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150-648: In 1783, violating the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the Russian Empire annexed the khanate . Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding Franco-Ottoman alliance . The Crimean Khans, considering their state as

300-523: A punitive expedition under Nevrui. On their approach, Andrey fled to Pskov and thence to Sweden. The Mongols spread over Vladimir and harshly punished the people there. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov on hearing the news about the Mongols. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq, Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. In 1256 Andrey travelled to Sarai to ask pardon for his former infidelity and

450-669: A viceroy over all the western parts of the empire, controlling routine affairs among the Rus' princes, nominating Jochid retainers as governors of Iran , and receiving in audience grandees from the Caucasus . At no point, however, did he openly challenge the authority of the Great Khan. During the absence of Batu, the Mongols who were left behind put to death Mstislav, the prince of Rylsk , in Kievan Rus' . On his return Batu summoned

600-550: A Greek Orthodox Church in Istanbul, claiming itself to be the protector of the Greek Orthodox Ottoman community, as a pretext for frequent and numerous interventions in the decades to follow. Ottoman Christians started to feel more empowered as European and Christian powers demonstrated their rising influence and political power. Access to Europe's political networks, markets and educational institutions created

750-515: A beard". They then left the banquet. Batu sent an envoy to his uncle Ögedei to complain of his cousins' rude behavior. Ögedei got angry on hearing the news and recalled Buri and Güyük. According to some sources, Buri, who was sent to his grandfather Chagatai, never returned to join the Mongol conquest of Europe; Güyük returned to the Russian steppe after his father Ögedei harshly criticized him. In

900-485: A bey was called a beylik . Beys in the khanate were as important as the Polish Magnats . Directly to the khan belonged Cufut-Qale , Bakhchisaray , and Staryi Krym (Eski Qirim). The khan also possessed all the salt lakes and the villages around them, as well as the woods around the rivers Alma , Kacha, and Salgir . Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements. Part of

1050-405: A ceasefire. Calls for peace, freedom and amnesty for prisoners, the return home of exiles, and the establishment of "a sincere union, and a perpetual and inviolable friendship". Article II – Addresses those who have committed capital crimes, stating that these criminals shall not be sheltered in either empire, and should be "delivered up" to the state they belong in. Article III – Russia and

1200-612: A church in Constantinople later expanded into Russian claims to protect all Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans were to pay a large indemnity to the Russians and address the Russian sovereign as padisah, the title reserved for the Ottoman sultan. The treaty acknowledged a religious role for the Ottoman sultan as caliph over Muslims, whom the treaty briefly made 'independent' before they passed under Russian rule. To

1350-644: A claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the Kazan Khanate and Astrakhan Khanate . This claim pitted it against Muscovy for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by Devlet I Giray upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the burning of Moscow , and he thereby gained

1500-600: A class privilege for Ottoman Christians, and scholars often regard the treaty as turning point for relations between Ottoman Christians and the European nations. The treaty was a milestone in the history of the decline of the Ottoman Empire , as for the first time a foreign power had a say in the governance of the Porte in assuming direct responsibility for the fate of the Empire's Orthodox Christian subjects. Following

1650-523: A clerk as Rusograf , which was incorrectly copied as 'Dosografa' by Cevdet Pasa or the compiler of the collection of Ottoman treaties. It is unknown exactly who was responsible for the error. The English translation was made from a French translation of the treaty, which had been made in 1775 in St. Petersburg, and was printed for Parliament in 1854 with the English copy. That Russian-authorized French version of

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1800-591: A complex relationship with Zaporozhian Cossacks who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Zaporizhian Sich . The assistance of İslâm III Giray during

1950-554: A dead man was repugnant. As he persisted in his refusal, Batu ordered his death. Danylo of Halych was summoned to Batu in Sarai, and submitted himself to the Mongols, an act later decried in the Galician-Volhynian Chronicle , which otherwise glorified Danylo's exploits. Batu, addressing him, said "You have for a long time refused to come, but have effaced your ill conduct by your obedience" and saluted him with

2100-465: A divergence between the Russian and Turkish texts, the Italian text would prevail. Bernard Lewis suggests that the choice of spelling of Turkish words in the Italian version points to a Russian author. The treaty has been a continuing source of controversy for statesmen and scholars. The different reproductions of the treaty have led to divergences in the different languages, and thus they have been

2250-578: A draught of airag . They exchanged hostages whereby 100 families of Keraites were re-settled in Carpathian-Galicia . After the defeat of the Sultanate of Rum , Baiju freed David VII Ulu from Turkish imprisonment and sent him to Batu and Güyük . Fearing Baiju's aggressive policy, Queen Rusudan of Georgia sent her son David VI Narin to Batu's court to get official recognition as heir apparent. Batu supported David VI and granted him

2400-704: A good falconer, for he understood birds very well. The Emperor and Pope Gregory IX called for a crusade against the Mongol Empire, but Europe was plagued by internal strife. Subutai achieved lasting fame with his victories in Europe, as he had in Eastern Persia. By late 1241, Batu and Subutai were finalizing plans to invade Austria, Italy, and Germany when the news came of the death of Ögedei Khan , who died in December 1241. Batu wanted to continue

2550-716: A reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to an uluhane (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray. Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe. The nomadic part of

2700-528: A testimonial of friendship, they shall each bring gifts that will be "proportionate to the dignity of their Imperial Majesties". Article XXVIII – All hostilities shall cease. Couriers must be dispatched on the part of the Field-Marshal and the Grand Vizier to all the places where hostilities are being carried on. By the power granted to them by their Sovereigns, these couriers shall confirm all

2850-421: A violation of Islamic law because it called for the building of an entirely-new church, not just the replacement of an old one. The Ottoman government had allowed Greek and Latin churches built before 1453 to survive, but no new ones could be built after the conquest of Constantinople . There is a history shown here, not of faulty copying, but of faulty translation of the treaty. Rusogrek was mistakenly copied by

3000-575: Is fictitious; the church 'of the Greek ritual' in the French text of St. Petersburg is also erroneous." In 1853, the Crimean War would break out over Russian assertion of a right to protect Orthodox Christians and the Ottoman denial that there was any such right. Russia tried to extend its right to build a church in Constantinople to intervene in domestic Ottoman affairs under the pretext of protecting

3150-400: Is not clear if Russia gained the right to act as a protector of Ottoman Christians through those articles. That question is disputed among historians, as some consider that indeed the treaty gave Russia the right to act as the protector of Christianity within the Ottoman Empire, but others think the opposite or that it was too vague either way. Because of the treaty, the Russians were accorded

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3300-635: Is the oldest memorial in the Crimean Tatar language and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of the Black Sea steppes and Crimea . There are legends that, in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Grand Duke of Lithuania Algirdas broke the Tatar army in 1363 near

3450-734: The Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups: Budjak (from the Danube to the Dniester), Yedisan (from the Dniester to the Bug), Cemboylıq  [ crh ] (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and Kuban . Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys were mirzas from noble families. The relationship of peasants or herdsmen to their mirzas

3600-451: The Caucasus for around 250 years. According to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , Batu was "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time." He received the nickname of сайн ( lit.   ' good ' ), by which he was referred to by Marco Polo . William of Rubruck described him as about

3750-712: The Caucasus , unlimited sovereignty over the port of Azov , the ports of Kerch and Enikale in the Kerch peninsula in the Crimea, and part of the Yedisan region between the Bug and Dnieper rivers at the mouth of the Dnieper. This latter territory included the port of Kherson . Russia thus gained two outlets to the Black Sea, which was no longer an Ottoman lake. Restrictions imposed by the 1739 Treaty of Niš over Russian access to

3900-698: The Desht-i Kipchak (Kypchak Steppes of today's Ukraine and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their yurt (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of the Mongol empire had governed the Crimean peninsula as an ulus since 1239, with its capital at Qirim ( Staryi Krym ). The local separatists invited a Genghisid contender for the Golden Horde throne, Hacı Giray , to become their khan . Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and travelled from exile in Lithuania . He warred for independence against

4050-518: The Giray clan, which traced its right to rule to its descent from Genghis Khan . According to the tradition of the steppes, the ruler was legitimate only if he was of Genghisid royal descent (i.e. "ak süyek"). Although the Giray dynasty was the symbol of government, the khan actually governed with the participation of Qaraçı Beys , the leaders of the noble clans such as Şirin, Barın, Arğın, Qıpçaq, and in

4200-573: The Golden Horde . Berke was not inclined to unity with his cousins in the Mongol family, making war on Hulagu Khan , though Berke officially recognized Möngke and the Empire of the Great Khan as his overlords. In fact, Berke was an independent ruler by then. Berke did not share Batu's interest in conquering it, however, he demanded Hungarian King Béla IV 's submission and sent his general Borolday to Lithuania and Poland. The Kipchak Khanate

4350-550: The House of Ögedei from the overlordship of the Mongols, and Batu was determined to avail himself of it. But Batu seemed to allow Oghul Qaimish to serve as regent . He also suggested unruly princes listen to her words. When Batu was ill, Möngke Khan went to the Ulus of Jochi to greet him as his mother Sorghagtani advised. Batu was much delighted on seeing him. At last, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. Members of

4500-789: The Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks. The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula. In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted

4650-667: The Mongol Empire . The Cuman refugees took shelter in the Kingdom of Hungary . Batu sent at least five messengers to Béla IV , the King of Hungary, but they were all killed. For the last time Batu demanded that Bela have the Cumans returned and warned: "It is much easier for the Cumans to escape than it is for you...you dwell in houses and have fixed towns and fortresses, so how will you escape me?" Batu Khan then decided to "reach

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4800-484: The Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) took place during the reign of Peter I (1682–1725). The Selim II Giray fountain, built in 1747, is considered one of the masterpieces of Crimean Khanate's hydraulic engineering designs and is still marveled in modern times. It consists of small ceramic pipes, boxed in an underground stone tunnel, stretching back to the spring source more than 20 metres (66 feet) away. It

4950-625: The Sea of Azov and fortifying the area were removed. Russian merchant vessels were to be allowed passage of the Dardanelles . The treaty also granted Eastern Orthodox Christians the right to sail under the Russian flag and provided for the building of a Russian Orthodox Church in Constantinople (which was never built). The Crimean Khanate was the first Muslim territory to slip from

5100-516: The Volga , he mustered a new army, which was totally exterminated by the Mongols on the Sit' River on 4 March. Thereupon Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen Rus' cities: Rostov , Uglich , Yaroslavl , Kostroma , Kashin , Ksnyatin , Gorodets , Galich , Pereslavl-Zalessky , Yuriev-Polsky , Dmitrov , Volokolamsk , Tver , and Torzhok . The most difficult to take

5250-595: The ultimate sea ", where the Mongols could proceed no further. Some modern historians speculate that Batu intended primarily to assure his flanks were safe for the future from possible interference from the Europeans, and partially as a precursor to further conquest. Most believe he intended the conquest of all Europe, as soon as his flanks were safe and his forces ready. Having devastated the various Rus' principalities, Subutai and Batu sent spies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria in preparation for an attack into

5400-405: The vakif lands and their enormous revenues. Another Muslim official, appointed not by the clergy but the Ottoman sultan, was the kadıasker , the overseer of the khanate's judicial districts, each under jurisdiction of a kadi . In theory, kadis answered to the kadiaskers, but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in

5550-609: The 'entire Muslim community'. The clause relating to the Orthodox Church opened foreign interference in the empire's relations with its Christian subjects. But the defeat also posed a basic problem in statecraft, and threatened the Ottoman's traditional self-confidence, while Russia and Tsarina Catherine would be praised immensely among the Greek Orthodox of Constantinople. The increase in Russia's influence because of

5700-534: The Christian religion in the area, and to observe the same tax and emigration policies as mentioned in Article XVI. Article XVIII – The Castle of Kinburn Article XIX – The fortresses of Jenicale and Kertsch shall remain under "full, perpetual, and incontestable" dominion of the Empire of Russia. Article XX – The city of Azov shall belong to the Empire of Russia. Article XXI – The Great Cabarde and Little Carbade, because of their proximity to

5850-471: The Court of Russia to reside in Ottoman territory wherever the Court deems it expedient to establish said consuls. Prescribes free and unimpeded navigation for merchant ships of both countries. Subjects of both Empires may also trade on land. Article XII – The Sublime Porte promises to use its power and influence to assist the Court of Russia when the court has the intention of making any commercial treaty with

6000-557: The Crimea and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne. In the sources of the 16th–18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed. The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the Golden Horde Empire ceased their nomadic life in

6150-433: The Crimea is considered Aran-Timur , the nephew of Batu Khan of the Golden Horde, who received this area from Mengu-Timur , and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city Qırım (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Qırq Yer and Bağçasaray . The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in

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6300-666: The Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of the Nogai Khan in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea. In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in Kypchak "tatar tili") – " Codex Cumanicus ", which

6450-513: The Crimea, inhabited mainly by Turkic peoples ( Cumans ), became the possession of Ulus Juchi , known as the Golden Horde or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased. Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of Tatars ( tatarlar ). In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors – Emirs – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in

6600-409: The Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire. In the first half of the 17th century, Kalmyks formed the Kalmyk Khanate in

6750-427: The Crimean Khanate during the Chigirin Campaigns and the Crimean Campaigns . It was during the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) that the Russians, under the command of Field-Marshal Münnich , penetrated the Crimean Peninsula itself, burning and destroying everything in it. More warfare ensued during the reign of Catherine II . The Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) resulted in the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji , which made

6900-428: The Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the Russian Empire . The rule of the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in

7050-407: The Crimean Khanate shifted throughout its existence due to the constant incursions by the Cossacks , who had lived along the Don since the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century. The London-based cartographer Herman Moll in a map of c. 1729 shows "Little Tartary" as including the Crimean peninsula and the steppe between Dnieper and Mius River as far north as the Dnieper bend and

7200-410: The Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion. Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches. The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray kilims ( oriental rugs ) were exported to Poland , and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed

7350-465: The Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via the Silk Road were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray, Kezlev (Yevpatoria), Qarasu Bazar (Market on black water) and Aqmescit (White-mosque) having numerous hans ( caravansarais and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under

7500-407: The Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the Polish–Lithuanian union in its importance and durability. The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Poland , Hungary , and Persia . In 1502, Meñli I Giray defeated the last khan of the Great Horde , which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near

7650-598: The Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids: It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean vizir (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became galley -slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian dumas (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes. The Crimeans had

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7800-453: The Genoese colonies at Cembalo , Soldaia , and Caffa (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of Genghis Khan . In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting

7950-417: The Grand prince Yaroslav II of Vladimir to meet him. Yaroslav was well received by Batu, who confirmed him as suzerain over the other Rus' princes, and gave him authority of Kiev. The princes of Suzdal followed Yaroslav's example. Batu sent Yaroslav to the imperial court of Karakorum to assist at the inauguration of Güyük Khan in 1246. Plano Carpini , who got approval from Batu to go further, noted that

8100-400: The Great formally annexed it in 1783, increasing Russia's power in the Black Sea area. The Ottoman-Russian War of 1768–74 had opened the era of European preoccupation with the Eastern Question : what would happen to the balance of power as the Ottoman Empire lost territory and collapsed? The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji would provide some of the answer. After the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699,

8250-471: The Great Khan's aunt was executed. At the same time Yaroslav was poisoned in Mongolia . Batu had commissaries in the various towns where the dependent Rus' princes and other princes held their courts. The princes from Rus' principalities such as Vladimir Constantine, Boris, Gleb, Vasili, Constatantine, Vladimir Constantinovich, Vasil'ko and Sviatoslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir , went to the court of Batu in person. When Michael of Chernigov , who had murdered

8400-415: The Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital to Qırq Yer (today part of Bahçeseray ). The khanate included the Crimean Peninsula (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the Republic of Genoa & Trebizond Empire ) as well as

8550-438: The Lower Volga and under Ayuka Khan conducted many military expeditions against the Crimean Khanate and Nogays . By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen. The united Russian and Ukrainian forces attacked

8700-413: The Mongol Army was defeated by Ivan Asen II of the Second Bulgarian Empire shortly afterward. After the siege of Pest , Batu's army withdrew to the Sajo River and inflicted a tremendous defeat on King Béla IV and his allies at the Battle of Mohi on 11 April. Khadan, Baidar, and Orda went to Hungary, devastating Moravia en route. The Mongols appointed a darughachi in Hungary and minted coins in

8850-473: The Mongol envoy in Kiev, arrived, the Mongol overseers were engaged in taking a census of the inhabitants for the poll tax. Michael was ordered to repair to Batu. When summoned before Batu, he was made to pass between two fires and ordered to prostrate himself before the tablets of Genghis Khan . According to the hagiographic vita written in praise of him decades later, Michael replied that he did not object to do obeisance to Batu himself, but to adore images of

9000-429: The Mongols and agreed to pay tribute, and Novgorod with Pskov , which could not be reached by the Mongols on account of considerable distance and the intervening marshlands . When Batu drank a cup of wine before the others at the victory banquet, Büri complained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and fertile steppe, and the Mongol army, along with Güyük and others, ridiculed Batu as an "old woman with

9150-411: The Ottoman Empire acknowledge all of the Tartar peoples as free and independent nations, with freedom of religion and the freedom to be governed by their own ancient laws. Describes the withdrawal of troops from the lands they have ceded to the Tartars. Article V – Explains the status of an envoy from the Imperial Court of Russia to the Sublime Porte . Article VI – Addresses individuals who visit

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9300-415: The Ottoman Empire ceased to be an aggressive power; it had terrified Christendom for over three hundred years. From then on, it mainly fought against the overwhelming might of Christian Europe. The Habsburgs had been one of the Ottoman Empire's chief European foes, but by the middle of the century, the tsars had taken over the Habsburgs' fight against the Turks. The Russian tsars were seeking the Black Sea ,

9450-419: The Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns. Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, Mehmed I Giray . He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan. The alliance of

9600-408: The Ottoman sultan-caliph, which was the first internationally acknowledged assertion of the sultan's rights over Muslims outside the frontiers of his empire. The Crimean Tatars retained the privilege of praying publicly for the sultan that was balanced by the privilege, newly accorded to the tsar, to make representations on behalf of certain of the sultan's Orthodox subjects. Russia's right to build

9750-436: The Ottomans and Russia. It would be only one of many attempts by Russia to gain control of Ottoman territory. Russia returned Wallachia and Moldavia to Ottoman control, but was given the right to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire and to intervene in Wallachia and Moldavia in case of Ottoman misrule. The northwestern part of Moldavia (which became known as Bukovina ) was ceded to Austria in 1775. Russia interpreted

9900-426: The Pious , Duke of Silesia and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order at Legnica . A second crossed the Carpathian Mountains , and a third followed the Danube . The armies swept the plains of Hungary over the summer, and in the spring of 1242 they regained impetus and extended their control into Austria and Dalmatia , as well as invading Morava . While the northern force under Ögedei's son Khadan and Baidar ,

10050-458: The Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance to Bahçeseray , founded in 1532 by Sahib I Giray . Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray. The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate. The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the Danubian principalities , Poland–Lithuania , and Muscovy to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive,

10200-425: The Russian Minister. Article VII – The Sublime Porte promises constant protection of the Christian religion and its churches. Article VIII – Subjects of the Russian Empire have the right to visit Jerusalem and other places deserving of attention in the Ottoman Empire. They will have no obligation to pay any tax or duty, and will be under the strict protection of the law. Article IX – Interpreters who work for

10350-409: The Russian Ministers work for both Empires, and must be treated with the utmost kindness and respect. Article X – If any military engagements occur between the signing of the treaty and the dispatch of orders by the military commanders of the two armies, these engagements will have no consequences nor any effect on the treaty. Article XI – The Sublime Porte will allow the residence of consuls from

10500-400: The Russian armies in Georgia and Mingrelia , Bagdadgick , Kutatis , and Scheherban shall belong to those on whom they were formerly dependent. In turn, the Sublime Porte grants amnesty to those in said countries who offended it in any manner during the course of the war. The Sublime Porte promises to treat this people fairly and grant them freedom of religion, but as they are subjects of

10650-432: The Russian government to claim protection of the whole Greek church in the Ottoman Empire. The Russian draft of the treaty presented to the Turks contained an article identical to Article 14 of the final treaty, which mentioned the right of Russia to construct a church of the "Greco-Russian" faith. The English text erroneously states that the church is to be "of the Greek ritual". The construction of this church was, in fact,

10800-556: The Sublime Porte in service of the Russian Minister. If that visitor has committed a crime worthy of punishment and becomes Turk for the sake of avoiding the law, all the articles that he has stolen will be returned. Those who wish to become Turk may not do so in a state of intoxication, and even after their fit of drunkenness is over, they must make their final declaration of conversion in front of an interpreter sent by

10950-461: The Sublime Porte promises to treat them with fairness and respect in the taxes they impose. Article XVII – Russia returns the islands of the Archipelago to the Sublime Porte. In turn, the Sublime Porte promises to observe amnesty of all crimes committed or suspected to have been committed by these people against the interests of the Sublime Porte. The Sublime Porte also promises to not oppress

11100-522: The Sublime Porte, Russia must not meddle in their affairs in any way. Article XXIV – Details plans for a peaceful withdrawal of Russian troops from the lands the Court of Russia has ceded to the Sublime Porte , and a proper turnover of power to Turkish troops. All troops were to be out of said territories within five months of the signing of the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace" between the two empires. Article XXV – All prisoners of war and slaves in

11250-615: The Tartars, are more nearly connected with the Khans of Crimea. Thus, it remains with the Khan to consent to these countries becoming subject to the Court of Russia. Article XXII – The two Empires agree to "annihilate and leave in eternal oblivion" all the treaties and conventions they have made in the past, except the one made in 1700 between Governor Tolstoi and Hassan Bacha, governor of Atschug. Article XXIII – The fortresses conquered by

11400-455: The Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, Russia became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of

11550-527: The Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves." The Jewish population was concentrated in Çufut Kale ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as

11700-592: The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji as giving it the right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Empire, notably using this prerogative in the Danubian Principalities ( Moldavia and Wallachia ) to intervene under the last Phanariote rulers and after the Greek War of Independence . In 1787, faced with increased Russian hostility, Abdul Hamid I declared war on Russia again. Russia gained Kabardia in

11850-590: The Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized into qadılıqs (provinces governed by representatives of the khan). Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters, Ottoman law . The leader of the Muslim establishment was the mufti , who was selected from among the local Muslim clergy. His major duty was neither judicial nor theological, but financial. The mufti's administration controlled all of

12000-473: The adjacent steppe. The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The Ottomans intervened and installed one of the sons, Meñli I Giray , on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas." In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of Gedik Ahmet Pasha , conquered the Greek Principality of Theodoro and

12150-688: The aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh , was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla River by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk , on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by the Emir Edigei , and made peace. During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supported Hacı I Giray in the struggle against the descendants of Tokhtamysh , Kichi-Muhammada and Sayid Ahmad , who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in

12300-662: The area from (Great) Tartary – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited by Turkic peoples or Tatars . The Khanate included the Crimean peninsula and the adjacent steppes, mostly corresponding to parts of South Ukraine between the Dnieper and the Donets rivers (i.e. including most of present-day Zaporizhzhia Oblast , left-Dnipro parts of Kherson Oblast , besides minor parts of southeastern Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and western Donetsk Oblast ). The territory controlled by

12450-531: The area from Afghanistan to Turkey. Batu left the affairs of state to his son, Sartaq , before dying in 1255. Batu Khan was approximately five feet and seven inches tall (1.70 m), and had at least four children: Batu's mother Ukhaa ujin belonged to the Mongol Onggirat clan while his chief khatun Boraqchin was an Alchi- Tatar . When Batu and his son Sartaq died, after a brief regency of Boraqchin for Ulagchi , Batu's brother Berke inherited

12600-443: The art of warfare. Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan Kaplan Giray and Ottoman auxiliaries in the battle of Kanzhal . The Turkish traveler writer Evliya Çelebi mentions the impact of Cossack raids from Azak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By

12750-633: The articles put forth by the treaty, and sign them with the seal of their coat-of-arms, with the same force as if they had been drawn up in their presence. Defeat had come this time not at the hands of the Habsburg Empire , one of the most powerful European rulers, but by a remote and once-backward country, which only two generations earlier had itself set out on the course of autocratic Europeanizing reform. The treaty demonstrated that if France and Austria could protect churches of their particular brand of Christianity in Constantinople, Russia could do

12900-419: The assembled throng proclaimed Möngke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire in 1251, he punished the Ögedeid and Chagataid families for the organized plot against him. Möngke sent Buri to Batu who had him executed by Buri's opponent general. Eljigidei was also ordered to be executed. Grand prince Andrey II of Vladimir allied with the rebellious-minded princes of western Rus' , giving umbrage to the Mongols. Batu sent

13050-578: The banks of the Volga. When the Great Khatun Töregene invited him to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire, Batu announced his inability to attend any immediate kurultai , thus delaying the succession for several years. Eventually, Güyük was elected Khagan in 1246, with Batu's brothers representing the Jochid lineage. As one of the oldest members of Chingisid Borjigin , Batu became

13200-482: The best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey. The slave trade (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known as harvesting the steppe , raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside. In spite of

13350-979: The blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ( Crimean Tatar : Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı , تنكرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوگاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ يولوغ پادشاهى ). According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky,

13500-462: The bulwark of the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . Finally, after two centuries of conflict, the Russian fleet had destroyed the Ottoman navy and the Russian army had inflicted heavy defeats on the Ottoman land forces. The Ottoman Empire's frontiers would gradually shrink for another two centuries, and Russia would proceed to push her frontier westwards to the Dniester . Article I – Prescribes

13650-430: The capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves. Author and historian Brian Glyn Williams writes: Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery. Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by

13800-404: The church was most likely never built; it is never mentioned, even by Russian visitors to Constantinople. Western travellers to Constantinople and residents of Constantinople are also silent on the topic of the construction of such a church. From the mistranslations and the absence of church construction, Roderic H. Davison concludes that "the 'Dosografa' church of the published Ottoman treaty text

13950-441: The city was totally annihilated and never restored to its former glory. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the horde, but they were soundly defeated. Having burnt Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal on 4 February 1238. Three days later the city was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince hastily retreated northward. Crossing

14100-633: The civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the Taurida Oblast . In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on Rhodes , by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal. The royal Giray family survives to this day. Through the 1792 Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the Dniester River and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest transferred Bessarabia to Russian control. All Khans were from

14250-427: The connection seemed logical because of the treaty's provision concerning the church in Constantinople being built. In Cevdet Pasa's history, he makes no mention of the church that in the English text of the treaty is to be "of the Greek ritual", but he rather states that the church was to be called the dosografa church. If the church was to be called "Russo-Greek", rather than just Greek, it would be more tenable for

14400-447: The coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda . Orda's White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash , while Batu's Golden Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga. In 1229, Ögedei dispatched three tumens under Kukhdei and Sundei to conquer

14550-535: The dangers, Polish and Russian serfs were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of Ukraine . The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many dumy were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks , in both directions. The last recorded major Crimean raid , before those in

14700-417: The extent that the caliphal title later gained importance beyond Ottoman borders, this treaty stimulated the process. However, Ottoman loss of the Crimea and the end of the Crimean khanate caused Muslims everywhere to question the sultans' legitimacy as defenders of Islam ( ghazis ). Ottoman statesmen recognized that the European menace was not isolated on distant frontiers but threatened the 'heart of Islam' and

14850-895: The family of Jochi, but they appointed their officials under the supervision of the Imperial governor, and likewise in Khorasan . At the kurultai in Mongolia after the end of the Mongol-Jin War , the Great Khan Ögedei ordered Batu to conquer western nations. In 1235 Batu, who earlier had directed the conquest of the Crimean Peninsula , was assigned an army of possibly 130,000 to oversee an invasion of Europe. His relatives and cousins Güyük , Büri , Möngke , Khulgen, Khadan , Baidar and notable Mongol generals Subutai (Subeedei), Borolday , and Mengguser joined him by

15000-417: The fortress of Bender , Wallachia and Moldavia . The Sublime Porte promises to in no way obstruct the free exercise of the Christian religion in these areas, and to grant to families who wish to leave the country a free emigration with all their property. And, from the day the treaty is established, the Sublime Porte will require no taxes of these people for two years. At the expiration of this two-year term,

15150-412: The heartland of Europe. With a clear picture of the European kingdoms, they brilliantly prepared an attack. Batu Khan was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against Rus'. The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group invaded and devastated Poland, defeating a combined force under Henry II

15300-440: The height of his lord John de Beaumont and as having his entire face covered with reddish spots. After his son Jochi 's death, Genghis Khan assigned Jochi's appanages to his sons. The Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi or Kipchak Khanate ). Jochi's eldest son, Orda Khan , also agreed that Batu should succeed their father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge attended

15450-461: The heir and legal successor of the Golden Horde and Desht-i Kipchak , called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of

15600-581: The inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country". English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of the Lesser Nogai Horde Little Tartary (or subdivided it as Crim Tartary (also Krim Tartary ) and Kuban Tartary ). The name "Little Tartary" distinguished

15750-552: The invasion. After returning from captivity in Constantinople , he accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects. The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary . The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to

15900-415: The khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either sefers ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or çapuls ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century,

16050-529: The khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire, Caffa , an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets. In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in

16200-613: The khanate. Substantial non-Muslim minorities – Greeks , Armenians , Crimean Goths , Adyghe (Circassians), Venetians , Genoese , Crimean Karaites and Qırımçaq Jews – lived principally in the cities, mostly in separate districts or suburbs. Under the millet system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar. Mikhail Kizilov writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578),

16350-535: The later period, Mansuroğlu and Sicavut. After the collapse of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, an important element of the Crimean Khanate were the Nogays , most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea. Circassians (Atteghei) and Cossacks also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys. The Nogay pastoral nomads north of

16500-529: The main khan's estates were the lands of the Kalga who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, called Nureddin, was also assigned to the khan's family. He administered the western region of the peninsula. There also

16650-464: The most dedicated to following the spirit of Mongol law. Batu dispatched a large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East . However, Berke's persuasion might have forced him to delay to strengthen Hulagu's force, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there, for few years. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over

16800-549: The mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonesos and seized valuable church objects there. There is a similar legend about his successor Vytautas , who in 1397 went on a Crimean campaign to Caffa and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for giving refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and Belarus . In 1399 Vytautas, who came to

16950-732: The name of the Khagan. The country of Béla was assigned to Orda by Batu as an appanage ; Batu sent Khadan in pursuit of Béla, who retreated to Croatia . The Mongol battalions checked the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Babenberg Austria . During his campaign in Central Europe , Batu demanded that Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor , dethrone himself, and said: "I am coming to usurp your throne instead of you". The latter only replied that he would make

17100-528: The need for reform to save the state and to reassert the true faith; and the only basis of reform could be a Muslim equivalent of Satan casting out Satan. [?] Cevdet Pasa reproduced the treaty in his history. His Article 14 states that the church is to be called the dosografa church. The Mu‘āhedāt Mecmū‘ası is the officially-published collection of Ottoman treaties. A copy of the text of the treaty can also be found in Başbakanlık Arşivi in İstanbul and in

17250-403: The new church paralleled the increase in territorial, commercial, and diplomatic status accorded to Russia by the treaty. The surrender of Muslims to Christian rule put into question the rationale of a state founded on Muslim conquest of Christians, and of a religious revelation that promised to the true believer prosperity and power on earth as well as salvation hereafter. It made abundantly clear

17400-515: The order of his uncle Ögedei. The army, actually commanded by Subutai , crossed the Volga and invaded Volga Bulgaria in 1236. It took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians , Kypchaks , and Alani . In November 1237 Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and demanded his allegiance. When Yuri refused to surrender the Mongols besieged Ryazan . After six days of bloody battle,

17550-576: The protection of the ministers of the Russian Empire. Article XV – All cases of disagreement shall be investigated by "the Governors and Commanders of the frontiers". These officials will be bound to render justice where it is due, and any disagreements or disputes in the future will not serve as a pretext for any alteration in the friendship and good-feeling established by the treaty. Article XVI – The Empire of Russia returns Bessarabia ,

17700-595: The recent Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Kozludzha , the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74 and marked a defeat of the Ottomans in their struggle against Russia. The Russians were represented by Field-Marshal Count Pyotr Rumyantsev while the Ottoman side was represented by Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha. The treaty was a most humiliating blow to the once-mighty Ottoman realm. It would also stand to foreshadow several future conflicts between

17850-664: The regencies of Africa ( Tripoli , Tunis , Algiers , etc.). Article XIII – Subjects of the Ottoman Empire must evoke the title of the Empress of all the Russias in all public acts and letters. In the Turkish language, that is to say "Temamen Roussielerin Padischag ". Article XIV – Grants permission to the High Court of Russia to build a public church "of the Greek ritual" in Constantinople. The church will always be under

18000-618: The right to build a church in Constantinople's Galata quarter. The treaty stated that the church would be under the protection of the Russian minister, who could make representations concerning it to the Sublime Porte. In later years, the Russian government would make claims on an even broader right to protect the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox people in the Sultan's domains. Those claims were exaggerated, but

18150-569: The rights above the Georgian and Armenian nobles and the Mongol tammachis. But Güyük made David Ulu the senior king of Georgia and ordered Batu's protege David Narin to be subordinate to David Ulu. Suspicion between Batu and Güyük increased, and Güyük replaced the officials in Iran and the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei . When Güyük began moving west, Sorghaghtani Beki ,

18300-408: The rights of all the Greek Orthodox people in the Ottoman Empire. Batu Khan Batu Khan ( c.  1205 –1255) was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde , a constituent of the Mongol Empire established after Genghis Khan 's demise. Batu was a son of Jochi , thus a grandson of Genghis Khan . His ulus ruled over the Kievan Rus' , Volga Bulgaria , Cumania , and

18450-591: The same for its own church. The treaty forced the Ottomans to allow the passage of Russian ships through the Turkish Straits into the Mediterranean past the sultan's palace in Constantinople, avoiding the lengthy detour previously used. The treaty allowed the Ottoman sultan to maintain certain rights there in his capacity as caliph of Muslims. In religious affairs only, the Muslims remained subject to

18600-431: The series of Ecnebi Defterleri that records treaties, decorations and consular matters. Texts of the treaty are also found in Italian and Russian. Grand Vizier Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha signed Turkish and Italian copies of the treaty, and Field Marshal P. A. Rumyantsev signed Russian and Italian texts. Russian, Italian, and Turkish are the only three languages in which original copies of the treaty were written, and in case of

18750-459: The signing of the treaty, and within two months after the signing of the treaty, send persons to settle the handing over of the Castle of Kinburn in keeping with the stipulations of Article XXIII. Article XXVII – In order to keep the peace and friendship between the two Empires authentic, there shall be envoys sent by both sides who will meet on the frontiers and treated with honor and ceremony. As

18900-476: The sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne). The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Molodi . Don Cossacks reached lower Don, Donets and Azov by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected

19050-807: The son of Chagatai , won the Battle of Legnica , and another army of Güyük or Büri triumphed in Transylvania , Subutai was waiting for another victory over the Magyars , the Croats , and the Templars on the Hungarian plain. In 1241, a Tatar (Mongol) army led by Bujek crossed the mountains of the Kara Ulagh ("Black Vlachs"); Bujek defeated the Vlachs and one of their leader named Mišlav . However,

19200-400: The source of some confusion. While most of the treaty is straightforward, Articles 7 and 14 have been the source of a variety of interpretations. Article 14 of the treaty concerns the church that is to be built in Constantinople . In the Russian text, Article 14 states that the church would be of the 'Greco-Russian' faith. The Italian text states that the church is to be called 'Russo-Greek'. It

19350-646: The southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses. Under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire , large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam . Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in

19500-545: The steppe and foothills of the Peninsula: Kipchaks (Cumans), Crimean Greeks , Crimean Goths , Alans , and Armenians , who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin. Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in

19650-481: The sultan's suzerainty , when the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji forced the Sublime Porte to recognize the Tatars of the Crimea as politically independent, although the sultan remained the religious leader of the Tatars as the Muslim caliph. This was the first time the powers of the Ottoman caliph were exercised outside of Ottoman borders and ratified by a European power. The Khanate retained this nominal independence, while actually being dependent on Russia, until Catherine

19800-548: The summer of 1238, Batu Khan devastated the Crimea and pacified Mordovia and the Kipchak -controlled steppe . In the winter of 1239, he sacked Chernigov and Pereyaslav . After several days of siege, the Mongols stormed Kiev in December 1240. Despite fierce resistance by Danylo of Halych , Batu Khan managed to take the two principal capitals of his land, Halych and Volodymyr . Ruthenian principalities became vassals of

19950-652: The time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the Ottoman fortress at Arabat . The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns,

20100-479: The treaty did not designate the church to be built in Constantinople as "Russo-Greek". Mention of the church's Russian character was omitted. "Of the Greek ritual" may seem to have an insignificant difference from a church "of the Greco-Russian faith", but the mistranslation found in the French and the English texts helped Russian pretensions of a right to protect the wider Greek Church in the Ottoman Empire. It

20250-938: The tribes on the lower Ural River . According to Abulghazi , Batu joined Ögedei's military campaign against the Jin dynasty in North China while his younger brother was fighting the Bashkirs , the Cumans , the Bulghars and the Alans in the west. Despite heavy resistance from their enemies, the Mongols conquered major cities of the Jurchens and made the Bashkirs their ally. In the 1230s, Ögedei distributed lands in Shanxi to Batu and

20400-459: The two Empires shall be granted liberty without ransom money or redemption money. This includes those in the Empire of Russia who voluntarily quit Mahometanism in order to embrace the Christian religion, as well as those in the Ottoman Empire who have left Christianity in order to embrace the Mahometan faith. Article XXVI – The commander of the Russian Army in Crimea and the Governor of Oczakow must communicate with each other immediately after

20550-410: The upper Tor River (a tributary of the Donets ). The first known Turkic peoples appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by The Turkic Kaganate . In the 11th century, Cumans (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate. In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of

20700-414: The war , but Subutai reminded him of the law of Yassa (Их Засаг). The Mongols withdrew in late spring of 1242, as the Princes of the Blood, and Subutai, were recalled to Karakorum where the kurultai was held. Batu was a potential Great Khan , but when he failed to gain the title he turned to consolidate his conquests in Asia and the Urals . Withdrawing from Hungary, Batu made his camps along

20850-472: The widow of Tolui , warned Batu that he was actually the Great Khan's target. When Güyük summoned Batu to appear before him, Batu moved slowly. Before meeting Batu, Güyük died suddenly. According to William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicle, one of Batu's brothers murdered or poisoned the Great Khan Güyük and Batu then killed the imperial envoy, though this account is not completely confirmed by other major sources. An opportunity had arrived for deposing

21000-431: The Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend the kurultai beyond the Mongolian heartland. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu Khan who had no interest in promoting himself as the new Grand Khan. Rejecting it, he instead nominated Möngke, who led a Mongol army in Rus', the Northern Caucasus, and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction rose up and supported his choice. Given its limited attendance and location, this kurultai

21150-405: Was a peace treaty signed on 21 July 1774, in Küçük Kaynarca (today Kaynardzha , Bulgaria) between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire , ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74 with many concessions to Russia. The concessions to Russia are not merely territorial; not only are the territories of Romania and Crimea Khanate (not Crimea proper) ceded, Russia also gains the right to construct

21300-591: Was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister — Ana-beim — which was similar to the Ottomans' valide sultan . The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank of Ulu-beim and was next in importance to the Nureddin. By the end of the khanate regional offices of the kaimakans , who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created. Treaty of K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk Kaynarca The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ( Turkish : Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması ; Russian : Кючук-Кайнарджийский мир ), formerly often written Kuchuk-Kainarji ,

21450-426: Was known in Rus and Europe as the Golden Horde ( Zolotaya Orda ) some think because of the golden colour of the Khan's tent. "Horde" comes from the Mongol word "orda/ordu" or camp. "Golden" is thought to have had a similar meaning to "royal" (Royal Camp). Of all the Khanates, the Golden Horde ruled longest. Long after the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China to Mongolia, and the fall of Ilkhanate in Middle East,

21600-412: Was not feudal . They were free and the Islamic law protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khan Şahin Giray , the internal structure was changed following

21750-437: Was not in conformity with the Turkish, Russian and Italian texts of the treaty and may or may not have been an innocent mistake, according to Roderic H. Davison . "The St. Petersburg French translation, then, by dropping any reference to the Russian character of the church, and including only reference to the Greek, was misleading. Deliberate or not, it certainly laid an advantageous base for later Russian claims." Surprisingly,

21900-486: Was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke invited Oghul Qaimish and other main Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time, demanding descendants of Ögedei must be khan. In response, Batu accused them of killing his aunt Altalaun and defying Ögedei's nominee, Shiremun. After

22050-496: Was one of the finest sources of water in Bakhchisaray . One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture was Qırım Giray , who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain or Fountain of Tears is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan

22200-442: Was said to have fallen in love with a Polish girl in his harem . Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever. The nine regions outside of Qirim yurt (the peninsula) were: The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and several beys . An estate controlled by

22350-399: Was shown mercy. During the reign of Möngke, Batu's prestige as kingmaker and viceroy of the great khans in the west reached its height. Even so, Batu allowed Möngke's census takers to operate freely in his realm. According to a Muslim chronicle and the History of Yuan , Batu had free access to the imperial treasury. Of all the grandsons of Genghis Khan, he and Möngke seemed most capable and

22500-416: Was the small town of Kozelsk , whose boy-prince Titus and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks. As the story goes, at the news of Mongol approach, the city of Kitezh was submerged in a lake with all its inhabitants, where it may be seen to this day. Khadan and Buri stormed the city in three days after they joined Batu. The only major cities to escape destruction were Smolensk , which submitted to

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