and landed in England, striking into Wiltshire . Despite initially causing considerable panic, the expedition had little success, and Henry found himself unable to pay his forces and therefore unable to return to Normandy. Neither his mother nor his uncle was prepared to support him, implying that they had not approved of
9180-454: The average was around £22,000. One economic effect of these changes was a substantial increase in the amount of money in circulation in England and, post-1180, a long-term increase in both inflation and trade. Long-running tensions between Henry and Louis VII continued during the 1160s, the French king slowly becoming more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. In 1160 Louis strengthened his alliances in central France with
9333-426: The barons of the individual ports (see illustration) suggests they formed a corporation as the seal was designed to be affixed to charters and legal documents which would bind them as a single body. This no doubt related to their privileges as monopolies . The warden and barons often experienced clashes of jurisdiction. In the 21st century the title "Baron of the Cinque Ports" is now reserved for Freemen elected by
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#17327799429689486-443: The barons were found a new role. They were to process inside the abbey as far as the choir and there receive the banners of the monarch's realms, a function which they have repeated at all the 20th-century coronations. For the Coronation of Charles III and Camilla in 2023, fourteen barons joined the congregation in the abbey, representing the original five ports, the two ancient towns and the seven limbs. The continuing decline of
9639-534: The basis for the English Common Law , while his intervention in Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland shaped the development of their societies, histories, and governmental systems. Historical interpretations of Henry's reign have changed considerably over time. Contemporary chroniclers such as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , though sometimes unfavourable, generally laud his achievements. In
9792-654: The campaign, and Geoffrey was forced to come to terms with Henry. In response to Stephen's siege, Henry returned to England again at the start of 1153. Bringing only a small army of mercenaries, probably financed with borrowed money, Henry was supported in the north and east of England by the forces of Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod , two local aristocrats, and had hopes of a military victory. A delegation of senior English clergy met with Henry and his advisers at Stockbridge, Hampshire , shortly before Easter in April. Details of their discussions are unclear, but it appears that
9945-458: The centre of Angevin opposition to Stephen in the south-west of England, accompanied by Robert of Gloucester. Although having children educated in relatives' households was common among noblemen of the period, sending Henry to England also had political benefits, as Geoffrey was coming under criticism by Matilda's supporters for refusing to join the war in England. For about a year, Henry lived alongside Roger of Worcester , one of Robert's sons, and
10098-467: The children being only five and three years old respectively—and promptly seized the Vexin. Now it was Louis's turn to be furious, as the move broke the spirit of the 1160 treaty. Military tensions between the two leaders immediately increased. Theobald mobilised his forces along the border with Touraine . Henry responded by attacking Chaumont in Blois in a surprise attack and took Theobald's castle in
10251-437: The churchmen emphasised that while they supported Stephen as king, they sought a negotiated peace; Henry reaffirmed that he would avoid the English cathedrals and would not expect the bishops to attend his court. To draw Stephen's forces away from Wallingford, Henry besieged Stephen's castle at Malmesbury , and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it. Henry successfully evaded Stephen's larger army along
10404-485: The clergy. By contrast with the tensions in England, in Normandy Henry had occasional disagreements with the Church but generally enjoyed very good relations with the bishops there. In Brittany, he had the support of the local Church hierarchy and rarely intervened in clerical matters, except occasionally to cause difficulties for his rival Louis of France. Further south, the power of the dukes of Aquitaine over
10557-486: The coinage in 1180, with royal officials taking direct control of the mints and passing the profits directly to the treasury. A new penny, called the Short Cross, was introduced, and the number of mints reduced substantially to ten across the country. Driven by the reforms, the royal revenues increased considerably; during the first part of the reign, Henry's average exchequer income was only around £18,000; after 1166,
10710-422: The confederation is a shield divided per pale (vertically), depicting on the dexter side (viewer's left) three gold half lions passant gardant on a red field; and on the sinister side (viewer's right) three gold half ships' hulls on a blue field. These arms are also flown as an heraldic banner (flag), and form the basis of the banner of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . The earliest certain evidence for
10863-587: The confederation of the Cinque Ports may be ascribed to a variety of different circumstances. While they survived the raids from the Danes and the French , the numerous destructive impact of plagues, and the politics of the 13th-century Plantagenets and the subsequent War of the Roses , natural causes such as the silting of harbours and the withdrawal of the sea did much to undermine them. The rise of Southampton , and
11016-586: The confederation was considered to hold a status equivalent to that of a shire . From an early date (the 13th century) representatives of the ports sat in Parliament . The practice had been regularised by the end of the 14th century, with the five head ports and two ancient towns, and one corporate limb ( Seaford ), each being entitled to send two Members to Parliament. Many of the Portsmen were fishermen, and in pursuit of herring sailed annually to
11169-503: The conference, he began to encourage tensions between Henry's sons. Meanwhile, Henry's position in the south of France continued to improve, and by 1173 he had agreed to an alliance with Humbert III, Count of Savoy , which betrothed Henry's son John and Humbert's daughter Alicia. Henry's daughter Eleanor was married to Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1170, enlisting an additional ally in the south. In February 1173, after unremitting pressure from Henry since 1159, Raymond finally capitulated to
11322-433: The consent of Louis; accordingly the kings held fresh peace talks in 1169 at Montmirail . The talks were wide-ranging, culminating with Henry's sons giving homage to Louis for their future inheritances in France. Also at this time, Richard was betrothed to Louis's young daughter Alys . Alys came to England and was rumoured to have later become the mistress of King Henry, but the rumour originates from prejudiced sources and
11475-538: The court were his officials, ( ministeriales ); his friends ( amici ), and his small inner circle of confidants and trusted servants ( familiares regis ). Henry's familiares were particularly important to the operation of his household and government as they drove government initiatives and filled the gaps between the official structures and the King. Henry tried to maintain a sophisticated household that combined hunting and drinking with cosmopolitan literary discussion and courtly values. Nonetheless, Henry's passion
11628-417: The dead Archbishop. Since travel by sea during the period was dangerous, he would also take full confession before setting sail and use auguries to determine the best time to travel. The historian Nicholas Vincent argues that Henry's movements may also have been planned to take advantage of saints' days and other fortuitous occasions. Medieval rulers such as Henry enjoyed various sources of income during
11781-609: The derivative arms borne by individual member ports. The traditional arms and banner may only officially and lawfully be displayed by representatives of the confederation itself, or by the local authorities for its member ports. However, in 2017 the Cinque Ports Authority registered with the UK Flag Registry a flag of three gold ships' hulls on a blue field as a "regional" or "community" flag, which may be flown by anyone who wishes to express identity with
11934-410: The earliest representations of the arms (all on seals) show the vertical partition of the field, suggesting that it was originally of only one colour. It therefore appears more likely that, while certainly alluding to the royal arms, the arms of the Cinque Ports were devised from the outset as a design depicting three half-lion-half-ships, probably on a red field; and that only at a later date, probably in
12087-629: The efforts of his mother, Matilda (daughter of Henry I of England ), to claim the English throne, at that time held by Matilda's cousin Stephen of Blois . Henry's father, Geoffrey , made him Duke of Normandy in 1150, and upon Geoffrey's death in 1151, Henry inherited Anjou, Maine and Touraine . His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine brought him control of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Thus, he controlled most of France. Henry's military expedition to England in 1153 resulted in King Stephen agreeing, by
12240-486: The eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou . The French county of Anjou was formed in the 10th century and its Angevin rulers attempted for several centuries to extend their influence and power across France through careful marriages and political alliances. In theory, the county answered to the French king , but royal power over Anjou weakened during
12393-482: The empire, producing what the historian John Edward Austin Jolliffe describes as a "government of the roads and roadsides". His journeys coincided with regional governmental reforms and other local administrative business although messengers were able to connect him to all of his domains wherever he went. In his absence the lands were ruled by seneschals and justiciars , and beneath them, local officials in each of
12546-473: The expedition in the first place. Henry instead turned to King Stephen, who paid the outstanding wages and thereby allowed Henry to retire gracefully. Stephen's reasons for doing so are unclear. One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully, and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry. Henry intervened once again in 1149, commencing what
12699-477: The failure of Henry and Eleanor's parenting, have been put forward to explain Henry's family's bitter disputes. Other theories focus on the personalities of Henry and his children. Historians such as Matthew Strickland have argued that Henry made sensible attempts to manage the tensions within his family, and that had he died younger, the succession might have proved much smoother. Henry's reign saw important legal changes, particularly in England and Normandy. By
12852-410: The first time and greatly reducing the number of moneyers licensed to produce coins. These measures were successful in improving Henry's income, but on his return to England in the 1160s he took further steps. New taxes were introduced and the existing accounts re-audited, and the reforms of the legal system brought in new streams of money from fines and amercements. There was a wholesale reform of
13005-479: The form of later and variant copies, is the so-called "Domesday of the Ports", a list of the then-members of the confederation and the services they owed. The confederation's activities are much better documented from 1432 onwards, when minutes of the proceedings of the Brotherhood and Guestling began to be taken consistently. Meetings are documented in two books, known respectively as the "White Book" (covering
13158-719: The frequent face-to-face meetings to attempt to resolve them have led the historian Jean Dunbabin to liken the situation to the 20th-century Cold War in Europe. On his return to the Continent from England in the 1150s, Henry sought to secure his French lands and quash any potential rebellion. To this end, in 1154 Henry and Louis agreed to a peace treaty, under which Henry bought back Vernon and Neuf-Marché from Louis. The treaty appeared shaky, and tensions remained — in particular, Henry had not given homage to Louis for his French possessions. They met at Paris and Mont-Saint-Michel in 1158, agreeing to betroth Henry's eldest living son,
13311-666: The general administration of the realm. Queen Elizabeth I sanctioned the first national lottery that was held in 1569 in an effort to raise funds for the crumbling Cinque Ports. Nevertheless, in 1689 the Cinque ports were among those specifically called following the Glorious Revolution to elect representatives to attend the Convention Parliament which enacted the English Bill of Rights . With
13464-451: The guilt of a defendant. Other methods of trial continued, including trial by combat and trial by ordeal . After the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, royal justice was extended into new areas through the use of new forms of assizes, in particular novel disseisin , mort d'ancestor and dower unde nichil habet , which dealt with the wrongful dispossession of land, inheritance rights, and
13617-466: The historian Thomas M. Jones, Henry probably believed that Becket, in addition to being an old friend, would be politically weakened within the Church because of his former role as Chancellor, and would therefore have to rely on his support. Both Henry's mother and wife appear to have had doubts about the appointment, but nevertheless, he went ahead. His plan did not achieve the desired result, as Becket promptly changed his lifestyle, abandoned his links to
13770-438: The historic members of the confederation have now either ceased to exist as a result of coastal change, or have shrunk or lost status for other reasons. The following are the current limbs of the confederation: In return for their ship service, the towns received various privileges, including: This means that in effect they were granted a degree of self-government, legal jurisdiction, and financial advantage. In many respects,
13923-625: The increased quantity of overseas trade these could distribute from the new major ports developing from the 18th century. Local government reforms and Acts of Parliament passed during the 19th and 20th centuries (notably the Reform Act 1832 ) have eroded the administrative and judicial powers of the Confederation of the Cinque Ports, when New Romney and Winchelsea were disenfranchised from Parliament, with representation provided through their counties alone, while Hythe and Rye's representation
14076-553: The inheritance of Louis and Eleanor's two daughters, Marie and Alix , who might otherwise have had claims to Aquitaine on Eleanor's death. With his new lands, Henry now possessed a much larger proportion of France than Louis. Louis organised a coalition against Henry, including King Stephen; his son Eustace; Henry I, Count of Champagne ; and Robert, Count of Perche . Louis's alliance was joined by Henry's younger brother Geoffrey , who rose in revolt, claiming that Henry had dispossessed him of his inheritance. Their father's plans for
14229-572: The inheritance of his lands had been ambiguous, making the veracity of Geoffrey's claims hard to assess. Contemporaneous accounts suggest he left the main castles in Poitou to Geoffrey, implying that he may have intended Henry to retain Normandy and Anjou but not Poitou. Fighting immediately broke out again along the Normandy borders, where Henry of Champagne and Robert captured the town of Neufmarché-sur-Epte . Louis's forces moved to attack Aquitaine. Stephen responded by placing Wallingford Castle ,
14382-451: The king. A great council was supposed to advise the King and give assent to royal decisions, yet it is unclear how much freedom they actually enjoyed to oppose Henry's intentions. Henry also appears to have consulted with his court when making legislation; the extent to which he then took their views into account is unclear. As a powerful ruler, Henry was able to provide either valuable patronage or impose devastating harm on his subjects. He
14535-406: The lands and the rights of his grandfather Henry I; it reaffirmed the betrothal of Young Henry and Margaret and the Vexin deal; and it involved Young Henry giving homage to Louis, a way of reinforcing the young boy's position as heir and Louis's position as king. Almost immediately after the peace conference, Louis shifted his position considerably. His wife Constance died and he married Adèle ,
14688-445: The larger landowners in Normandy benefited from the King's patronage. He frequently intervened with the Norman nobility through arranged marriages or the treatment of inheritances, either using his authority as duke or his influence as king of England over their lands there. Across the rest of France, local administration was less developed. Anjou was governed through a combination of officials called prévôts and seneschals based along
14841-445: The local church was much less than in the north, and Henry's efforts to extend his influence over local appointments created tensions. During the disputed papal election of 1159, Henry, like Louis, supported Alexander III over his rival Victor IV . The contemporary chronicler Gerald of Wales promulgated the perception that Henry was a founder of monasteries, but overall, Henry's religious convictions are difficult to assess. This
14994-446: The mid-1160s. Meanwhile, Henry had begun to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and started to exert more direct control. In 1164 he intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and in 1166 invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan III to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his daughter Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement
15147-421: The mid-14th century, was the field partitioned into two colours. There has historically been some confusion as to whether the three ships should be depicted as gold (" or ") or silver (" argent "): both variants are found in reputable heraldic sources from the late middle ages to the 19th century. The modern consensus is to depict them as gold in the confederation arms, although silver ships appear in some of
15300-460: The middle of the 12th century, England had many different ecclesiastical and civil law courts, with overlapping jurisdictions resulting from the interaction of diverse legal traditions. Henry greatly expanded the role of royal justice in England, producing a more coherent legal system, summarised at the end of his reign in the Treatise of Glanvill , an early legal handbook. Despite these reforms it
15453-486: The most prominent of these were Geoffrey (later Archbishop of York ) and William (later Earl of Salisbury ). Henry was expected to provide for the future of his legitimate children by granting lands to his sons and marrying his daughters well. His family was divided by rivalries and violent hostilities, more so than many other royal families of the day, in particular the relatively cohesive French Capetians . Various suggestions, from their inherited family genetics to
15606-540: The need for larger ships than could be crewed by the 21-man service of the ports, also contributed to the decline. Although by the 14th century the confederation faced wider challenges from a greater consolidation of national identity in the monarchy and Parliament, the legacy of the Saxon authority remained. Even after the 15th century, the Ancient Towns continued to serve with the supply of transport ships. During
15759-419: The next few years, leaving Henry's position secure. Nonetheless, Henry inherited a difficult situation in England, as the kingdom had suffered extensively during the civil war. In many parts of the country the fighting had caused serious devastation, although some other areas remained largely unaffected. Numerous " adulterine ", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords. The authority of
15912-412: The opportunity to speak together privately about a potential end to the war; conveniently for Henry, Stephen's son Eustace fell ill and died shortly afterwards. This removed the most obvious other claimant to the throne, as while Stephen had another son, William, he was only a second son and appeared unenthusiastic about making a plausible claim on the throne. Fighting continued after Wallingford, but in
16065-512: The original privileges may have been granted by Edward the Confessor out of a need to purchase the loyalty of a group of potentially troublesome ports that were of strategic importance to the control of cross-Channel traffic. Notwithstanding this, in the 13th and 14th centuries the ports did play a significant role in the defence of the realm, although their importance declined thereafter. The original five ports were: In medieval documents, Hastings sometimes appears to be given precedence among
16218-407: The poor. Henry had a passionate desire to rebuild his control of the territories that his grandfather Henry I had once governed. He took back territories, regained estates and re-established influence over the smaller lords that had once provided what the historian John Gillingham describes as a "protective ring" around his core territories. He was probably the first king of England to use
16371-443: The ports (for example, the charters granted to Rye and Winchelsea by Henry II in 1155 refer to "The Barons of Hastings and the Cinque Ports"); but this usage probably arose simply from geographical convenience, with the ports being conventionally listed in order from west to east. By 1190, two further towns had joined the confederation, originally to assist Hastings in her provision of ships. In time they grew in prosperity, and by
16524-493: The ports in common dates from 1260. Their liberties are also mentioned in the Magna Carta of 1297 (clause 9). The chief obligation laid on the ports, as a corporate duty, was to provide 57 ships for 15 days' service to the king annually, each port fulfilling a proportion of the whole duty. It is sometimes said that the rationale behind the granting of privileges, and their maintenance and extension over several centuries,
16677-540: The pre-civil war borders. Henry had a difficult relationship with Louis VII of France throughout the 1150s. The two men had already clashed over Henry's succession to Normandy and the remarriage of Eleanor, and the relationship was not repaired. Louis invariably attempted to take the moral high ground in respect to Henry, capitalising on his own reputation as a crusader and circulating malicious rumours about his rival's ungovernable temper. Henry had greater resources than Louis, particularly after taking England, and Louis
16830-406: The rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high. As the decade progressed, Henry increasingly desired to resolve the question of the inheritance. He decided that he would divide his empire after his death, with Young Henry receiving England and Normandy, Richard being given the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Geoffrey acquiring Brittany. This would require
16983-412: The reforms. In the aftermath of the disorders of Stephen's reign in England there were many legal cases concerning land to be resolved: many religious houses had lost land during the conflict, while in other cases owners and heirs had been dispossessed of their property by local barons, which in some cases had since been sold or given to new owners. Henry relied on traditional, local courts — such as
17136-425: The regions carried on with the business of government. Nonetheless, many of the functions of government centred on Henry himself, and he was often surrounded by petitioners requesting decisions or favours. From time to time, Henry's royal court became a magnum concilium , a great council, which was sometimes used to take major decisions, but the term was loosely applied whenever many barons and bishops attended
17289-441: The restoration of royal finances in England, reviving Henry I's financial processes and institutions and attempting to improve the quality of the royal accounting. Revenue from the demesne formed the bulk of Henry's income in England during much of his reign, although taxes were relied upon heavily in the first 11 years. Aided by the capable Richard FitzNeal , he reformed the currency in 1158, putting his name on English coins for
17442-772: The rightful heir to the duchy and launching a military campaign to remove Henry from the province. Geoffrey advised Henry to come to terms with Louis and peace was made between them in August 1151 after mediation by Bernard of Clairvaux . Under the settlement Henry did homage to Louis for Normandy, accepting Louis as his feudal lord, and gave him the disputed lands of the Norman Vexin ; in return, Louis recognised him as duke. Geoffrey died in September 1151, and Henry postponed his plans to return to England, as he first needed to ensure that his succession, particularly in Anjou,
17595-442: The rights of widows respectively. In making these reforms Henry both challenged the traditional rights of barons in dispensing justice and reinforced key feudal principles, but over time they greatly increased royal power in England. Henry's relationship with the Church varied considerably across his lands and over time: as with other aspects of his rule, there was no attempt to form a common ecclesiastical policy. Insofar as he had
17748-578: The role of the royal courts. He cracked down on crime, seizing the belongings of thieves and fugitives, and travelling justices were dispatched to the north and the Midlands. After 1166 Henry's exchequer court in Westminster, which had previously only heard cases connected with royal revenues, began to take wider civil cases on behalf of the King. The reforms continued and Henry created the General Eyre , probably in 1176, which involved dispatching
17901-437: The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country. The King's income had declined seriously and royal control over the coin mints remained limited. Henry presented himself as the legitimate heir to Henry I and began rebuilding the kingdom in his image. Although Stephen had tried to continue Henry I's method of government during his reign, the younger Henry's new government characterised those nineteen years as
18054-558: The services of the cinque ports in return for payment. However it was regarded as the primary Royal Fleet of maritime England until at least the beginning of the 15th century. In addition there was a second smaller naval force available to the monarch consisting of ships directly owned by him known as the King's Ships or the Royal Squadron. Incomplete list of post holders: Cinque Ports The confederation of Cinque Ports ( / s ɪ ŋ k p ɔːr t s / sink ports )
18207-563: The siege, arriving with a small army and placing Stephen's besieging forces under siege themselves. Upon news of this, Stephen returned with a large army, and the two sides confronted each other across the River Thames at Wallingford in July. By this point in the war, the barons on both sides were eager to avoid an open battle, so members of the clergy brokered a truce , to the annoyance of both Henry and Stephen. Henry and Stephen took
18360-595: The sister of the Counts of Blois and Champagne. Louis also betrothed daughters by Eleanor to Adèle's brothers Theobald V, Count of Blois, and Henry I, Count of Champagne. This represented an aggressive containment strategy towards Henry rather than the agreed rapprochement and caused Theobald to abandon his alliance with Henry. Henry, who had custody of both Young Henry and Margaret, reacted angrily, and in November he bullied several papal legates into marrying them—despite
18513-534: The son of a count. He opposed the holding of tournaments , probably because of the security risk that such gatherings of armed knights posed in peacetime. The Angevin Empire and court were, as Gillingham describes it, "a family firm". His mother, Matilda, played an important role in his early life and exercised influence for many years later. Henry's relationship with his wife Eleanor was complex: Henry trusted Eleanor to manage England for several years after 1154 and
18666-590: The south east coast, from the Thames estuary to Hastings and the Isle of Wight inevitably reduced the significance of a number of the Cinque port towns as port authorities. However, ship building and repair, fishing, piloting, off shore rescue and sometimes even " wrecking " continued to play a large part in the activities of the local community. By the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , the Cinque Ports had effectively ceased to be of any great significance, and were absorbed into
18819-421: The south-west, the Midlands and much of the north of England. Meanwhile, Henry was attempting to act the part of a legitimate king, witnessing marriages and settlements and holding court in a regal fashion. Stephen amassed troops over the following summer to renew the siege of Wallingford Castle in a final attempt to take the stronghold. The fall of Wallingford seemed imminent and Henry marched south to relieve
18972-466: The surrounding county, seizing castles and taking the province of Quercy . The episode proved to be a long-running point of dispute between the two kings and the chronicler William of Newburgh called the ensuing conflict with Toulouse a "forty years' war". In the aftermath of the Toulouse episode, Louis made an attempt to repair relations with Henry through an 1160 peace treaty. This promised Henry
19125-415: The three half-ships are replaced by three fishes' tails. The Cinque Ports Acts 1811 to 1872 is the collective title of the following acts: 51°4′N 1°5′E / 51.067°N 1.083°E / 51.067; 1.083 Henry II of England Henry II ( ( 1133-March-05 ) ( 1189-July-06 ) 5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189 ), also known as Henry Fitzempress and Henry Curtmantle ,
19278-527: The throne, in exchange for promises of the security of his lands; key royal castles would be held on Henry's behalf by guarantors whilst Stephen would have access to Henry's castles, and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home. Henry and Stephen sealed the treaty with a kiss of peace in the cathedral. In early 1154 Stephen became more active. He attempted to exert his authority and started demolishing unauthorised castles. The peace remained precarious, and Stephen's son William remained
19431-465: The throne. After her father's death in 1135, Matilda hoped to claim the English throne, but instead, Stephen was crowned king and recognised as the Duke of Normandy, resulting in a civil war between their rival supporters. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no direct role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her powerful illegitimate half-brother Robert, Earl of Gloucester . The war, termed
19584-469: The treasuries; and a team of royal officials called "the chamber" who followed the King's travels, spending money as necessary and collecting revenues along the way. The long civil war had caused considerable disruption to this system and calculations based on incomplete pipe rolls suggest that royal income fell by 46 per cent between 1129–30 and 1155–56. A new coin, called the Awbridge silver penny ,
19737-437: The unauthorised castles from the war continued. Efforts were made to restore the system of royal justice and the royal finances. Henry also invested heavily in the construction and renovation of prestigious new royal buildings. The King of Scotland and local Welsh rulers had taken advantage of the long civil war in England to seize disputed lands; Henry set about reversing these losses. In 1157 pressure from Henry resulted in
19890-492: The use of the arms is on a common seal of Dover dating from 1305, but they also appear on the common seal of Hastings which may be a few years earlier. They are thought to have been first introduced in c. 1297. There has long been an assumption that the arms were created through a process of heraldic dimidiation – that is to say, by combining half of the royal arms of England (the three lions) with half of an unidentified coat of arms depicting three ships. However, none of
20043-625: The years 1432 to 1571, although the earliest portion, to 1485, comprises a transcript made in 1560) and the "Black Book" (covering the years 1572 to 1955). The White and Black Books were held at New Romney until 1960, when they were transferred to the Kent Archives Office (now the Kent History and Library Centre ) in Maidstone . A comprehensive calendar of the two books was published in 1966. The traditional coat of arms of
20196-444: The years went by he put increasing energy into judicial and administrative affairs and became more cautious, but throughout his life, he was energetic and frequently impulsive. Despite his surges of anger, he was not normally fiery or overbearing; he was witty in conversation and eloquent in an argument with an intellectual bent of mind and an astonishing memory, and much preferred the solitude of hunting or retiring to his chamber with
20349-637: The years, a number of further towns and ports joined the confederation as detached "Limbs" or "Members" (the terms are used interchangeably) of the seven head ports: they took a share in the burden of ship service, and a share in the privileges of the confederation. The limbs were often distinguished as either "corporate limbs", whose status was confirmed by royal charter , and which enjoyed a considerable degree of self-government, or "non-corporate limbs", which were more heavily dependent on, and governed by, their head port. The corporate limbs were: Non-corporate limbs have at various dates included: Many of
20502-514: The young Malcolm IV of Scotland returning the lands in the north of England he had taken during the war; Henry promptly began to refortify the northern frontier. Restoring Anglo-Norman supremacy in Wales proved harder, and Henry had to fight two campaigns in north and south Wales in 1157 and 1158 before the Welsh princes Owain Gwynedd and Rhys ap Gruffydd submitted to his rule, agreeing to
20655-418: Was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189. During his reign he controlled England , substantial parts of Wales and Ireland , and much of France (including Normandy , Anjou , and Aquitaine ), an area that altogether was later called the Angevin Empire , and also held power over Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany . Henry became politically and militarily involved by the age of fourteen in
20808-414: Was also infamous for his piercing stare, bullying, bursts of temper, and, on occasion, his sullen refusal to speak at all. Some of these outbursts may have been theatrical and for effect. Henry was said to have understood a wide range of languages, including English, but spoke only Latin and French. In his youth Henry enjoyed active participation in warfare, hunting and other adventurous pursuits; as
20961-419: Was deposed in 1156 by Henry's brother, Geoffrey, possibly with Henry's support. When Geoffrey died in 1158, Conan attempted to reclaim Nantes but was opposed by Henry who annexed it for himself. Louis took no action to intervene as Henry steadily increased his power in Brittany. Henry hoped to take a similar approach to regaining control of Toulouse in southern France. Toulouse, while traditionally tied to
21114-412: Was eleven years his senior, eight weeks later on 18 May. The marriage instantly revived Henry's tensions with Louis: it was considered an insult and ran counter to feudal practice because Eleanor, a holder of a French fiefdom , married without Louis's consent, and the marriage between Henry and Eleanor was just as consanguineous as that of her and Louis. Henry's acquisition of Aquitaine also threatened
21267-482: Was far less dynamic in resisting Angevin power than he had been earlier in his reign. The disputes between the two drew in other powers across the region, including Thierry, Count of Flanders , who signed a military alliance with Henry, albeit with a clause that prevented the count from being forced to fight against Louis, his feudal lord. Further south, Theobald V, Count of Blois , an enemy of Louis, became another early ally of Henry. The resulting military tensions and
21420-447: Was for hunting, for which the court became famous. Henry had several preferred royal hunting lodges and apartments across his lands and invested heavily in his royal castles, both for their practical utility as fortresses, and as symbols of royal power and prestige. The court was relatively formal in its style and language, possibly because Henry was attempting to compensate for his own sudden rise to power and relatively humble origins as
21573-438: Was halved. In 1985, HMS Illustrious established an affiliation with the Cinque Ports. In 2005, the affiliation was changed to HMS Kent . The early history of the confederation is poorly documented, and can generally be traced only through incidental mentions in the charters granted to individual ports, or in other external records. One important early document, first compiled in the 13th century, but which survives only in
21726-488: Was increasingly important to rulers during the 12th century to pay mercenary forces and to build stone castles, both vital to successful military campaigns. Henry inherited a difficult situation in England in 1154. Henry I had established a system of royal finances that depended upon three key institutions: a central royal treasury in London, supported by treasuries in key castles; the exchequer that accounted for payments to
21879-465: Was instructed by a magister , Master Matthew; Robert's household was known for its education and learning. The canons of St Augustine's in Bristol also helped in Henry's education, and he remembered them with affection in later years. Henry returned to Anjou in either 1143 or 1144, resuming his education under William of Conches , another famous academic. Henry returned to England in 1147, at
22032-415: Was issued under Stephen in 1153 to try to stabilise the English currency after the war; it was effective in replacing the previously circulating currency. Less is known about how financial affairs were managed in Henry's Continental possessions, but a very similar system operated in Normandy, and a comparable system probably operated in both Anjou and Aquitaine. On taking power Henry gave a high priority to
22185-887: Was later content for her to govern Aquitaine. Indeed, Eleanor was believed to have influence over Henry during much of their marriage. Ultimately, their relationship disintegrated. Chroniclers and historians have speculated on what ultimately caused Eleanor to abandon Henry to support her older sons in the Revolt of 1173–1174 . Probable explanations include his persistent interference in Aquitaine; Henry's, rather than Eleanor's, acceptance of homage from Raymond of Toulouse in 1173; and his harsh temper. Henry had eight legitimate children by Eleanor: five sons, William , Young Henry, Richard , Geoffrey and John ; and three daughters, Matilda , Eleanor and Joan . He had several long-term mistresses, including Annabel de Balliol and Rosamund Clifford , and also several illegitimate children. Amongst
22338-530: Was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial. The ports lie on the western shore of the English Channel , where the crossing to the European continent is narrowest. Inhabitants of the Cinque Ports are called Portsmen . The origins of the confederation are obscure, but are believed to lie in the late Anglo-Saxon period , and specifically in the reign of Edward
22491-687: Was quite unusual under medieval law as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Elsewhere in France, Henry attempted to seize the Auvergne , much to the anger of the French king. Further south, Henry continued to apply pressure on Raymond of Toulouse. He campaigned there personally in 1161 and sent his allies Alfonso II of Aragon and the Archbishop of Bordeaux against Raymond in 1164. In 1165, Raymond divorced Louis's sister and possibly pursued an alliance with Henry instead. These growing tensions between Henry and Louis finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by
22644-485: Was reached. Henry and Eleanor had eight children. Three of their sons would rule as king, though Henry the Young King only as co-ruler rather than sole monarch, as he predeceased his father. As his sons grew up, Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy their desires for land and immediate power, and tensions rose over the future inheritance of the empire, encouraged by Louis VII and his son Philip II , who ascended to
22797-424: Was said by chroniclers to be good-looking, red-haired, freckled, with a large head. He had a short, stocky body and was bow-legged from riding. Often he was scruffily dressed. His preference for the short Angevin cloak earned him the nickname "Curtmantle". Henry was neither as reserved as his mother nor as charming as his father, but he was famous for his energy and drive. He was ruthless but not vindictive. He
22950-466: Was secure. At around this time, he was also probably secretly planning his marriage to Eleanor , then still the wife of Louis. Eleanor was the Duchess of Aquitaine , a land in the south of France, and was considered beautiful, lively and controversial, but had not borne Louis any sons. Louis had the marriage annulled on the grounds of consanguinity , and the nineteen year old Henry married Eleanor, who
23103-531: Was the need for the Crown to have a guaranteed supply of men and ships in time of war, and that the Cinque Ports therefore played an important role in the development of the Royal Navy . N. A. M. Rodger questions whether the arrangement was ever intended to raise any genuinely effective naval provision, and shows that the Cinque Ports did not contribute to English strength at sea significantly more than other English ports of similar size. He argues rather that
23256-451: Was then crowned alongside Eleanor at Westminster Abbey on 19 December. At the coronation Henry wore one of the imperial crowns his mother brought back from Germany; they had once belonged to Emperor Henry V. The royal court was gathered in April 1155, where the barons swore fealty to the King and his sons. Several potential rivals still existed, including Stephen's son William and Henry's brothers Geoffrey and William , but they all died in
23409-527: Was very effective at finding and keeping competent officials, including within the Church, a key part of royal administration in the 12th century. Royal patronage within the Church provided an effective route to advancement under Henry, and most of his preferred clerics eventually became bishops and archbishops. By contrast, the number of earldoms in England shrank considerably, removing the potential for advancement for many traditional barons. Henry could also show his ira et malevolentia – "anger and ill-will" –
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