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120-532: The Cretan resistance movement was formed very soon after the Battle of Crete , with an initial planning meeting on 31 May 1941. It brought together a number of different groups and leaders and was initially termed the PMK (Πατριωτικó Μέτωπο Κρήτης – Patriotic Front of Crete), but later changed the name to EAM (Εθνικó Απελευθερωτικó Μέτωπο – National Liberation Front ) like the principal communist-led resistance movement on

240-645: A New Zealand Army officer, was appointed commander of the Allied forces on Crete (Creforce). He was Churchill's personal choice, as the British Prime Minister admired his loyalty and the bravery he had shown during the First World War. By May, the Greek forces consisted of approximately 9,000 troops: three battalions of the 5th Greek Division , which had been left behind when the rest of

360-700: A General , p. 38. In 2005, a documentary was released titled The 11th Day: Crete 1941 , which describes personal details during the course of the Axis occupation of Crete and the role that the Cretan Resistance played. The film includes accounts by Patrick Leigh Fermor , George Doundoulakis , George Tzitzikas, and other eyewitnesses. Battle of Crete 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 The Battle of Crete ( German : Luftlandeschlacht um Kreta , Greek : Μάχη της Κρήτης ), codenamed Operation Mercury ( German : Unternehmen Merkur ),

480-476: A German convoy of about fifty ships and caïque s off Cape Spatha on Rodopou peninsula, western Crete, on the night of 22/23 May and then shell the Germans at Maleme. Kelvin and Jackal were diverted to another search while Mountbatten, with Kelly , Kashmir and Kipling , was to go to Alexandria. When rounding the western side of Crete, the three ships were attacked by 24 Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers. Kashmir

600-625: A composite Australian artillery battery . On 4 May, Freyberg sent a message to the British commander in the Middle East, General Archibald Wavell , requesting the evacuation of about 10,000 unwanted personnel who did not have weapons and had "little or no employment other than getting into trouble with the civil population". As the weeks passed, some 3,200 British, 2,500 Australian and 1,300 New Zealander troops were evacuated to Egypt, but it became evident that it would not be possible to remove all

720-413: A counter-attack to retake Maleme Airfield during the night of 21/22 May. The 2/7th Battalion was to move 18 miles (29 km) north to relieve the 20th Battalion , which would participate in the attack. The 2/7th Battalion had no transport, and vehicles for the battalion were delayed by German aircraft. By the time the battalion moved north to relieve 20th Battalion for the counter-attack, it was 23:30, and

840-641: A deception, despite having no grounds for this, and on 3 May Churchill thought that the attack might be a decoy. The command in Crete had been informed on 18 April, despite the doubts, and Crete was added to a link from the GC & CS to Cairo, while on 16 and 21 April, intelligence that airborne operations were being prepared in Bulgaria was passed on. On 22 April, the HQ in Crete was ordered to burn all material received through

960-481: A defensive position on the road to Knossos . As night fell, none of the German objectives had been secured. Of 493 German transport aircraft used during the airdrop, seven were lost to anti-aircraft fire. The bold plan to attack in four places to maximise surprise, rather than concentrating on one, seemed to have failed, although the reasons were unknown to the Germans at the time. Among the paratroopers who landed on

1080-461: A further 700 men of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , who had been transported from Alexandria to Tymbaki overnight by HMS  Glengyle . On 25 April, Hitler signed Directive 28, ordering the invasion of Crete. The Royal Navy retained control of the waters around Crete, so an amphibious assault would have been a risky proposition. With German air superiority assured, an airborne invasion

1200-563: A legend for his courage, and after he was killed, the Cretans kept his grave covered with flowers. The British formed a large number of isolated cells scattered throughout the mountains, with good communications, using runners, between them. One such runner was George Psychoundakis . Leigh Fermor's description of Psychoundakis epitomized Cretan resistance: ... Dick Barne's messenger, when he arrived, turned out to be George Psychoundakis, who had first been Xan Fielding's guide and runner for

1320-614: A less optimistic picture, but also underestimated the number of British Commonwealth forces and the number of Greek troops who had been evacuated from the mainland. General Alexander Löhr , the theatre commander, was convinced the island could be taken with two divisions, but decided to keep 6th Mountain Division in Athens as a reserve. The Germans used the new 7.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 light gun (a recoilless rifle ). At 320 lb (150 kg), it weighed 1 ⁄ 10 as much as

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1440-416: A long time, then mine when I had taken over Xan's area in the west for several months. This youthful, Kim-like figure was a great favourite of everyone's, for his humour, high spirits, pluck and imagination and above all the tireless zest with which he threw himself into the task. If anybody could put a girdle round Crete in forty minutes, he could. George, who was a shepherd boy from Asi Gonia , later wrote of

1560-554: A postponement of the attack to 20 May. New airfields were built, and 280 long-range bombers, 150 dive-bombers, 90 Bf 109s, 90 Bf 110s and 40 reconnaissance aircraft of Fliegerkorps VIII were assembled, along with 530 Ju 52 transport aircraft and 100 gliders. The Bf 109s and Stuka dive-bombers were based on forward airfields at Molaoi, Melos and Karpathos (then Scarpanto), with Corinth and Argos as base airfields. The Bf 110s were based at airfields near Athens, Argos and Corinth, all within 200 mi (320 km) of Crete, and

1680-491: A request from King to support the damaged Naiad. Force A1 headed east into the Kythera Channel, rendezvousing with Force C between 13:30 and 14:00. As the more senior admiral, King took command, with air attacks now inflicting damage on both forces. A bomb struck HMS  Warspite and the destroyer HMS  Greyhound was sunk. King sent HMS  Kandahar and HMS  Kingston to pick up survivors, while

1800-475: A sea landing meant that a number of units that could have taken part in the attack were left in place, although this possibility was removed by the Royal Navy which arrived too late for the plans to be changed. The delayed counter-attack on the airfield came in daylight on 22 May, when the troops faced Stuka dive bombers, dug-in paratroops and mountain troops. The attack slowly petered out and failed to retake

1920-442: A second doubt about what they should do ... After detailing how he heard German occupiers systematically blowing up every house in four villages, a British observer offered this interpretation of German motivation: ... "The German reasons for this onslaught were that these villages were all hotbeds of bandits, the haunts of the British, hiding places of terrorists, refuges for commandos attacking aerodromes and supply dumps,

2040-488: A second operation was discovered and that supplies (particularly of fuel), had to be delivered to Fliegerkorps XI by 5 May; a Luftwaffe message referring to Crete for the first time was decrypted on 26 April. The British Chiefs of Staff were apprehensive that the target could be changed to Cyprus or Syria as a route into Iraq during the Anglo-Iraqi War (2–31 May 1941) and suspected that references to Crete were

2160-402: A standard German 75 mm field gun , yet had 2 ⁄ 3 of its range. It fired a 13 lb (5.9 kg) shell more than 3 mi (4.8 km). A quarter of the German paratroops jumped with an MP 40 submachine gun , often carried with a bolt-action Karabiner 98k rifle and most German squads had an MG 34 machine gun . The Germans used colour-coded parachutes to distinguish

2280-678: The Phrygian Ida in classical antiquity and is mentioned in the Iliad of Homer and the Aeneid of Virgil . Both are associated with the mother goddess in the deepest layers of pre-Greek myth, in that Mount Ida in Anatolia was sacred to Cybele , who is sometimes called Mater Idaea ("Idaean Mother"), while Rhea , often identified with Cybele, put the infant Zeus to nurse with Amaltheia at Mount Ida in Crete. Thereafter, his birthplace

2400-535: The 22nd Air Landing Division once the airfields were secure. The operation was scheduled for 16 May 1941, but was postponed to 20 May, with the 5th Mountain Division replacing the 22nd Air Landing Division. To support the German attack on Crete, eleven Italian submarines took post off Crete or the British bases of Sollum and Alexandria in Egypt. Major-General Kurt Student did not add an attack on Crete to Operation Marita until March 1941; supply difficulties delayed

2520-456: The Cretan resistance . The defence of Crete evolved into a costly naval engagement; by the end of the campaign the Royal Navy's eastern Mediterranean strength had been reduced to only two battleships and three cruisers. The Battle of Crete was the first occasion where Fallschirmjäger (German paratroops) were used en masse , the first mainly airborne invasion in military history, the first time

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2640-452: The Gulf of Kissamos , where a landing beach had already been selected and marked out. Upon nearing the shore on 28 May, the lighter was positioned ahead of the tug and firmly beached. A party of engineers then blew the lighter's bow off using demolition charges and the two tanks rolled ashore. They were soon assigned to Advance Detachment Wittman , which had assembled near Prison Valley reservoir

2760-510: The Italian torpedo boat  Lupo , tried to land German reinforcements near Maleme. Force D under Rear-Admiral Irvine Glennie , with three light cruisers and four destroyers, intercepted the convoy before midnight; the convoy turned back with the loss of more than half of its boats, despite Lupo 's defence. The attacking British force suffered only slight damage on cruiser HMS  Orion caused by friendly fire. About 2 ⁄ 3 of

2880-522: The Kriegsmarine commander, Admiral Karlgeorg Schuster , wanted more emphasis on Maleme, to achieve overwhelming superiority of force. Student wanted to disperse the paratroops more, to maximise the effect of surprise. As the primary objective, Maleme offered several advantages: it was the largest airfield and big enough for heavy transport aircraft, it was close enough to the mainland for air cover from land-based Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and it

3000-613: The Kriegsmarine made another attempt to supply the invasion by sea. On 24 May Oberleutnant-zur-See Österlin, who had led the Maleme Flotilla, was given the task of transporting two Panzer II light tanks to Kastelli Kisamou. Österlin commandeered a small wooden lighter at Piraeus and arranged for the tanks to be lowered onto it. At dusk the next day, the lighter, towed by the small harbour tug Kentauros , left Piraeus and headed south towards Crete. Reports of British naval units operating nearby convinced Admiral Schuster to delay

3120-577: The Middle East Command in Alexandria. The staff felt the invasion was doomed now that it had been compromised and may have wanted the airfields intact for the RAF once the invasion was defeated. The Germans were able to land reinforcements without fully operational airfields. One transport pilot crash-landed on a beach, others landed in fields, discharged their cargo and took off again. With

3240-550: The Peloponnese had been transferred to Crete to replace the trained soldiers sent to fight on the mainland. These troops were already organised into numbered recruit training regiments, and it was decided to use this structure to organise the Greek troops, supplementing them with experienced men arriving from the mainland. The British Commonwealth contingent consisted of the original 14,000-man British garrison and another 25,000 British and Commonwealth troops evacuated from

3360-669: The Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Battle of Britain the year before, may also have played a role in their thinking, especially before the advent of the much more important invasion of the Soviet Union. Hitler was won over by the audacious proposal and in Directive 31 he asserted that "Crete... will be the operational base from which to carry on the air war in the Eastern Mediterranean, in co-ordination with

3480-570: The Ultra link, but Churchill ruled that the information must still be provided. When Freyberg took over on 30 April, the information was disguised as information from a spy in Athens. Remaining doubts about an attack on Crete were removed on 1 May, when the Luftwaffe was ordered to stop bombing airfields on the island and mining Souda Bay and to photograph all of the island. By 5 May it was clear that

3600-559: The kidnapping of General Kreipe from Crete. Leigh Fermor has said of the Cretan resistance that if it had not been for their resolve, the Battle of Crete would have ended sooner and the SOE's operations would have been greatly curtailed. It was solely due to their cohesiveness, not found anywhere else in Europe, that the SOE was able to move about the island essentially at will: ... When

3720-419: The "absolute and immediate need" for "reinforcement by sea shipment of heavy weaponry if the operation is to get ahead at all." Awful news from Crete. We are scuppered there, and I'm afraid the morale and material effects will be serious. Certainly the Germans are past-masters in the art of war—and great warriors. If we beat them, we shall have worked a miracle. Schuster issued Österlin new orders to sail for

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3840-432: The 100th Regiment landed from the caïque that arrived in Crete. The defending force organised for a night counter-attack on Maleme by two New Zealand battalions, the 20th Battalion of the 4th Brigade and the 28th Maori Battalion of the 5th Brigade. A New Zealand officer present at the battle claimed a long delay ordering the planned counter-attack turned a night attack into a day attack, which led to its failure. Fears of

3960-467: The 1st Greek Regiment. The Greeks put up determined resistance but, with only 600 rifles and a few thousand rounds of ammunition available for 1,000 ill-trained men, they were unable to repel the German advance. Fighting by the remnants of the 1st Greek Regiment continued in the Kastelli area until 26 May, hampering German efforts to land reinforcements. Despite the dangers posed by British naval forces,

4080-451: The 20th Battalion took three hours to reach the staging area, with its first elements arriving around 02:45. The counter-attack began at 03:30 but failed because of German daylight air support. (Brigadier George Alan Vasey and Lieutenant-Colonel William Cremor have criticised Freyberg for not properly defending Maleme Airfield.) Hargest also blamed Freyberg for the loss of the airfield. An Axis convoy of around 20 caïques , escorted by

4200-520: The 8th Regiment held on until 27 May, when the Germans made a combined arms assault by Luftwaffe aircraft and mountain troops. The Greek stand helped to protect the retreat of the Commonwealth forces, who were evacuated at Sfakia . Beevor and McDougal Stewart write that the defence of Alikianos gained at least 24 more hours for the completion of the final leg of the evacuation behind Layforce . The troops who were protected as they withdrew had begun

4320-569: The Allies made significant use of intelligence from decrypted German messages from the Enigma machine , and the first time German troops encountered mass resistance from a civilian population. Due to the number of casualties and the belief that airborne forces no longer had the advantage of surprise, Adolf Hitler became reluctant to authorise further large airborne operations, preferring instead to employ paratroopers as ground troops. In contrast,

4440-621: The Allies were impressed by the potential of paratroopers and started to form airborne-assault and airfield-defence regiments . British forces had initially garrisoned Crete when the Italians attacked Greece on 28 October 1940, enabling the Greek government to employ the Fifth Cretan Division in the mainland campaign. This arrangement suited the British: Crete could provide the Royal Navy with excellent harbours in

4560-637: The Anatolian Mount Ida , Zeus was said to have abducted Ganymede to Olympus . The topmost peak is Gargarus , mentioned in the Iliad . Zeus was located in the Altar of Zeus (near Adatepe, Ayvacık ) during the Trojan War . The modern Turkish name for Mount Ida, Turkey, is Kaz Dağı, pronounced [kaz daːɯ] . In the Aeneid , a shooting star falls onto the mountain in answer to

4680-544: The Balkans. On 30 March, Detachment Süssmann , part of the 7th Fliegerdivision , was identified at Plovdiv. Notice of the target of these units did not arrive, but on 18 April it was found that 250 Ju 52s had been withdrawn from routine operations, and on 24 April it became known that Göring had reserved them for a special operation. The operation turned out to be a descent on the Corinth Canal on 26 April, but then

4800-424: The British, who had no stocks in the correct calibres. Those with insufficient ammunition were posted to the eastern sector of Crete, where the Germans were not expected in force. The 8th Greek Regiment was under strength and many soldiers were poorly trained and poorly equipped. The unit was attached to 10th New Zealand Infantry Brigade ( Brigadier Howard Kippenberger ), who placed it in a defensive position around

4920-576: The Chiefs of Staff demurred. German search-and-rescue aircraft and Italian motor torpedo boats spotted and rescued the 262 survivors from the German light convoy sunk off Cape Spatha. After air attacks on Allied positions in Kastelli on 24 May, the 95th Gebirgs Pioneer Battalion advanced on the town. These air attacks enabled the escape of German paratroopers captured on 20 May; the escapees killed or captured several New Zealand officers assigned to lead

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5040-560: The Garrison Battalion. The Germans pierced the defensive cordon around Heraklion on the first day, seizing the Greek barracks on the west edge of the town and capturing the docks; the Greeks counter-attacked and recaptured both points. The Germans dropped leaflets threatening dire consequences if the Allies did not surrender immediately. The next day, Heraklion was heavily bombed and the depleted Greek units were relieved and assumed

5160-492: The German force of more than 2,000 men was saved by the Italian naval commander, Francesco Mimbelli , against an overwhelmingly superior Allied naval force. A total of 297 German soldiers, two Italian seamen and two British sailors on Orion were killed. Eight caiques were caught and sunk, while at least another six managed to get away, along with three Italian escorting motor-sailing boats. Only one caïque and one cutter from

5280-504: The German troop transports, had succeeded in forcing the Axis to abort the landing by their mere presence at sea. During the search and withdrawal from the area, Force C suffered many losses to German bombers. Naiad was damaged by near misses and the cruiser HMS  Carlisle was hit. Cunningham later criticised King, saying that the safest place during the air attack was amongst the flotilla of caïque s. While Force C made its attack on

5400-535: The Germans invaded Crete, their armies had just defeated the whole of Europe, except – thanks, perhaps, to the fluke of the Channel's existence – England. Logically the civilian population could have been expected to remain inactive while the professionals – the British Commonwealth and a small number of Greek troops – fought it out with the invaders. But to the great astonishment of both sides, all over

5520-663: The Germans slowly pushed the New Zealanders back from Hill 107, which overlooked the airfield. Greek police and cadets took part, with the 1st Greek Regiment (Provisional) combining with armed civilians to rout a detachment of German paratroopers dropped at Kastelli . The 8th Greek Regiment and elements of the Cretan forces severely hampered movement by the 95th Reconnaissance Battalion on Kolimbari and Paleochora , where Allied reinforcements from North Africa could be landed. A second wave of German transports supported by Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica attack aircraft, arrived in

5640-472: The Germans willing to sacrifice some transport aircraft to win the battle, it is not clear whether a decision to destroy the airfields would have made any difference, particularly given the number of troops delivered by expendable gliders. At 08:00 on 20 May 1941, German paratroopers, jumping out of dozens of Junkers Ju 52 aircraft, landed near Maleme Airfield and the town of Chania . The 21st , 22nd and 23rd New Zealand battalions held Maleme Airfield and

5760-421: The Greek army, for fear of retaliation. They eventually surrendered to the British on 23 May 1945. Nonetheless, Cretan bravery and courage instilled the island with a sense of triumph and willingness to overcome all odds. Leigh Fermor recounts an old villager of Anogeia , after hearing of threats of German reprisals : ... "They'll burn them down one day. And what then? My house was burnt down four times by

5880-585: The Greek title Meter Theon Idaia ("Mother of the Gods, from Mount Ida"). Proclus considered it as the "mount of the Ideas ", whence its etymology. Crete 's Mount Ida is the island's highest summit, sacred to the Goddess Rhea , and wherein lies the legendary Idaean cave ( Ἰδαίον ἅντρον )), in which baby Zeus was concealed from his father Cronus . It is one of a number of caves believed to have been

6000-465: The New Zealand and Greek defenders almost annihilated the glider troops who landed safely. Some paratroopers and gliders missed their objectives near both airfields and set up defensive positions to the west of Maleme Airfield and in "Prison Valley" near Chania. Both forces were contained and failed to take the airfields, but the defenders had to deploy to face them. Towards the evening of 20 May,

6120-621: The Royal Navy. Some were sent to Crete to bolster its garrison until fresh forces could be organised, although most had lost their heavy equipment. Winston Churchill , the British prime minister , sent a telegram to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff , General Sir John Dill : "To lose Crete because we had not sufficient bulk of forces there would be a crime." The German Army High Command ( Oberkommando des Heeres , OKH)

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6240-522: The Turks; let them burn it down for a fifth! And they killed scores of my families. Yet, here I am! Fill up your glasses! ... Leigh Fermor, while discussing the Cretans with General Kreipe during Kreipe's abduction, summarised the Cretan's attitude to the German occupation as : Leigh Fermor : "The Cretans are all on our side, you know." ... General Kreipe : "Yes, I see they are. There, Major, you have me." Patrick Leigh Fermor , Abducting

6360-494: The afternoon, dropping more paratroopers and gliders containing assault troops. One group attacked at Rethymno at 16:15 and another attacked at Heraklion at 17:30, where the defenders were waiting for them and inflicted many casualties. The Rethymno–Heraklion sector was defended by the British 14th Brigade, as well as the 2/4th Australian Infantry Battalion and the Greek 3rd, 7th and "Garrison" (ex-5th Crete Division) battalions. The Greeks lacked equipment and supplies, particularly

6480-407: The air attacks. The transports were defended by a torpedo charge by Sagittario , which also laid a smoke screen and traded fire with the British force, trying to lure them to a different direction. Indeed, King was unaware that a major enemy convoy was ahead of his force until 11:00. Eventually, the convoy and its escort managed to slip away undamaged. King's ships, despite their failure to destroy

6600-639: The aircraft at low altitude. This was a flaw that left the paratroopers armed only with knives, pistols and grenades in the first few minutes after landing. Poor design of German parachutes compounded the problem; the standard German harness had only one riser to the canopy and could not be steered. Even the 25 percent of paratroops armed with sub-machine guns were at a disadvantage, given the weapon's limited range. Many Fallschirmjäger were shot before they reached weapons canisters. Greek troops were armed with Mannlicher–Schönauer 6.5 mm mountain carbines or ex-Austrian 8x56R Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifles,

6720-407: The aircraft, and barrels full of petrol were kept ready to be ignited by machine-gun fire. Around each ground, a few field guns, anti-aircraft guns, two infantry tanks and two or three light tanks were sited. The three areas were made into independent sectors, but there were only eight QF 3-inch and twenty Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns. On 30 April 1941, Major-general Bernard Freyberg VC

6840-609: The airfield, which forced the defenders into withdrawals to the eastern end of the island, to avoid being out-flanked. Admiral Andrew Cunningham sent Force C (three cruisers and four destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Edward Leigh Stuart King ) into the Aegean Sea through the Kasos Strait, to attack a second flotilla of transports, escorted by the Italian torpedo boat Sagittario . The force sank an isolated caïque at 08:30, saving itself from an air attack that struck

6960-479: The assembly of Fliegerkorps XI and its 500 Ju 52s, then more delays forced a postponement until 20 May 1941. The War Cabinet in Britain had expected the Germans to use paratroops in the Balkans, and on 25 March, British decrypts of Luftwaffe Enigma wireless traffic revealed that Fliegerkorps XI was assembling Ju 52s for glider-towing, and British Military Intelligence reported that 250 aircraft were already in

7080-486: The attack on Crete, which had to begin soon or would be cancelled. Planning was rushed and much of Unternehmen Merkur was improvised, including the use of troops who were not trained for airborne assaults. The Germans planned to capture Maleme , but there was debate over the concentration of forces there and the number to be deployed against other objectives, such as the smaller airfields at Heraklion and Rethymno. The Luftwaffe commander, Colonel General Alexander Löhr, and

7200-573: The attack was not imminent and, next day, 17 May was revealed as the expected day for the completion of preparations, along with the operation orders for the plan from the D-day landings in the vicinity of Maleme and Chania, Heraklion, and Rethymno. Admiral Wilhelm Canaris , chief of the Abwehr , originally reported 5,000 British troops on Crete and no Greek forces. It is not clear whether Canaris, who had an extensive intelligence network at his disposal,

7320-625: The auspices of the SOE, along with his brother, Helias Doundoulakis . Doundoulakis' organisation led to two major accomplishments: the destruction of the Kastelli Airfield, orchestrated by the SOE along with his friend Kimon Zografakis , and the destruction by the RAF of a German convoy destined to resupply Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in September 1942. After the war, George Doundoulakis

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7440-413: The battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Andrew VC, who was on the eastern side of the airfield. The lack of communication was assumed to mean that the battalion had been overrun in the west. With the weakened state of the eastern elements of the battalion and believing the western elements to have been overrun, Andrew requested reinforcement by the 23rd Battalion. Brigadier James Hargest denied

7560-448: The battle with more and better equipment than the 8th Greek Regiment. British and Commonwealth troops used the standard Lee–Enfield rifle, Bren light machine gun and Vickers medium machine gun . The British had about 85 artillery pieces of various calibres, many of them captured Italian weapons without sights. Anti-aircraft defences consisted of one light anti-aircraft battery equipped with 20 mm automatic cannon, split between

7680-535: The battleship HMS  Valiant and another hit Fiji , disabling her at 18:45. A Junkers Ju 88 flown by Lieutenant Gerhard Brenner dropped three bombs on Fiji , sinking her at 20:15. Five hundred survivors were rescued by Kandahar and Kingston that night. The Royal Navy had lost two cruisers and a destroyer but had managed to force the invasion fleet to turn round. Royal Navy AA gunners shot down five Junkers Ju 87s and five Ju 88s and damaged sixteen more, some of which crash-landed upon their return to base on

7800-507: The birthplace or hiding place of Zeus . The Kouretes , a band of mythical warriors, undertook to dance their wild, noisy war dances in front of the cave, so that the clamour would keep Cronus from hearing the infant's crying. On the flank of this mountain is the Amari Valley , the site of expansion by the ancient settlement at Phaistos . Its modern name is Psiloritis . The surrounding area and mountain used to be thickly wooded. From

7920-403: The bomber or reconnaissance machines were accommodated at Athens, Salonica and a detachment on Rhodes, along with bases in Bulgaria at Sofia and Plovdiv, ten of the airfields being all-weather and 200–250 miles (320–400 km) from Crete. The transport aircraft flew from bases near Athens and southern Greece, including Eleusis, Tatoi, Megara and Corinth. British night bombers attacked the areas in

8040-422: The bridge in gliders, while parachute infantry attacked the perimeter defence. The bridge was damaged in the fighting, which slowed the German advance and gave the Allies time to evacuate 18,000 troops to Crete and 23,000 to Egypt, albeit with the loss of most of their heavy equipment. In May, Fliegerkorps XI moved from Germany to the Athens area, but the destruction wrought during the invasion of Greece forced

8160-533: The canisters carrying rifles, ammunition, crew-served weapons and other supplies. Heavy equipment like the Leichtgeschütz 40 were dropped with a special triple-parachute harness to bear the extra weight. The troops also carried special strips of cloth to unfurl in patterns to signal to low-flying fighters, to co-ordinate air support and for supply drops. The German procedure was for individual weapons to be dropped in canisters, due to their practice of exiting

8280-506: The convoy reached Crete. The caïque landed 3 officers and 110 German soldiers near Cape Spatha, while the cutter arrived safely in Akrotiri , where her crew was engaged by a British Army patrol and took heavy casualties. Of the German soldiers who landed at Akrotiri, only one managed to get through the British lines and join the German paratroopers already fighting for Chania. According to other authors, only one German officer and 35 men from

8400-771: The convoy, Force A1 (Rear Admiral H B Rawlings ), Force B (Captain Henry A Rowley) and Glennie's Force D converged west of Antikythera . Concerned about the level of anti-aircraft ammunition available following repeated air attacks, the combined force was ordered to report on their stock of high-angle ammunition at 09:31. Of the cruisers, HMS  Ajax had 40 per cent, Orion 38 per cent, Fiji 30 per cent, HMS  Dido 25 per cent and Gloucester only 18 per cent. Ajax , Orion and Dido were ordered to return to Alexandria with Glennie's Force D to rearm but Gloucester and Fiji remained with Rawlings' Force A1. At 12:25 Force A1, stationed 20 to 30 miles west of Antikythera, received

8520-403: The cruiser HMS  Naiad as the German pilots tried to avoid killing their troops in the water. The British squadron was under constant air attack and, short of anti-aircraft ammunition, steamed on toward Milos, sighting Sagittario at 10:00. King made the "difficult" decision not to press the attack, despite his overpowering advantage, because of the shortage of ammunition and the severity of

8640-477: The cruisers Fiji and Gloucester were ordered respectively at 14:02 and 14:07 to provide anti-aircraft support. Writing in despatches after the battle, Cunningham stated that King was unaware of the shortage of anti-aircraft ammunition in Gloucester and Fiji . At 14:13 King and Rawlings exchanged messages about the shortage of ammunition within both Force C and Force A1, with Rawlings expressing concern about

8760-481: The day before. This ad hoc group was composed of a motorcycle battalion, the Reconnaissance Battalion, an anti-tank unit, a motorised artillery troop, and some engineers. General Ringel gave orders for Wittmann to "strike out from Platanos at 03:00 on 28 May in pursuit of the British 'main' via the coastal highway to Rethymno" and thence towards Heraklion. Although they did not play a decisive role,

8880-506: The eastern Mediterranean , from which it could threaten the Axis south-eastern flank, and the Ploiești oil fields in Romania would be within range of British bombers based on the island. The Italians were repulsed, but the subsequent German invasion of April 1941 ( Operation Marita ), succeeded in overrunning mainland Greece. At the end of the month, 57,000 Allied troops were evacuated by

9000-411: The engines were worn and could not be overhauled on Crete. Most tanks were used as mobile pillboxes to be brought up and dug in at strategic points. One Matilda had a damaged turret crank that allowed it to turn clockwise only. Many British tanks broke down in the rough terrain, not in combat. The British and their allies did not possess sufficient Universal Carriers or trucks, which would have provided

9120-399: The first day was former world heavyweight champion boxer Max Schmeling , who held the rank of Gefreiter at the time. Schmeling survived the battle and the war. Overnight, the 22nd New Zealand Infantry Battalion withdrew from Hill 107, leaving Maleme Airfield undefended. During the previous day, the Germans had cut communications between the two westernmost companies of the battalion and

9240-791: The hiding places for unnumbered weapons, and the supply point for hundreds of bad men." ... Cretans and the Cretan resistance worked closely with the British, firstly when they aided the British and Dominion forces in escaping from Crete, and secondly, when they worked together on acts of sabotage when Crete became a launching pad for German operations in Africa. This involved the British agents who either remained on Crete or escaped and re-entered Crete, such as Patrick Leigh Fermor , W. Stanley Moss , Tom Dunbabin , Sandy Rendel , and Stephen Verney, John Houseman, Xan Fielding , Dennis Ciclitira and Ralph Stockbridge. The New Zealander Dudley "Kiwi" Perkins , also known as "Kapetan Vasili" by locals became

9360-471: The invasion. The largest proportion of the forces were in Group West. German airborne theory was based on parachuting a small force onto enemy airfields. The force would capture the perimeter and local anti-aircraft guns, allowing a much larger force to land by glider. Freyberg knew this after studying earlier German operations and decided to make the airfields unusable for landing, but was countermanded by

9480-481: The invasion. The next day, through communication failures, Allied tactical hesitation, and German offensive operations, Maleme Airfield in western Crete fell, enabling the Germans to land reinforcements and overwhelm the defensive positions on the north of the island. Allied forces withdrew to the south coast. More than half were evacuated by the British Royal Navy and the remainder surrendered or joined

9600-410: The island bodies of Cretans – villagers, shepherds, old men, boys, monks and priests and even women, without any collusion between them or master plan or arms or guidance from the official combatants – rose up at once and threw themselves on the invaders with as little hesitation as if the German war machine were a Pasha's primitive expedition of Janissaries armed with long guns and scimitars. They had not

9720-438: The island, preparatory to their relief by fresh troops from Egypt. The navy tried to deliver 27,000 long tons (27,000 t) of supplies from 1–20 May 1941, but Luftwaffe attacks forced most ships to turn back, and only 2,700 long tons (2,700 t) were delivered. Only about 3,500 trained British and Greek soldiers were on the island, and the defence devolved to the shaken and poorly equipped troops from Greece, assisted by

9840-417: The last few nights before the invasion, and Luftwaffe aircraft eliminated the British aircraft on Crete. The Germans planned to use Fallschirmjäger to capture important points on the island, including airfields that could then be used to fly in supplies and reinforcements. Fliegerkorps XI was to co-ordinate the attack by the 7th Flieger Division , which would land by parachute and glider, followed by

9960-618: The last fighters of 33 , 80 and 112 squadrons and a squadron of the Fleet Air Arm , once the Blenheims were ordered back to Egypt. In mid-May, the four squadrons had about two dozen aircraft, of which only about twelve were serviceable due to a lack of tools and spares. The unfinished ground at Pediada-Kastelli was blocked with trenches and heaps of soil and all but narrow flight paths were blocked at Heraklion and Rethymno by barrels full of earth. At Maleme, blast pens were built for

10080-411: The late republican prime minister of Greece, had been a Cretan and support for his ideas was strong on the island, the Germans seriously underestimated Cretan loyalty. King George and his entourage escaped from Greece via Crete with the help of Greek and Commonwealth soldiers, Cretan civilians, and even a band of prisoners who had been released from captivity by the Germans. 12th Army Intelligence painted

10200-414: The latter a part of post- World War I reparations ; about 1,000 Greeks carried antique Fusil Gras mle 1874 rifles. The garrison had been stripped of its best crew-served weapons , which were sent to the mainland; there were twelve obsolescent St. Étienne Mle 1907 light machine-guns and forty miscellaneous LMGs. Many Greek soldiers had fewer than thirty rounds of ammunition but could not be supplied by

10320-729: The local clan chiefs, prior to the invasion, was executed by the Germans during the Battle of Crete . After this, "Monty" Woodhouse , who had been appointed director of the SOE in Heraklion , made contact with civilians. He approached a young high school student named George Doundoulakis after observing his keen knowledge as a Greek interpreter in Archanes during the Battle of Crete . He asked him to support SOE in hiding and assisting British and Dominion soldiers who were unable to be evacuated. Doundoulakis formed an underground organisation under

10440-739: The mainland. The primary objective of the movement, on the one hand, was to support the Cretan people under occupation by boosting morale, providing information, and distributing food at a time of great deprivation (due to confiscations by the Germans and Italians), and on the other hand to undertake certain operations against the Germans, including a number of sabotage operations. Resistance in Crete involved figures such as Patrick Leigh Fermor , George Psychoundakis , Georgios Petrakis (Petrakogiorgis) , Manolis Bandouvas, Antonis Grigorakis, Kostis Petrakis , John Lewis, Tom Dunbabin , Dudley Perkins, Sandy Rendel , John Houseman, Xan Fielding , Dennis Ciclitira , Ralph Stockbridge and Bill Stanley Moss . Some of

10560-533: The mainland. These evacuees were a combination of intact units, composite units improvised locally, stragglers from every type of army unit, and deserters ; most of them lacked heavy equipment. The main formed units were the 2nd New Zealand Division , less the 6th Brigade and division headquarters; the 19th Australian Brigade Group ; and the 14th Infantry Brigade of the British 6th Division . There were about 15,000 front-line Commonwealth infantry, augmented by about 5,000 non-infantry personnel equipped as infantry and

10680-520: The military wing of EAM, in January 1945 at the siege of Retimo. As Cretan fighters became better armed and more aggressive in 1944, the German troops pulled out of rural areas, having destroyed a number of villages in the Kedros area and executing many inhabitants, aiming to cow the Cretans. Grouping their forces around Canea, the Germans remained trapped until the end of the war, refusing to surrender to

10800-417: The mobility and firepower needed for rapid counter-attacks before the invaders could consolidate. Hitler authorised Unternehmen Merkur (named after the swift Roman god Mercury ) with Directive 28; the forces used were to come from airborne and air units already in the area and units intended for Unternehmen Barbarossa were to conclude operations before the end of May, Barbarossa was not to be delayed by

10920-587: The movement's most famous moments included the abduction of General Heinrich Kreipe led by Leigh Fermor and Moss, the battle of Trahili, the sabotage of Damasta led by Moss and the airfield sabotages of Heraklion and Kastelli. Communication by boat with Egypt was established as a means of evacuating British and Dominion soldiers who were trapped on Crete and for bringing in supplies and men to liaise with Cretan resistance fighters. The local British intelligence officer and resistance co-ordinator John Pendlebury , who had been instrumental in mobilizing and preparing

11040-466: The name recalling the mountain worship which was a feature of the Minoan mother goddess religion. The name is related to that of the nymph Idaea , who, according to Diodorus Siculus , was the mother of the ten Kuretes . Idaea was also an epithet of Cybele . The Romans knew Cybele as Magna Mater ("Great Mother"), or as Magna Mater deorum Idaea ("great Idaean mother of the gods"), equivalent to

11160-471: The night of 21/22 May. Fighting against fresh German troops, the Allies retreated southward. The 5th Destroyer Flotilla, consisting of HMS  Kelly , HMS  Kipling , HMS  Kelvin , HMS  Jackal and HMS  Kashmir ( Captain , Lord Louis Mountbatten ), was ordered to leave Malta on 21 May, to join the fleet off Crete, and arrived after Gloucester and Fiji were sunk. They were sent to pick up survivors and then diverted to attack

11280-494: The occupation and the resistance movement. I translated it from his manuscript and it was published, under the title The Cretan Runner  ... Attached to these cells were Greeks who otherwise tended to have no involvement with the main Cretan resistance movement, but worked very closely with the British agents, such as Leigh Fermor's runner George Psychoundakis, Kimonas Zografakis , George Doundoulakis , and John Androulakis. Zografakis, also known by his nom-de-guerre "Black Man,"

11400-605: The operation and he ordered Österlin to make for a small harbour on the German-occupied island of Kithira . At a meeting in Athens on 27 May, Luftwaffe Generals Richthofen, Jeschonnek, and Löhr pressed Schuster to get the tanks delivered somehow before "... the Englander claws himself erect again". One of Richthofen's liaison officers had returned from the island on 26 May; the paratroopers were in poor condition, lacking in discipline, and "at loose ends". He stressed

11520-485: The orders given to Gloucester and Fiji . Following this communication, King issued an order to recall both Gloucester and Fiji at 14:57. Between 15:30 and 15:50, while attempting to rejoin Force A1, Gloucester was hit by several bombs and had to be left behind due to the air attacks; the ship was sunk and 22 officers and 700 ratings were killed. The air attacks on Force A1 and Force C continued; two bombs hit

11640-573: The panzers were useful in helping round up British troops in the Kissamos area, before speeding eastward in support of the German pursuit column. Mount Ida In Greek mythology , two sacred mountains are called Mount Ida , the "Mountain of the Goddess": Mount Ida in Crete , and Mount Ida in the ancient Troad region of western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey ), which was also known as

11760-466: The request on the mistaken grounds that the 23rd Battalion was busy repulsing parachutists in its sector. After a failed counter-attack late in the day on 20 May, with the eastern elements of his battalion, Andrew withdrew under cover of darkness to regroup, with the consent of Hargest. Captain Campbell, commanding the westernmost company of the 22nd Battalion, out of contact with Andrew, did not learn of

11880-519: The sites of radio transmissions, thus necessitating regular changes of location. The British agents, working with local resistance, were responsible for some famous operations including the abduction of General Heinrich Kreipe led by Leigh Fermor and Moss, the sabotage of Damasta led by Moss and the airfield sabotages of Heraklion and Kastelli . Communication between EOK and EAM was poor, with open hostility breaking out between EOK and ELAS Greek : Ελληνικός Λαϊκός Απελευθερωτικός Στρατός (ΕΛΑΣ),

12000-681: The situation in North Africa." The directive also stated that the operation was to be in May and must not be allowed to interfere with the planned campaign against the Soviet Union. Before the invasion, the Germans conducted a bombing campaign to establish air superiority and forced the RAF to move its remaining aeroplanes to Alexandria in Egypt . No RAF units were based permanently at Crete until April 1941, but airfield construction had begun, radar sites had been built and stores delivered. Equipment

12120-654: The two airfields. The guns were camouflaged, often in nearby olive groves, and some were ordered to hold their fire during the initial assault to mask their positions from German fighters and dive-bombers . The British had nine Matilda II A infantry tanks of "B" Squadron, 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR) and sixteen Light Tanks Mark VIB from "C" Squadron, 3rd King's Own Hussars . The Matildas had 40 mm Ordnance QF 2 pounder guns, which only fired armour-piercing rounds – not effective anti-personnel weapons. (High explosive rounds in small calibres were considered impractical). The tanks were in poor mechanical condition, as

12240-646: The unit had been transferred to the mainland against the German invasion; the Cretan Gendarmerie (2,500 men); the Heraklion Garrison Battalion, a defence unit made up mostly of transport and supply personnel; and remnants of the 12th and 20th Greek divisions, which had also escaped from the mainland to Crete and were organised under British command. Cadets from the Gendarmerie academy and recruits from Greek training centres in

12360-506: The unwanted troops. Between the night of 15 May and morning of 16 May, the allied forces were reinforced by the 2nd Battalion of the Leicester Regiment , which had been transported from Alexandria to Heraklion by HMS  Gloucester and HMS  Fiji . On 17 May, the garrison on Crete included about 15,000 Britons, 7,750 New Zealanders, 6,500 Australians and 10,200 Greeks. On the morning of 19 May, these were augmented by

12480-500: The vicinity. The Germans suffered many casualties in the first hours of the invasion: a company of III Battalion, 1st Assault Regiment lost 112 killed out of 126 men, and 400 of 600 men in III Battalion were killed on the first day. Most of the parachutists were engaged by New Zealanders defending the airfield and by Greek forces near Chania. Many gliders following the paratroops were hit by mortar fire seconds after landing, and

12600-525: The village of Alikianos where, with local civilian volunteers, they held out against the German 7th Engineer Battalion. Though Kippenberger had referred to them as "...nothing more than malaria-ridden little chaps...with only four weeks of service," the Greek troops repulsed German attacks until they ran out of ammunition, whereupon they began charging with fixed bayonets, overrunning German positions and capturing rifles and ammunition. The engineers had to be reinforced by two battalions of German paratroops, yet

12720-477: The war in the British book and film, Ill Met by Moonlight , for his abduction of German General Kreipe from Crete. Following Doundoulakis' exit from Crete to join the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS), he handed off leadership of the organisation he initiated to Mikis Akoumianakis, son of the caretaker at Knossos . Akoumianakis, known by his SOE code name "Minoan Mike," would later partake in

12840-413: The withdrawal of the 22nd Battalion until early in the morning, at which point he also withdrew from the west of the airfield. This misunderstanding, representative of the failings of communication and co-ordination in the defence of Crete, cost the Allies the airfield and allowed the Germans to reinforce their invasion force unopposed. In Athens, Student decided to concentrate on Maleme on 21 May, as this

12960-470: Was "Bo-peep". Both had their contacts in EOK , and SOE . When Dunbabin was replaced by Patrick Leigh Fermor , known to the Cretans as "Michalis", George Doundoulakis continued his intelligence gathering. George Doundoulakis, John Androulakis, and Leigh Fermor , along with guerrilla leader Manolis Bandouvas, would take refuge within the mountainous SOE hideouts of Mount Ida . Leigh Fermor became renowned after

13080-423: Was a major Axis airborne and amphibious operation during World War II to capture the island of Crete . It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, with multiple German airborne landings on Crete. Greek and other Allied forces , along with Cretan civilians, defended the island. After only one day of fighting, the Germans had suffered heavy casualties and the Allied troops were confident that they would defeat

13200-501: Was a member of Force 133, the code name for SOE in Greece. Zografakis helped Leigh Fermor when he returned to Crete prior to the abduction of Kreipe in addition to the bombing of the Kastelli Airfield with George Doundoulakis . Most cells had a radio for communicating with Egypt through which information could be passed and requests made for parachute drops of food, clothing, supplies, and weapons. German troops constantly tried to locate

13320-476: Was appointed Senior Air Officer, Crete, taking over from a flight-lieutenant whose duties and instructions had been only vaguely defined. Beamish was ordered to prepare the reception of the Bristol Blenheim bombers of 30 and 203 squadrons from Egypt and the remaining fighter aircraft from Greece, to cover the evacuation of W Force, which enabled the transfer of 25,000 British and Dominion troops to

13440-550: Was awarded the King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom from Great Britain for his services and assisting in the evacuation and safety of British and Dominion stragglers from Crete. The non-communist wing was formed under the name National Organization of Crete (EOK) (with Andreas Papadakis as leader). Other resistance figures included Petrakogiorgis , whose SOE's code name was "Selfridge," and Manolis Bandouvas, whose code name

13560-621: Was chosen. This was to be the first big airborne invasion, although the Germans had made smaller parachute and glider -borne assaults in the invasions of Denmark and Norway , Belgium , the Netherlands , France and mainland Greece . In Greece, Fallschirmjäger had been dispatched to capture the bridge over the Corinth Canal , which was being readied for demolition by the Royal Engineers . German engineers landed near

13680-532: Was hit and sank in two minutes, and Kelly was hit and turned turtle soon after and later sank. Kelly shot down a Stuka before sinking and another was badly damaged and crashed upon returning to base. Kipling survived 83 bombs, while 279 survivors were rescued from the ships. (The Noël Coward film In Which We Serve was based on this action.) The Royal Navy had suffered so many losses from air attacks that on 23 May Admiral Cunningham signalled his superiors that daylight operations could no longer continue, but

13800-445: Was misinformed or was attempting to sabotage Hitler's plans (Canaris was killed much later in the war for supposedly participating in the 20 July Plot ). Abwehr also predicted the Cretan population would welcome the Germans as liberators, due to their strong republican and anti- monarchist feelings and would want to receive the "... favourable terms which had been arranged on the mainland ..." While Eleftherios Venizelos ,

13920-520: Was near the north coast, so seaborne reinforcements could be brought up quickly. A compromise plan by Hermann Göring was agreed, and in the final draft, Maleme was to be captured first, while not ignoring the other objectives. The invasion force was divided into Kampfgruppen (battlegroups), Centre, West and East, each with a code name following the classical theme established by Mercury; 750 glider-borne troops, 10,000 paratroops, 5,000 airlifted mountain soldiers and 7,000 seaborne troops were allocated to

14040-403: Was preoccupied with Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union, and was largely opposed to a German attack on Crete. However, Hitler remained concerned about attacks in other theatres, in particular on his Romanian fuel supply, and Luftwaffe commanders were enthusiastic about the idea of seizing Crete by a daring airborne attack. The desire to regain prestige after their defeat by

14160-471: Was sacred to Zeus, the king and father of Greek gods and goddesses. The term Ida (Ἴδη) is of unknown origin. Instances of i-da in Linear A probably refer to the mountain in Crete. Three inscriptions bear just the name i-da-ma-te ( AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), and may refer to mount Ida or to the mother goddess of Ida ( Ἰδαία μάτηρ). In Iliad (Iliad, 2.821), Ἵδη (Ida) means "wooded hill",

14280-612: Was scarce in the Mediterranean and in the backwater of Crete. The British forces had seven commanders in seven months. In early April, airfields at Maleme and Heraklion and the landing strip at Rethymno on the north coast were ready and another strip at Pediada-Kastelli was nearly finished. After the German invasion of Greece, the role of the Crete garrison changed from the defence of a naval anchorage to preparing to repel an invasion. On 17 April, Group Captain George Beamish

14400-434: Was the area where the most progress had been made and because an early morning reconnaissance flight over Maleme Airfield was unopposed. The Germans quickly exploited the withdrawal from Hill 107 to take control of Maleme Airfield, just as a sea landing took place nearby. The Allies continued to bombard the area as Ju 52s flew in units of the 5th Mountain Division at night. In the afternoon of 21 May 1941, Freyberg ordered

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