128-668: Clan Johnstone is a Border Reiver Scottish clan . The Clan Johnstone were once one of the most powerful of the Border Reiver Scottish clans. They originally settled in Annandale and for more than six hundred years they held extensive possessions in the west of the Scottish Marches , where they kept watch against the English . The first of the clan to be recorded was John Johnstone, whose son, Gilbert,
256-664: A British fleet . However, Naples' lower class lazzaroni were strongly pious and royalist, favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war. Eventually, the Republicans conquered Castel Sant'Elmo and proclaimed a Parthenopaean Republic , secured by the French Army . A counter-revolutionary religious army of lazzaroni known as
384-595: A Scottish tract of land that curiously lies on the English side of the River Tweed , is one such example. This threipland became the subject of an annual game of football, whose result determined temporary control of the land. Over time, Coldstream's growing population allowed it to field far more players than Wark, leading to the land being informally absorbed into Scotland. The Anglo-Scottish Borders were marked by overlapping systems of administration and law, creating
512-541: A case involving Hugh de Bolbec, a Northumbrian knight. A meeting near Carham on the Tweed attempted to establish "the true and ancient marches between the two kingdoms". Six knights from each side were appointed to walk the border line, but the Scottish and English representatives disagreed at every step. A second attempt expanded the parties to twelve knights per side, with additional servants and men-at-arms processing through
640-672: A case was presented to the House of Lords in which the Court found in favour of Major Percy Johnstone's son, Patrick, as chief of the name and arms of Johnstone. Modern thread count: Bk4 B4 Bk4 B48 G60 Bk2 G4 Y 6. Border Reivers Border reivers were raiders along the Anglo-Scottish border sometime around the end of the First War of Scottish Independence . They included both Scottish and English people, and they raided
768-713: A closely related word, comes from the Middle English reven . There also exists a Northumbrian and Scots verb reifen . All three derive from Old English rēafian which means "to rob, plunder, pillage". Variants of these words were used in the Borders in the later Middle Ages. The corresponding verb in Dutch is "(be)roven", and "(be)rauben" in German. The earliest use of the combined term "border reiver" appears to be by Sir Walter Scott in his anthology Minstrelsy of
896-432: A feeble or distant monarch and reliance on the effectiveness of the law usually made people a target for depredations rather than conferring any security. There were other factors which may have promoted a predatory mode of living in parts of the Borders. A system of partible inheritance is evident in some parts of the English side of the Borders in the sixteenth century. By contrast to primogeniture , this meant that land
1024-643: A framework of legally sanctioned violence. Many crimes, such as theft and feuding, were treated with less severity due to the ancient customs and culture of the Borderlands, which had evolved over centuries to tolerate and even codify such practices. Although less well-known than Highlanders in Scotland—whom they met and defeated in battle on occasion —the Border Reivers played a significant role in shaping Anglo-Scottish relations. Their activities were
1152-481: A hall of the castle, and following this Pope Boniface VIII was elected pope by the cardinal collegium , before moving to Rome. Castel Capuano was built in the 12th century by William I , the son of Roger II of Sicily , the first monarch of the Kingdom of Naples . It was expanded by Frederick II and became one of his royal palaces. The castle was the residence of many kings and queens throughout its history. In
1280-545: A key international role in international diplomacy, since it is home to NATO 's Allied Joint Force Command Naples and of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean . Founded by Greeks in the first millennium BC, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited urban areas in the world. In the eighth century BC, a colony known as Parthenope ( Ancient Greek : Παρθενόπη ) was established on
1408-475: A major factor in ongoing tensions between the two kingdoms, and their raids often had international repercussions. There is an emerging historical debate over how great their threat and the extent to which their raids were state-directed rather than purely opportunistic. The culture of the Border Reivers—characterised by honour , close family bonds, and self-defence—has been said to influence
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#17327840402921536-416: A new layer of governance that often clashed with local traditions, further complicating loyalties and creating a fragmented political landscape. The Wars of Scottish Independence played a key role in this transformation of the Borders, fostering and forcing a growing sense of national belonging that extended across social, cultural and linguistic groups. However, alongside this burgeoning national identity,
1664-521: A paragon of Hellenistic culture . During the Roman era, the people of Naples maintained their Greek language and customs. At the same time, the city was expanded with elegant Roman villas , aqueducts , and public baths . Landmarks such as the Temple of Dioscures were built, and many emperors chose to holiday in the city, including Claudius and Tiberius . Virgil , the author of Rome's national epic ,
1792-481: A patchwork of competing jurisdictions. On the English side, noble families, ecclesiastical authorities, and state officials held varying degrees of power, often clashing over jurisdiction. Secular liberties like Tynedale and Redesdale operated semi-independently, granting local lords significant autonomy to enforce laws and defend their territories. Religious influence was prominent in Hexhamshire , governed by
1920-507: A persistent feature of the borderlands, punctuating periods of truce. These ranged from smaller skirmishes to occasional large-scale raids, such as the Battle of Otterburn (1388) and Homildon Hill (1402), which occasionally escalated into significant but localised conflicts. Both kingdoms sought to maintain periods of relative calm through truce agreements and diplomatic efforts, though these efforts were often fragile and difficult to enforce in
2048-644: A prize of war and a continued focal point of Anglo-Scottish tensions. The Anglo-Scottish border was not fully demarcated until the mid-19th century, when the Ordnance Survey mapped the area in detail. Even as late as this period, some lands, such as Kirkholm Common, were still considered by locals to be threipland. Locals regarded it as shared communal ground, with its historical status as contested land lingering in local tradition. Other disputed areas were resolved through less formal means. The Ba Green (or Ba' Green or Ball Green) near Wark and Coldstream ,
2176-583: A shared border identity also emerged, rooted in the unique cultural and legal practices of the region. This shared identity coexisted with a lingering sense of Otherness, as the borders remained distinct from the centralised identities of both nations, shaped by their unique history and violent reputation, and the persistent influence of local loyalties. Efforts to define the Anglo-Scottish border often proved contentious and inconclusive. By 1245, territorial disputes remained unresolved, as demonstrated in
2304-400: A small-scale invasion of England, attempting to capitalise on the ongoing tensions between England and Scotland. The invasion, however, was poorly supported and ultimately failed to achieve any significant objectives. Naples Naples ( / ˈ n eɪ p əl z / NAY -pəlz ; Italian : Napoli [ˈnaːpoli] ; Neapolitan : Napule [ˈnɑːpələ] ) is
2432-519: A strategically important town on the Anglo-Scottish border, changed hands multiple times during the medieval period, reflecting its contested status between England and Scotland. The town was alternately controlled by each kingdom, with significant captures in 1174, 1296, and 1318, among others. Its turbulent history culminated in 1482 when it was seized by Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III), and thereafter remained under English administration. Berwick's frequent exchanges highlight its role as both
2560-474: A surrender in the face of insurgents. The city was already completely freed by 1 October 1943, when British and American forces entered the city. Departing Germans burned the library of the university , as well as the Italian Royal Society. They also destroyed the city archives. Time bombs planted throughout the city continued to explode into November. The symbol of the rebirth of Naples was
2688-452: Is "Out with the sword" John Turnbull , who flourished around the turn of the 15th century. He was a member of the powerful Turnbull family in Minto in the borders, and he earned his nickname for his reputation of being quick to escalate arguments into violence. Remarkably, John Turnbull's nickname is perhaps the only surviving example of an early 15th-century border reiver nickname. Around
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#17327840402922816-535: Is found in records after 1194. Sir John Johnstone was a knight of the county of Dumfries . He is found on the Ragman Rolls of 1296, swearing fealty to Edward I of England . In 1381 his great-grandson son was appointed Warden of the Western Marches . The Johnstones are believed to be of Norman and Anglo-Saxon descent. The great grandfather of John Johnston(e) was Siward, Earl of Northumbria who
2944-593: Is one of the city's main museums, with one of the most extensive collections of artefacts of the Roman Empire in the world. It also houses many of the antiques unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum , as well as some artefacts from the Greek and Renaissance periods. Previously a Bourbon palace, now a museum and art gallery, the Museo di Capodimonte is another museum of note. The gallery features paintings from
3072-435: Is the city's premier place of worship; each year on 19 September, it hosts the longstanding Miracle of Saint Januarius , the city's patron saint . During the miracle, which thousands of Neapolitans flock to witness, the dried blood of Januarius is said to turn to liquid when brought close to holy relics said to be of his body. Below is a selective list of Naples' major churches, chapels, and monastery complexes: Aside from
3200-496: Is the oldest opera house in Italy. Directly across San Carlo is Galleria Umberto . Naples is well known for its castles: The most ancient is Castel dell'Ovo ("Egg Castle"), which was built on the tiny islet of Megarides, where the original Cumaean colonists had founded the city. In Roman times the islet became part of Lucullus 's villa, later hosting Romulus Augustulus , the exiled last western Roman emperor. It had also been
3328-586: The Aeneid , received part of his education in the city, and later resided in its environs. It was during this period that Christianity first arrived in Naples; the apostles Peter and Paul are said to have preached in the city. Januarius , who would become Naples' patron saint , was martyred there in the fourth century AD. The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire , Romulus Augustulus ,
3456-461: The sanfedisti under Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo was raised; they met with great success, and the French were forced to surrender the Neapolitan castles, with their fleet sailing back to Toulon . Ferdinand IV was restored as king; however, after only seven years, Napoleon conquered the kingdom and installed Bonapartist kings, including installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte . With the help of
3584-522: The Alta Velocità high-speed rail link to Rome and Salerno and an expanded subway network . Naples is the third-largest urban economy in Italy by GDP, after Milan and Rome. The Port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe. Naples' historic city centre has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . A wide range of culturally and historically significant sites are nearby, including
3712-694: The Archbishops of York , and in the County Palatine of Durham (which included the exclaves of Norhamshire and Islandshire on the frontier), ruled by the Prince Bishops , who held powers comparable to those of a king, including raising armies and collecting taxes. The Earls of Northumberland , based in Alnwick , were another major force, holding substantial military and administrative influence over northern England. The legal framework of
3840-717: The Austrian Empire and its allies, the Bonapartists were defeated in the Neapolitan War . Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 saw the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily combine to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , with Naples as the capital city. In 1839, Naples became the first city on the Italian Peninsula to have a railway, with
3968-492: The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 and appeared to further worsen after a severe famine in 1315–1317 and a failed campaign in 1322. The anarchy that followed created conditions where both organised and independent bands of Scottish armed men, along with opportunistic English bands, raided as far as Yorkshire, devastating the land not only through plunder but also widespread burning. Among the English raiders were known Schavaldours, some of whom were led by local nobility, including
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4096-547: The Battle of Carham in 1018, where Scottish forces secured control over Lothian , fundamentally altering the northern boundary of England. The Norman Conquest (1066) further destabilised the borders, as the end of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England and the subsequent Normanisation of Scottish nobility introduced new complexities brought in by David I of Scotland . Following the Norman Conquest,
4224-612: The Battle of Garigliano in 1503. Following the Spanish victory, Naples became part of the Spanish Empire , and remained so throughout the Spanish Habsburg period. The Spanish sent viceroys to Naples to directly deal with local issues: the most important of these viceroys was Pedro Álvarez de Toledo , who was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban reforms in the city; he also tried to introduce
4352-584: The Byzantine Emperor , with numerous local pretenders feuding for possession of the ducal throne. Theoctistus was appointed without imperial approval; his appointment was later revoked and Theodore II took his place. However, the disgruntled general populace chased him from the city and elected Stephen III instead, a man who minted coins with his initials rather than those of the Byzantine Emperor. Naples gained complete independence by
4480-561: The First War of Scottish Independence and around the end of the Wars of the Roses , though the development of fortified self-defence measures appears to have commenced earlier in England during the 14th century, particularly at the height of the Wars of Independence . Although there were long-term truces after the Wars of Scottish Independence and relatively few official cross-border raids,
4608-532: The Iberian Peninsula . Naples also became a centre of the Renaissance, with artists such as Laurana , da Messina , Sannazzaro and Poliziano arriving in the city. In 1501, Naples came under direct rule from France under Louis XII , with the Neapolitan king Frederick being taken as a prisoner to France; however, this state of affairs did not last long, as Spain won Naples from the French at
4736-826: The Inquisition . In 1544, around 7,000 people were taken as slaves by Barbary pirates and brought to the Barbary Coast of North Africa (see Sack of Naples ). By the 17th century, Naples had become Europe's second-largest city – second only to Paris – and the largest European Mediterranean city, with around 250,000 inhabitants. The city was a major cultural centre during the Baroque era, being home to artists such as Caravaggio , Salvator Rosa and Bernini , philosophers such as Bernardino Telesio , Giordano Bruno , Tommaso Campanella and Giambattista Vico , and writers such as Giambattista Marino . A revolution led by
4864-648: The Kingdom of Sicily , with Palermo as the capital. After a period of Norman rule, in 1189, the Kingdom of Sicily was in a succession dispute between Tancred, King of Sicily of an illegitimate birth and the Hohenstaufens , a Germanic royal house , as its Prince Henry had married Princess Constance the last legitimate heir to the Sicilian throne. In 1191 Henry invaded Sicily after being crowned as Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , and many cities surrendered. Still, Naples resisted him from May to August under
4992-600: The Lombards for a brief period after the capture by Pandulf IV of the Principality of Capua , a long-term rival of Naples; however, this regime lasted only three years before the Greco-Roman-influenced dukes were reinstated. By the 11th century, Naples had begun to employ Norman mercenaries to battle their rivals; Duke Sergius IV hired Rainulf Drengot to wage war on Capua for him. By 1137,
5120-685: The Neapolitan School . Between 1925 and 1936, Naples was expanded and upgraded by the Fascist regime . During the later years of World War II , it sustained severe damage from Allied bombing as they invaded the peninsula. The city underwent extensive reconstruction work after the war. Since the late 20th century, Naples has had significant economic growth, helped by the construction of the Centro Direzionale business district and an advanced transportation network, which includes
5248-613: The Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . In 2017 the BBC defined Naples as "the Italian city with too much history to handle". The most prominent forms of architecture visible in present-day Naples are the Medieval , Renaissance and Baroque styles. Naples has a total of 448 historical churches (1000 in total ), making it one of the most Catholic cities in
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5376-526: The Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . Naples is also known for its natural beauties, such as Posillipo , Phlegraean Fields , Nisida and Vesuvius . Neapolitan cuisine is noted for its association with pizza , which originated in the city, as well as numerous other local dishes. Restaurants in the Naples' area have earned the most stars from the Michelin Guide of any Italian province. Naples' Centro Direzionale
5504-752: The Roman Republic against Carthage . During the Samnite Wars , the city, now a bustling centre of trade, was captured by the Samnites ; however, the Romans soon captured the city from them and made it a Roman colony . During the Punic Wars , the strong walls surrounding Neápolis repelled the invading forces of the Carthaginian general Hannibal . The Romans greatly respected Naples as
5632-686: The Royal Palace of Naples stands the Galleria Umberto I , which contains the Coral Jewellery Museum . Occupying a 19th-century palazzo renovated by the Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza , the Museo d'Arte Contemporanea Donnaregina (MADRE) features an enfilade procession of permanent installations by artists such as Francesco Clemente , Richard Serra , and Rebecca Horn . The 16th-century palace of Roccella hosts
5760-416: The late-2000s recession had a severe impact on the city, intensifying its waste-management and unemployment problems. By August 2011, the number of unemployed in the Naples area had risen to 250,000, sparking public protests against the economic situation. In June 2012, allegations of blackmail, extortion, and illicit contract tendering emerged concerning the city's waste management issues. Naples hosted
5888-456: The regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy , after Rome and Milan , with a population of 909,048 within the city's administrative limits as of 2022. Its province-level municipality is the third-most populous metropolitan city in Italy with a population of 3,115,320 residents, and its metropolitan area stretches beyond the boundaries of the city wall for approximately 30 kilometres (20 miles). Naples plays also
6016-466: The 13th to the 18th centuries, including major works by Simone Martini , Raphael , Titian , Caravaggio , El Greco , Jusepe de Ribera and Luca Giordano . The royal apartments are furnished with antique 18th-century furniture and a collection of porcelain and majolica from the various royal residences: the famous Capodimonte Porcelain Factory once stood just adjacent to the palace. In front of
6144-565: The 14th century, the Hungarian Angevin king Louis the Great captured the city several times. In 1442, Alfonso I conquered Naples after his victory against the last Angevin king, René , and Naples was unified with Sicily again for a brief period. Sicily and Naples were separated since 1282, but remained dependencies of Aragon under Ferdinand I . The new dynasty enhanced Naples' commercial standing by establishing relations with
6272-533: The 16th century by the Spanish, was demolished in 1906 to make room for the Via Marina, although two of the castle's towers remain as a monument. The Vigliena Fort, built in 1702, was destroyed in 1799 during the royalist war against the Parthenopean Republic and is now abandoned and in ruin. Naples is widely known for its wealth of historical museums. The Naples National Archaeological Museum
6400-533: The 16th century, it became the Hall of Justice. Another Neapolitan castle is Castel Sant'Elmo , which was completed in 1329 and is built in the shape of a star . Its strategic position overlooking the entire city made it a target of various invaders. During the uprising of Masaniello in 1647, the Spanish took refuge in Sant'Elmo to escape the revolutionaries. The Carmine Castle , built in 1392 and highly modified in
6528-476: The 19th century to revive the Annandale titles and it was not until 1971 that any progress was made, based on a charter of 1662. The Annandale Johnstones were confirmed as chiefs of Clan Johnstone and in 1982 the Lord Lyon King of Arms recognised Major Percy Johnstone of Annandale as baron of the earldom of Annandale and Hartfell and of the lordship of Johnstone, Hereditary Stewart of the Stewartry of Annandale, and Hereditary Keeper of Lochmaben Castle . Then in 1985
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#17327840402926656-407: The Anglo-Scottish border in the west remained unclear. William Rufus , son of William the Conqueror , expelled Dolfin , a descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Earls of Northumbria, from Cumberland and fortified Carlisle to secure the region. However, during the period of civil war known as The Anarchy (1135–1153), David I of Scotland exploited the instability and advanced southward into northern England. In
6784-412: The Anglo-Scottish border region during the 12th and 13th centuries were shaped by a highly mixed population, but the ruling elite was predominantly composed of Norman , Flemish , and Breton incomers. These newcomers were granted lands and titles as knights or lords, establishing castles and controlling large demesnes. Some of these demesnes crossed the unclear boundary between England and Scotland during
6912-435: The Anglo-Scottish border remained a hotspot for raiding, feuding, and political tensions. Barely had ink dried in 1357 before the Warden of the West March Thomas de Lucy was accused on one occasion of imprisoning Scots for the purpose of ransom. And on another occasion, with collusion with the men of Eskdale , there was a theft of several thousand animals and £20 (a not insignificant sum in those days). Raiding continued as
7040-545: The Borders was devastated by the contending armies. Even when the countries were not formally at war, tension remained high, and royal authority in either or both kingdoms was often weak, particularly in remote locations. The difficulty and uncertainties of basic human survival meant that communities and/or people kindred to each other would seek security through group strength and cunning. They would attempt to improve their livelihoods at their nominal enemies' expense, enemies who were frequently also just trying to survive. Loyalty to
7168-417: The Borders, the period soon saw growing tensions between the two monarchs and an increase in banditry, as the fragile truces often proved difficult to enforce. In 1495 the pretender to the English crown, Perkin Warbeck became a guest of James IV and raids resumed on both sides of the Border with renewed intensity, disrupting the fragile peace established earlier. In the following year, Perkin Warbeck led
7296-444: The Clan Johnstone were the Johnstones of Caskieben . Sir George Johnstone of Caskieben was created a Baronet of Nova Scotia in 1626. The third baronet fought for William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. William Johnstone , third Earl of Hartfell and second Earl of Annandale and Hartfell, was raised to the rank of Marquess of Annandale in 1701. William Johnstone held many important state offices including President of
7424-420: The Douglases of Galloway . The Johnstones had a long feud with the Clan Moffat who were another Scottish border clan. In 1557 the feud climaxed with murder of the Moffat chief, Robert Moffat. The Johnstones then went on to burn the local church with the most important members of the Moffat family inside, slaughtering anyone who tried to escape. The Clan Moffat was almost wiped out and seventy years later all of
7552-403: The Duke of Noja , employing rigorous surveying accuracy and becoming an essential urban planning tool for Naples. During the time of Ferdinand IV , the effects of the French Revolution were felt in Naples: Horatio Nelson , an ally of the Bourbons, arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against the French republicans. Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo , where he was protected by
7680-486: The English knights unilaterally declared the defined line to be "the true and ancient marches and divisions", despite the lack of mutual agreement. Throughout the period, various territories remained disputed due to unresolved claims, particularly lands referred to as threiplands (Scottish for "conflict lands"). While many of these areas were smaller tracts of contested ground, some, like the Debatable Lands , were far more significant. This expansive area, which lay between
7808-421: The Kingdom of England expanded its territory to include much of southern Scotland, and deprioritised the governance and defence of the traditional Anglo-Scottish Border region. The assumption was that the "new" border further north, as dictated by the Treaty of Newcastle (1334), would eliminate the need to maintain the old border systems, such as March law and its associated offices. However, this miscalculation left
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#17327840402927936-428: The Lilburns, Swinburnes, de Eures, and Middletons, while others consisted of mercenaries or former soldiers, such as the infamous Jack le Irish. Different branches of English Border noble families, for example the aforementioned Swinburnes, often found themselves fighting on opposing sides, some due to land ownership in Scotland, others opportunistically, and some because they held genuine Scottish sympathies. The violence
8064-454: The Moffat's lands were passed to the Johnstones due to the Moffats having massive debts. Unlike many of their neighbours who raided each other's lands, the Johnstones only raided England. However they did have a feud with the Clan Maxwell in 1593 when Lord Maxwell was killed along with many of his men at the Battle of Dryfe Sands . Later in 1608, in a meeting to reconcile their differences, Lord Maxwell treacherously killed Johnstone. Maxwell
8192-563: The Naples area between 1876 and 1913. In the forty years following unification, the population of Naples grew by only 26%, vs. 63% for Turin and 103% for Milan; however, by 1884, Naples was still the largest city in Italy with 496,499 inhabitants, or roughly 64,000 per square kilometre (more than twice the population density of Paris). Public health conditions in certain areas of the city were poor, with twelve epidemics of cholera and typhoid fever claiming some 48,000 people between 1834 and 1884. A death rate 31.84 per thousand, high even for
8320-510: The Normans had attained great influence in Italy, controlling previously independent principalities and duchies such as Capua , Benevento , Salerno , Amalfi , Sorrento and Gaeta ; it was in this year that Naples, the last independent duchy in the southern part of the peninsula, came under Norman control. The last ruling duke of the duchy, Sergius VII , was forced to surrender to Roger II , who had been proclaimed King of Sicily by Antipope Anacletus II seven years earlier. Naples thus joined
8448-427: The Palazzo delle Arti Napoli, which contains the civic collections of art belonging to the City of Naples, and features temporary exhibits of art and culture. Palazzo Como, which dates from the 15th century, hosts the Museo Civico Filangieri of plastic arts , created in 1883 by Gaetano Filangieri . Naples is the seat of the Archdiocese of Naples ; there are hundreds of churches in the city. The Cathedral of Naples
8576-402: The Pizzofalcone hill. In the sixth century BC, it was refounded as Neápolis. The city was an important part of Magna Graecia , played a major role in the merging of Greek and Roman society, and was a significant cultural centre under the Romans. Naples served as the capital of the Duchy of Naples (661–1139), subsequently as the capital of the Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816), and finally as
8704-522: The Privy Council and Secretary of State. James Johnstone, 2nd Marquess of Annandale , died in Naples in 1730. He had enjoyed the family estate and dignities for only nine years. He was succeeded by George, 3rd Marquess of Annandale , who was found in 1747 to be incapable of managing his affairs and a curator was appointed. Upon his death in 1792 the family titles became dormant and the estates fell upon his grand-nephew, James Hope-Johnstone, 3rd Earl of Hopetoun . Several unsuccessful attempts were made in
8832-400: The Scottish Border . George Ridpath (1716?–1772), the author of posthumously published The Border-History of England and Scotland, deduced from the earliest times to the union of the two crowns (London, 1776), referred not to 'border reivers' but only to banditti . Scotland and England were frequently at war during the late Middle Ages . During these wars, the livelihood of the people on
8960-445: The Second Treaty of Durham (1139), King Stephen granted the Earldom of Northumbria—encompassing Carlisle , Cumberland , Westmorland , and Lancashire north of the Ribble —to David's son, Prince Henry . These territories were later reclaimed, and David's successor, Malcolm IV , was forced to cede them. Since then, the Anglo-Scottish border has remained largely unchanged, with only minor adjustments. Land ownership and governance in
9088-458: The Tweed Valley, but it too ended without agreement. A third effort involved 48 knights, who swore an oath to trace the border. The English knights proposed a line running from the confluence of Reddenburn and the Tweed, south to Tres Karras and Hopperichlawe (now lost), and then to Whitelaw Hill in the Cheviot Hills. However, the Scottish knights opposed this perambulation with threats, and tensions escalated. Lacking further resources to continue,
9216-530: The War of Scottish Independence, and this later contributed to tensions and disputes over land ownership and jurisdiction. While the majority of the population were probably local inhabitants—whether Anglian in the east, Brythonic in the west, or Gaelic in south-west Scotland—these communities would have been governed primarily by the newly established ruling class. This complex situation resulted in overlapping cultural, linguistic, and feudal identities. On both sides of
9344-530: The agreement, raiding resumed the following year. During the so-called 'Gloucester'a War', The Earl of Angus led a deep raid into the East March, prompting a retaliatory campaign by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who launched a raid into Scotland. This outbreak of violence was short-lived, concluding by 1484. Notably, this brief conflict was significant for one key reason: it marked the final time Berwick-upon-Tweed changed hands, solidifying English control over
9472-549: The ancient Greek foundation of Neapolis is still discernible. It has indeed continued to provide the layout for the present-day Historic Centre of Naples, one of the major Mediterranean port cities. From the Middle Ages to the 18th century, Naples was a focal point in terms of art and architecture, expressed in its ancient forts, the royal ensembles such as the Royal Palace of 1600, and the palaces and churches sponsored by
9600-414: The capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies — until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples is also considered a capital of the Baroque , beginning with the artist Caravaggio 's career in the 17th century and the artistic revolution he inspired. It was also an important centre of humanism and Enlightenment . The city has long been a global point of reference for classical music and opera through
9728-836: The city for the Ostrogoths, but the Byzantines seized control of the area following the Battle of Mons Lactarius on the slopes of Vesuvius . Naples was expected to keep in contact with the Exarchate of Ravenna , which was the centre of Byzantine power on the Italian Peninsula . After the exarchate fell, a Duchy of Naples was created. Although Naples' Greco-Roman culture endured, it eventually switched allegiance from Constantinople to Rome under Duke Stephen II , putting it under papal suzerainty by 763. The years between 818 and 832 saw tumultuous relations with
9856-736: The city from Vienna through viceroys of his own. However, the War of the Polish Succession saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union , with the 1738 Treaty of Vienna recognising the two polities as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons . In 1755, the Duke of Noja commissioned an accurate topographic map of Naples, later known as the Map of
9984-538: The city's recent illegal waste disposal issues to the Camorra , the organized crime network centered in Campania. Due to illegal waste dumping, as exposed by Roberto Saviano in his book Gomorrah , severe environmental contamination and increased health risks remain prevalent. In 2007, Silvio Berlusconi 's government held senior meetings in Naples to demonstrate their intention to solve these problems. However,
10112-658: The city. Many examples of Gothic architecture sprang up around Naples, including the Naples Cathedral , which remains the city's main church. In 1282, after the Sicilian Vespers , the Kingdom of Sicily was divided into two. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily . Wars between
10240-491: The competing dynasties continued until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII . Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting Pisan and Genoese merchants, Tuscan bankers, and some of the most prominent Renaissance artists of the time, such as Boccaccio , Petrarch and Giotto . During
10368-627: The conflict, with the Nevilles aligning more successfully with the Yorkist cause. This strategic advantage allowed the Nevilles to claim the Percy earldom in 1463 following the Percys’ poor choice of allegiance. Despite the ongoing civil war between the houses of Lancaster and York, truces with Scotland were maintained and periodically renewed. A 40-year truce was agreed upon in 1479. However, despite
10496-811: The construction of the Naples–Portici railway . After the Expedition of the Thousand led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , which culminated in the controversial siege of Gaeta , Naples became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 as part of the Italian unification , ending the era of Bourbon rule. The economy of the area formerly known as the Two Sicilies as dependant on agriculture suffered the international pressure on prices of wheat, and together with lower sea fares prices lead to an unprecedented wave of emigration , with an estimated 4 million people emigrating from
10624-523: The contested border regions. The Percy family , Earls of Northumberland , played a significant role in the conflicts that destabilised England. The Percys first rebelled against King Henry IV during the early 15th century, joining forces with Owain Glyndŵr and Edmund Mortimer in the Tripartite Indenture , a plan to divide England and Wales between them. Led by Sir Henry "Hotspur" Percy ,
10752-587: The culture of the Deep South in the United States. Many Borderers migrated as families to America, where their values are thought to have contributed significantly to the region's social structure and political ideologies, with echoes of their influence persisting even today. Reive , a noun meaning raid, comes from the Middle English (Scots) reifen. The verb reave meaning "plunder, rob",
10880-628: The destabilising effects of gavelkind —a system of inheritance that divided land equally among male heirs—led to the gradual impoverishment of many border families, forcing them to seek other means of survival, often through smuggling and raiding. The growing prominence of surnames in the liberties during this period reflected the rise of family identities tied to raiding and feuding, with leading figures or "heidsmen" representing these powerful groups. The immunity granted by King Edward allowed these families to operate almost with impunity, as they were shielded from confiscation or meaningful retribution. Although
11008-736: The early medieval period of what is know th Anglo-Scottish borders. These poetic accounts hint at a long-standing culture of raiding and conflict in the northern British territories. Laws of the Marches, or Leges Marchiarum , first formally codified in 1249 , offers a significant insight into the long-standing legal and social structures designed to manage the unique challenges of the Anglo-Scottish Border. This legal framework addressed not only diplomatic relations between England and Scotland but also sought to regulate banditry, cross-border smuggling, and feuding. Its provisions included
11136-483: The early ninth century. Naples allied with the Muslim Saracens in 836 and asked for their support to repel the siege of Lombard troops coming from the neighbouring Duchy of Benevento . However, during the 850s, Muslim general Muhammad I Abu 'l-Abbas sacked Miseno , but only for Khums purposes (Islamic booty), without conquering the territories of Campania . The duchy was under the direct control of
11264-526: The eastern borders this reflected the Anglian heritage of the former Kingdom of Northumbria, while the western borders, particularly within Scotland, included Brythonic-speaking descendants of Old Cumbria and with a number of Gaelic-speaking communities in south-west Scotland. The integration of these groups under predominantly Norman, Flemish, and Breton lords across the border introduced a dual identity and
11392-453: The entire border country without regard to their victims' nationality. They operated in a culture of legalised raiding and feuding. Their heyday was in the last hundred years of their existence, during the time of the House of Stuart in the Kingdom of Scotland and the House of Tudor in the Kingdom of England . The term "Border Reiver" is an exonym and anachronistic term used to describe
11520-554: The era also saw the end of the militarised border. The Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne as James I, marked the end of centuries of conflict between the two kingdoms. Henry VII and James IV were initially cordial, encouraged the Border courts and reminded the Border magnates of their obligation to maintain truce. However, despite this initial cordiality and relative peace along
11648-418: The immunity was later officially rescinded, its implementation within the liberties appears to have been almost entirely absent. A lack of enforcement allowed the raiding culture to flourish, entrenching the fragmented and combative nature of the borderlands during the years leading to the emergence of the infamous Tudor surnames. Following the defeat of Edward Balliol at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333,
11776-636: The kingdom. Conflict between the Hohenstaufens and the Papacy led in 1266 to Pope Innocent IV crowning the Angevin duke Charles I King of Sicily: Charles officially moved the capital from Palermo to Naples, where he resided at the Castel Nuovo . Having a great interest in architecture, Charles I imported French architects and workmen and was personally involved in several building projects in
11904-526: The laws as originating "from a time which memory does not exist," implying that aspects of March law may predate the Norman Conquest. However, the extent to which these laws derive from pre-Norman customs remains a topic of scholarly debate. An earlier rendition of banditry may have been the bands of armed men who first appeared on the Borders in the early 14th century, then known as the Schavaldours (also spelled shavaldour, shavaldor, or shavaldor) during
12032-509: The leadership of Richard, Count of Acerra , Nicholas of Ajello , Aligerno Cottone and Margaritus of Brindisi before the Germans suffered from disease and were forced to retreat. Conrad II, Duke of Bohemia and Philip I, Archbishop of Cologne died of disease during the siege . During his counterattack, Tancred captured Constance, now empress. He had the empress imprisoned at Castel dell'Ovo at Naples before her release on May 1192 under
12160-574: The level of autonomy or legal power seen in England. Despite these differences, both nations faced persistent challenges in governing the borderlands, where local power dynamics frequently overruled central authority. The roots of cattle raiding and banditry in the Border region can perhaps be traced even further back. The earliest references to such behaviour appear in the Old Welsh ( Hen Ogledd ) poems attributed to bards such as Taliesin , Aneirin and Llywarch Hen which describe battles and raids in
12288-546: The local fisherman Masaniello saw the creation of a brief independent Neapolitan Republic in 1647. However, this lasted only a few months before Spanish rule was reasserted. In 1656, an outbreak of bubonic plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. In 1714, Spanish rule over Naples came to an end as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession ; the Austrian Charles VI ruled
12416-472: The main cause of insalubrity , with large and airy avenues. The project proved difficult to accomplish politically and economically due to corruption, as shown in the Saredo Inquiry , land speculation and extremely long bureaucracy. This led to the project to massive delays with contrasting results. The most notable transformations made were the construction of Via Caracciolo in place of the beach along
12544-421: The ninth century BC. By the eighth century BC, the settlement was expanded by Cumaeans , as evidenced by the archaeological findings, to include Monte Echia. In the sixth century BC the city was refounded as Neápolis ( Νεάπολις ), eventually becoming one of the foremost cities of Magna Graecia . The city grew rapidly due to the influence of the powerful Greek city-state of Syracuse , and became an ally of
12672-638: The noble families. The main city square or piazza of the city is the Piazza del Plebiscito . Its construction was begun by the Bonapartist king Joachim Murat and finished by the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV . The piazza is bounded on the east by the Royal Palace and on the west by the church of San Francesco di Paola , with the colonnades extending on both sides. Nearby is the Teatro di San Carlo , which
12800-586: The official end of the Wars of Scottish Independence, but it did not end the raiding and lawlessness along the border. By thene, such practices had become deeply ingrained in the culture and livelihood of the borderers, and persisted despite the formal cessation of hostilities between the two kingdoms. Between the end of the Wars of Scottish Independence (1357) and the Battle of Flodden (1513) there were intermittent peace agreements and an uneasy balance of power between England and Scotland. While no major wars erupted,
12928-467: The original border region increasingly lawless, as local governance systems were abandoned, and the territory to the north remained de facto under Scottish resistance and control. This vacuum of authority contributed to the instability and lawlessness of the borderlands. David II's reign was marked by continued conflict with England during the Second War of Scottish Independence. In 1346, David II
13056-422: The pressure of Pope Celestine III . In 1194 Henry started his second campaign upon the death of Tancred, but this time Aligerno surrendered without resistance, and finally, Henry conquered Sicily, putting it under the rule of Hohenstaufens. The University of Naples , the first university in Europe dedicated to training secular administrators, was founded by Frederick II , making Naples the intellectual centre of
13184-440: The prison for Empress Constance between 1191 and 1192 after her being captured by Sicilians, and Conradin and Giovanna I of Naples before their executions. Castel Nuovo , also known as Maschio Angioino , is one of the city's top landmarks; it was built during the time of Charles I , the first king of Naples . Castel Nuovo has seen many notable historical events: for example, in 1294, Pope Celestine V resigned as pope in
13312-405: The proliferation of more humble fortified structures such as bastle houses and pele towers across the Anglo-Scottish borderland underscores the enduring instability of the region; they responded to persistent threats of raiding and violence, which continued even during periods of nominal peace. Elaborate nicknames , for which the border reivers were known, emerged early: the earliest known example
13440-479: The promenade, the creation of Galleria Umberto I and Galleria Principe and the construction of Corso Umberto. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II . Though Neapolitans did not rebel under Italian Fascism , Naples was the first Italian city to rise up against German military occupation ; for the first time in Europe, the Nazis, whose leader in this case was Colonel Scholl, negotiated
13568-563: The raiders and bandits who operated along the Anglo-Scottish Border during the late Middle Ages and early modern period. The reivers, as we understand today, emerged in textual and archaeological evidence sometime between 1350 and 1450, with their activities reaching their height in the 16th century during the Tudor period in England and the late Stewart period in Scotland. They were infamous for raiding, eliciting protection money ('blackmail'), cattle rustling, and lawlessness, often operating within
13696-465: The rebellion culminated in the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403) , where Hotspur was killed. Despite two further rebellions, the 2nd Earl of Northumberland was restored as Warden of the Marches by Henry V. During this period, the Percy family consolidated their power in the north, notably absorbing the liberty of Redesdale from the Umfraville to Tailboys vassals in 1436. Despite this growing authority and
13824-484: The rebuilding of the church of Santa Chiara , which had been destroyed in a United States Army Air Corps bombing raid. Special funding from the Italian government's Fund for the South was provided from 1950 to 1984, helping the Neapolitan economy to improve somewhat, with city landmarks such as the Piazza del Plebiscito being renovated. However, high unemployment continues to affect Naples. Italian media attributed
13952-476: The region was equally fragmented, with March law addressing cross-border disputes and raids, while state law and ecclesiastical law functioned in parallel. Disputes often arose between Wardens of the Marches , Keepers of the liberties, and local sheriffs, reflecting the constant struggle to impose order in this turbulent region. A similar system of overlapping jurisdictions existed on the Scottish side, though their liberties, known as regalities, generally lacked
14080-581: The responsibilities of the Wardenship, reports of "numerous robbers and felons called Intakers [receivers of stolen goods] and Outputters [smugglers]" continued to trouble the region. During the Wars of the Roses, the Percy family expanded their influence in the eastern regions, while the Neville family grew in power in Cumbria, fostering a bitter rivalry. The two families supported opposing factions in
14208-413: The return of fugitives, the recovery of debts, and the production of accused parties at designated trysting places along the border, such as Reddenburn near Kelso. These trysting places served as neutral meeting points for resolving disputes under the framework of March law. The formulation of March law followed a meeting in 1248 between six English knights and six Scottish knights, and the resulting code
14336-400: The rivers Esk and Sark , was the subject of contention until 1552, when its status was finally settled. Originally referred to as the "Batable Land"—a term derived from its use as fertile grazing ground—the territory was notable for an agreement allowing both English and Scottish borderers to graze cattle during the day, despite prohibitions on permanent settlement. Berwick-upon-Tweed ,
14464-482: The same time, the liberties of Tynedale and Redesdale were undergoing significant changes that would shape the emergence of surnames as a defining feature of border society. During Edward III 's reign, the men of these liberties were granted immunity from land confiscation. This was not a continuation of earlier practices like March law, but a deliberate concession by Edward III, designed to secure their loyalty and military support during his campaigns in Scotland . At
14592-525: The same time, there were longstanding complaints to the Keepers of the Liberties about their failure to hand over criminals to the courts, as the liberties often provided sanctuary for raiders and fugitives. What had long operated as a de facto arrangement of protection for certain individuals appears to have been formalised into a de jure status through Edward II's policy. This immunity, combined with
14720-624: The sixth World Urban Forum in September 2012 and the 63rd International Astronautical Congress in October 2012. In 2013, it was the host of the Universal Forum of Cultures and the host for the 2019 Summer Universiade . Naples' 2,800-year history has left it with a wealth of historical buildings and monuments, from medieval castles to classical ruins, and a wide range of culturally and historically significant sites nearby, including
14848-401: The strategic town. Additionally, it saw the Duke of Albany cede control over much of South West Scotland, although this concession proved short-lived, with the territory returning to Scottish hands not long after.. The Tudor period is often regarded as the heyday of the Border Reivers, characterised by persistent raiding, feuding, and lawlessness perhaps the worst the Borders had seen. However,
14976-408: The time, insisted in the absence of epidemics between 1878 and 1883. Then in 1884, Naples fell victim to a major cholera epidemic, caused largely by the city's poor sewerage infrastructure. In response to these problems, in 1885, the government prompted a radical transformation of the city called risanamento to improve the sewerage infrastructure and replace the most clustered areas, considered
15104-505: The unstable rule of Edward II of England . The term was first recorded in 1313, when Richard de Kellawe, then Bishop of Durham, requested to be excused from levying any money from the goods of the parson of Whickham, citing the damage caused by "Schavadours and plunderers." The Schavaldours, like the later (and anachronistically named) Border Reivers, were often pressed into service during cross-border wars, such as those in 1350. The problem of banditry grew worse following Edward II's loss at
15232-474: The world in terms of the number of places of worship. In 1995, the historic centre of Naples was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site , a United Nations programme which aims to catalogue and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind . Naples is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, whose contemporary urban fabric preserves the elements of its long and eventful history. The rectangular grid layout of
15360-527: The world. Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. In the second millennium BC, a first Mycenaean settlement arose not far from the geographical position of the future city of Parthenope. Sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established probably a small commercial port called Parthenope ( Παρθενόπη , meaning "Pure Eyes", a Siren in Greek mythology ) on the island of Megaride in
15488-593: Was a Norse man who married Ælfflæd (Bernicia) of Northumbria . The Warden's son was Adam Johnstone who was the first Laird of Johnstone. Adam Johnstone fought at the Battle of Sark in 1448. Adam's son fought for James II of Scotland in the desperate struggle against the Clan Douglas and was instrumental in suppressing that rebellion against the Crown. The king rewarded him with the lands of Buittle and Sannoch near Threave Castle that had previously belonged to
15616-621: Was built in 1994 as the first grouping of skyscrapers in Italy, remaining the only such grouping in Italy until 2009. The most widely-known sports team in Naples is the Serie A football club Napoli , three-time Italian champions (most recently in 2023), who play at the Stadio Diego Armando Maradona in the west of the city, in the Fuorigrotta quartier. In 2024, TasteAtlas ranked Naples the 2nd city with best food in
15744-546: Was captured by English forces at the Battle of Neville's Cross and held prisoner in England for 11 years. His release was secured in 1357 through an agreement made in Berwick, which required Scotland to pay a massive ransom of 100,000 marks (£66,666 13s 4d) over ten years. Despite efforts to rebuild his authority upon returning to Scotland, David's reign remained plagued by internal divisions, financial difficulties, and periodic clashes with England. This Treaty of Berwick marked
15872-445: Was divided equally among all sons following a father's death; it could mean that the inheriting generation held insufficient land on which to survive. The Anglo-Scottish borders were shaped by centuries of territorial disputes, cultural integration, and overlapping systems of governance, resulting in one of the most administratively complex regions of medieval Britain. The origins of this complexity can be traced back to key events like
16000-726: Was exiled to Naples by the Germanic king Odoacer in the fifth century AD. Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire , Naples was captured by the Ostrogoths , a Germanic people , and incorporated into the Ostrogothic Kingdom . However, Belisarius of the Byzantine Empire recaptured Naples in 536, after entering the city via an aqueduct. In 543, during the Gothic Wars , Totila briefly took
16128-440: Was formally promulgated the following year. Between 1249 and 1596, the laws of the marches were reviewed and recodified on at least eight occasions, reflecting their enduring importance in managing Border relations. The legal traditions referenced in these codes draw upon "the ancient laws and customs of the land," and some of the language, such as "handwasil" and "manbote," suggests Anglo-Saxon origins. The document itself refers to
16256-645: Was later captured and executed by hanging. In 1633, Charles I of England created James Johnstone, chief of Clan Johnstone as Lord Johnstone of Lochwood. Ten years later he was created Earl of Hartfell . He joined James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose after the Battle of Kilsyth in 1645 but was captured at the Battle of Philiphaugh . His son, James, was imprisoned for some time in Dumbarton Castle , Glasgow Castle , St Andrews Castle and Edinburgh Castle . However Charles II of England later created him Earl of Annandale and Hartfell . Another branch of
16384-402: Was not only international but also intranational and intrafamilial, adding further complexity to the chaos of the time. While the term 'Schalvadours' disappears from records by the late 14th century, the violence and lawlessness that characterised the Border region continued for centuries. The emergence of what we now understand as "border reivers" can be traced to sometime between the end of
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