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105-471: However, at the same time that he was solidifying Confucianism 's position as the official ideology, the empire's condition slowly deteriorated due to his indecisiveness, his inability to stop factional infighting between officials in his administration, and the trust he held in certain corrupt officials. He was succeeded by Emperor Cheng . When Emperor Yuan was born Liu Shi in 75 BC, his parents Liu Bingyi and Xu Pingjun were commoners without titles. Bingyi

210-494: A concubine (as Consort Wang), but she was not one of his favourites. Emperor Xuan's first wife, Empress Xu Pingjun was poisoned in 71 BC by the ambitious Xian (顯), the wife of the regent Huo Guang , who wanted to make her daughter Huo Chengjun empress, an objective that she was successful in after Empress Xu's death. While Huo Chengjun was empress, she allegedly tried unsuccessfully several times to poison Empress Xu's son Crown Prince Liu Shi , to make her potential future son

315-636: A "son-in-law of Han". In response, Emperor Yuan gave him five ladies in waiting as a reward, and one of them was the beautiful Wang Zhaojun . Impressed that Emperor Yuan gave him the most beautiful woman that he had ever seen, Huhanye offered to have his forces serve as the northern defence forces for Han, a proposal that Emperor Yuan rejected as ill-advised, but the relationship between Han and Xiongnu thereafter grew stronger. Emperor Yuan had two favourite concubines in addition to Empress Wang, Consort Fu ( 傅昭儀 ) and Consort Feng Yuan ( 馮昭儀 ), each of whom bore him one son. Empress Wang apparently tried to maintain

420-556: A 'sense of right and wrong' ( 耻 ; chǐ ), 'gentleness' ( 温 ; wēn ), 'kindheartenedness' ( 良 ; liáng ), 'respect' ( 恭 ; gōng ), 'frugality' ( 俭 ; jiǎn ), and 让 ; ràng ; 'modesty'). Ren (仁 ) is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic . Internally ren can mean "to look up" meaning "to aspire to higher Heavenly principles or ideals", It

525-633: A conspiracy to get the emperor deposed of. The conspiracy was discovered, and the entire Huo clan was executed by Emperor Xuan. Empress Huo was striped of all her titles but not executed, Emperor Xuan decided 12 years later that he wanted her to be exiled, in response, she committed suicide. What Empress Huo tried to do influenced Emperor Xuan in his choice of the next Emperess. At the time, his favoured consorts were consorts Hua, consorts Zhang, and consorts Wei, each of whom he had children with. He almost settled on Consort Zhang as his new empress. However, he hesitated, remembering how Empress Huo had tried to murder

630-428: A conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen , is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiao . In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain

735-579: A cordial relationship with both, and she was largely successful, at least as far as Consort Feng was concerned. However, a struggle between Empress Wang and Consort Fu for their sons' heir status erupted. As Crown Prince Ao grew older, Emperor Yuan became increasingly unhappy with his fitness as imperial heir and impressed with Consort Fu's son, Prince Kang of Dingtao ( 山陽王劉康 ). Several incidents led to this situation. One happened in 35 BC, when Emperor Yuan's youngest brother Prince Liu Jing of Zhongshan ( 中山王劉竟 ) died. Emperor Yuan became angry because he felt that

840-399: A counterweight to subservience to authority. The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of

945-460: A disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray to gods, one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to

1050-469: A factional schism developed, a phenomenon that would plague his entire reign and cause officials to concentrate on infighting rather than effective governance. One faction included mainly Confucian scholars, his teachers, Xiao and Zhou, aligned with an imperial clan member who was also a Confucian scholar, Liu Gengsheng (劉更生, later named Liu Xiang 劉向), and imperial assistant Jin Chang ( 金敞 ). The other faction

1155-549: A highly honoured part; it was not until several decades later that Confucians began to disfavour fortune telling.) Jing, who had become a trusted advisor of Emperor Yuan after Emperor Yuan greatly favoured his proposed system for examining and promoting regional officials, accused Shi and Shi's assistant Wulu Chongzong ( 五鹿充宗 ) of being corrupt and evil. Initially, Emperor Yuan believed him, but took no action against Shi and Wulu. Shi and Wulu soon found out and fought back by accusing Jing of conspiring with Emperor Yuan's brother Liu Qin,

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1260-818: A major role in governing the country, given the forceful nature of his father. He was taught the Confucian classics by a succession of Confucian scholars during his pre-teen and teenage years. Prince Shi became a mild-mannered and strict adherent of Confucian principles, unlike his father who made effective use of both Legalist and Confucian principles in his governance. This would bring his father's ire on him. In 53 BC, when Emperor Xuan and Prince Shi were having dinner, he suggested that Emperor Xuan employ more Confucian officials in key positions. Emperor Xuan became extremely angry and commented that Confucian scholars were impractical and could not be given responsibilities, and further commented that Emperor Yuan's reign would lead to

1365-483: A mid-level office, along with Zhou's student Zhang Meng (張猛, a grandson of the great explorer Zhang Qian ). Despite the relatively low positions that Zhou and Zhang had, their advice was highly valued by Emperor Yuan. In 44 BC, he promoted the highly regarded Confucian scholar Gong Yu ( 貢禹 ), who tried not to engage himself in factional politics, to the position of vice prime minister, and heeded many of his suggestions to further reduce governmental spending and to encourage

1470-545: A national Confucian Church ( 孔圣会 ; 孔聖會 ; Kǒngshènghuì ) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism". The closest catch-all term for things related to Confucianism is the word ru ( 儒 ; rú ). Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'. In Old Chinese

1575-540: A person may know the movements of tian , and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tian was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao : "the way things are" or "the regularities of

1680-404: A stroke, and Shi Xian found an opportunity to falsely accuse Zhang of crimes and forced him to commit suicide. In 37 BC, another Confucian scholar would try to shake the influence of Shi Xian. He was Jing Fang ( 京房 ), who, in addition to studying Confucianism, was also an accomplished fortune teller . (At this time, fortune telling was still considered to be a part of Confucian studies, indeed,

1785-675: A subject and received Han assistance. Chanyu Zhizhi, then the stronger of the two, tried to maintain a détente with Han by sending his son Juyulishou ( 駒于利受 ) to the Han court, but was not so willing to submit, and soon found himself out-powered by the Han-assisted Huhanye. In 49 BC, the last year of Emperor Xuan's reign, Chanyu Zhizhi headed north-west and conquered several Xiyu kingdoms, basing his capital in Jiankun (modern Altay, Xinjiang ). From there, he frequently attacked one of

1890-455: A traditional enemy of Kangju . They repeatedly inflicted heavy victory appon victory against the Wusun over the course several years. In 36 BC, two Han commanders, Gan Yanshou ( 甘延壽 ) and his lieutenant Chen Tang ( 陳湯 ), took the initiative start a war on Zhizhi. Zhizhi, after winning many victories over the Wusun and other Xiyu kingdoms, had become exceedingly arrogant, and treated his ally,

1995-562: A transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c. 2070–1600 BCE), Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (c. 1046–771 BCE) dynasties. Confucianism was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), but survived. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" Huang–Lao as

2100-415: A trap for Zhizhi, by pretending that they were running low on supplies, to ward off the possibility that Zhizhi would flee. Zhizhi took the bait and stayed in his capital. The coalition forces soon arrived at his capital and besieged it later killing Chanyu Zhizhi in the subsequent battle . After this Chanyu Huhanye made an official visit to the Han capital of Chang'an in 33 BC and formally asked to become

2205-473: Is a Chinese philosophical term often translated as " gentleman " or "superior person" and employed by Confucius in the Analects to describe the ideal man. Empress Wang (Xuan) Empress Wang (王皇后, personal name unknown) (died 22 September 16 BC ), formally Empress Xiaoxuan (孝宣皇后), semi-formally Empress Dowager Qiongcheng (邛成太后), to distinguish her from her daughter-in-law Wang Zhengjun , with

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2310-536: Is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China , and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy ( humanistic or rationalistic ), religion , theory of government, or way of life. Confucianism developed from teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), during a time that was later referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought era. Confucius considered himself

2415-515: Is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it. Yan Hui , Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ren and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper." Confucius also defined ren in

2520-486: Is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines . Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during

2625-569: Is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same

2730-399: Is not merely Confucian but shared by many Chinese religions , "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" ( hundun and qi ), and is organized through the polarity of yin and yang that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation ex nihilo . "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and

2835-474: Is to say self-cultivation and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". Ren , translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In

2940-462: Is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of

3045-478: Is variously translated as ' rite ' or ' reason ', 'ratio' in the pure sense of Vedic ṛta ('right', 'order') when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as ' customs ', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes

3150-479: The Datong Shu  [ zh ] , it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated   ... compassion is aroused". "Lord Heaven" and " Jade Emperor " were terms for a Confucianist supreme deity who was an anthropromorphized tian , and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. Tian , a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to

3255-406: The tao , and/or gods from Chinese folk religion . These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in

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3360-499: The Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian Liu Xin . The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold

3465-512: The Han dynasty . The Five Constants are: These are accompanied by the classical four virtues ( 四字 ; sìzì ), one of which ( Yi ) is also included among the Five Constants: There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as 'honesty' ( 诚 ; chéng ), 'bravery' ( 勇 ; yǒng ), 'incorruptibility' ( 廉 ; lián ), 'kindness', 'forgiveness' ( 恕 ; shù ),

3570-543: The Ming-Qing transition . In Confucian philosophy, "filial piety" ( 孝 ; xiào ) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiao . The book,

3675-625: The " Three Principles of the People " with the establishment of the Republic of China , and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China . In the late twentieth century, the Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy . With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony , rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values,

3780-419: The "pragmatic" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless "contributed to their formation". The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and tian ("heaven"). To put it another way, it focuses on

3885-623: The God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation. Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tian gave him life, and that tian watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that

3990-450: The Han borders, and let him travel the remaining journey on his own. Gu reasoned that by escorting Juyilishou all the way to Jiankun, he might be able to persuade Zhizhi to submit, and that he was willing to risk his own life to do so. Emperor Yuan agreed and Gu escorted Juyilishou to Jiankun. Chanyu Zhizhi was not impressed and had Gu executed. Zhizhi then realized that he made a major mistake, and he allianced with Kangju to conquer Wusun ,

4095-504: The Han's ally, the Wusun . In 44 BC, Chanyu Zhizhi sent an ambassador to offer tributes to Han, but at the same time demanded that Han deliver his son Juyilishou back to him. Emperor Yuan commissioned a guard commander, Gu Ji ( 谷吉 ), to escort Juyilishou. Initially, based on advice from Gong and other key officials, who reasoned that Zhizhi had no real intention to submit and was far away, Emperor Yuan instructed Gu to escort Juyilishou only to

4200-502: The Huos had murdered Empress Xu, which led him to begin stripping the Huos of actual power, while giving them impressive titles. In 66 BC, after there had been increasing public rumours that the Huos had murdered Empress Xu, Lady Xian finally revealed to her son and grandnephews that she had, indeed, murdered Empress Xu. In fear of what the emperor might do if he had actual proof, Lady Xian, her son, her grandnephews, and her sons-in-law formed

4305-465: The Prince of Huaiyang, and Prince Qin's uncle. As a result, Jing was executed. Around the same time, despite Emperor Yuan's general tendency for pacificism, a military confrontation had developed with one branch of Xiongnu , which had split into competing courts ruled by Chanyus Huhanye in the east and Zhizhi in the west. During Emperor Xuan's reign, Chanyu Huhanye had officially submitted to Han as

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4410-593: The ability to cultivate and centre natural forces. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation   ... rice and millet, fish and meat   ... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes   ... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of

4515-425: The active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world." Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that

4620-487: The banks of Lake Balkhash ) had only recently been built and lacked strong defences, his plan was to use the colonization forces that the Han army had in Xiyu as well as Wusun forces to advance to and capture Zhizhi's capital. Gan agreed with his plan and wanted to request approval, but Chen feared that civilian officials would disapprove of this plan. Therefore, when Gan fell sick, Chen forged of imperial edicts and requisitioned

4725-407: The basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include ren , yi , li , and zhi . Ren is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion. It is the virtue-form of Heaven. Yi is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. Li is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with

4830-483: The colonization military forces as well as forces of the other kingdoms that submitted to Han authority. Once Gan recovered, he tried to reverse Chen's actions, but Chen warned him that it was too late to do so. They then set out (after submitting reports admitting to forging edicts but providing the reasons for doing so), marching along two routes, one force taking a route through Dayuan and the other through Wusun. The forces rejoined when they entered Kangju . They then set

4935-409: The core of Confucianism is humanistic . According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette 's conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred ", Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human life—and especially human relationships—as a manifestation of the sacred, because they are

5040-655: The court faction further pressed Xiao into committing suicide. They did this by tricking Emperor Yuan into deciding to have Xiao investigated for inducing his son to make a petition for him, something considered inappropriate. Hong and Shi calculated that Xiao would rather commit suicide than face an investigation, and that was what Xiao did. As a result, the court faction prevailed. Consistent with his personality, Emperor Yuan rebuked Hong and Shi harshly for misleading him and buried Xiao with great honour, but did not punish Hong (who died later that year) and Shi. In 46 BC, Emperor Yuan summoned Zhou back to his administration and gave him

5145-491: The crown prince. He therefore resolved to making an empress who was childless and kind. He decided on the gentle Consort Wang , and made her empress in 64 BC. Emperor Xuan put Prince Shi in her care, and she cared for him well. Empress Wang would have a role in Crown Prince Shi's eventual choice of a wife. In the middle of the 50s BC, Consort Sima, the favourite consort of Prince Shi, died from an illness. Prince Shi

5250-530: The downfall of the Liu imperial clan, words that would turn out to be prophetic. This would also bring his father to consider changing the succession plans, as he was also disappointed by Prince Shi's general lack of resolve. He considered making Prince Shi's younger brother, Liu Qin, the Prince of Huaiyang , crown prince instead. However, he could not bring himself to do so, remembering how Prince Shi's mother, Empress Xu,

5355-402: The emperor and their key roles in processing reports and edicts for Emperor Yuan. Policy-wise, the Confucian faction advocated returning to the ancient policies of the early Zhou dynasty , while the court faction advocated keeping the traditions of the Han dynasty. In 47 BC, Hong and Shi used procedural traps which led to Zhou and Liu being demoted to commoners and Xiao retired. Later that year,

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5460-401: The entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: 齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。 The duke Jing, of Qi , asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister

5565-555: The expression of humanity's moral nature ( 性 ; xìng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in tian ( 天 ; tiān ; 'heaven'). While the Confucian concept of tian shares some similarities with the concept of a deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle like the tao or the Brahman . Most scholars and practitioners do not think of tian as a god, and the deities that many Confucians worship do not originate from orthodox Confucianism. Confucianism focuses on

5670-468: The fabric of li . Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li . Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising li . Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Loyalty ( 忠 ; zhōng ) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because

5775-578: The fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature and also respects various tao , as well as what Confucius saw as the main tao , the "[Way] of Heaven." The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and wu wei , "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and

5880-450: The family and society to create a harmonious community. Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth ( 地 ; dì ), the sovereign or the government ( 君 ; jūn ), ancestors ( 親 ; qīn ), and masters ( 師 ; shī ). According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang , in Chinese cosmology, which

5985-477: The fate of the other Confucian scholars, entered into an alliance with Shi Xian to ensure his own safety and power. In 40 BC, more unusual signs occurred and Emperor Yuan asked the court faction to explain how they could continue to occur if, as they alleged, they were signs of divine disapproval of Zhou and Zhang. They could not, and so Emperor Yuan summoned Zhou and Zhang back to the capital to serve as advisors. However, this would not last long, as Zhou soon died of

6090-497: The following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others." Another meaning of ren is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself." Confucius also said, " ren is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." Ren is close to man and never leaves him. Li ( 礼 ; 禮 ) is a word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy . Li

6195-406: The gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors . Some Confucian movements worship Confucius, although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or

6300-438: The heart to turn in his wife, instead agreed to Chunyu's release. In April 70 BC, Emperor Xuan made Huo Chengjun empress. Accustomed to luxury living, her palace expenditures far exceeded the late Empress Xu. Huo Chengjun becoming empress was a threat to Prince Shi's life. On 24 May 67 BC, Emperor Xuan made the eight-year-old Prince Shi into Crown Prince and awarded Empress Xu's father and Prince Shi's grandfather, Xu Guanghan,

6405-564: The hundred things coming into being. What does Tian say?") as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. Duanmu Ci , a disciple of Confucius, said that Tian had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that Tian gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( de ). In 8.19, he says that

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6510-517: The imperial heir. After the Huo clan was destroyed and Empress Huo deposed in 66 BC, Emperor Xuan considered who amongst his consorts to create as his empress. At that time, he favoured Consorts Hua, Zhang, and Wei, each of whom had borne him children. He almost settled on Consort Zhang as his new empress. However, he became hesitant, remembering how Empress Huo had tried to murder the crown prince. He therefore resolved to create as his empress someone who

6615-694: The increasing influence of Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism . This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in the Song dynasty (960–1297). The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The intellectuals of the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses . They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include

6720-410: The intercession of Shi Dan, who risked his life by stepping onto the carpet of the imperial bed chamber, an act that only the empress was allowed to do (on pain of death) led Emperor Yuan to cease those thoughts. When Emperor Yuan died in 33 BC, Crown Prince Ao ascended the throne (as Emperor Cheng). Consorts and Issue: Confucianism Confucianism , also known as Ruism or Ru classicism ,

6825-420: The invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ( 央 ; yāng or 中 ; zhōng ). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have

6930-479: The king of Kangju , as a subject, he even executed king Kangju 's daughter, who had been married to him as part of the alliance. He also forced the other kingdoms in the region, including the powerful Dayuan , to pay him tribute. Chen felt that Chanyu Zhizhi would eventually become a major threat and devised a plan to eliminate him. Reasoning that Zhizhi was a powerful warrior but lacked the affection to kingdoms that subjected to him, and also that his new capital (on

7035-610: The largess of others. One of his supporters was chief eunuch Zhang He, who had been an advisor for Prince Ju before his rebellion, and who was punished by being castrated. Around 76 BC, Zhang wanted to marry his granddaughter to Bingyi, but his brother Zhang Anshi ( 張安世 ), then an important official, opposed his decision, fearing that it would bring trouble to his family. Zhang, instead, invited one of his subordinate eunuchs (who had also been castrated by Emperor Wu), Xu Guanghan ( 許廣漢 ), to dinner, and persuaded him to marry his daughter Xu Pingjun to Liu Bingyi. When Xu's wife heard this, she

7140-758: The law of Heaven. Zhi ( 智 ; zhì ) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of ren and yi . Traditionally, cultures and countries in the Chinese cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and Vietnam , as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people , such as Singapore . Today, it has been credited for shaping East Asian societies and overseas Chinese communities , and to some extent, other parts of Asia. Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from

7245-496: The lives of the sages are interwoven with Tian . Regarding personal gods ( shen , energies who emanate from and reproduce Tian ) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate ( yi ) for people to worship ( 敬 ; jìng ) them, although only through proper rites ( li ), implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master. Answering to

7350-422: The material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following

7455-489: The most beautiful of the young ladies in waiting and had them sent to Prince Shi. Wang Zhengjun was one of the ladies in waiting chosen. She, as the mother of his first-born son Liu Ao (later Emperor Cheng ), would eventually become his wife and empress. Empress Wang was not known to have had significant political influence as an empress. After her husband Emperor Xuan died in January 48 BC and her stepson Prince Shi took

7560-459: The most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to

7665-530: The mother of his first-born son, Prince Ao, empress. On 17 June 47 BC, he made Prince Ao crown prince. In 46 BC, alarmed at the high human and monetary cost of occupying Hainan and suppressing the frequent native rebellions, Emperor Yuan decreed that the two commanderies on the island be abandoned. Similarly, in 40 BC, alarmed at the high cost of maintaining imperial temples, he reduced the number of standing temples. Early in Emperor Yuan's administration

7770-451: The official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism. Confucianism regards principles contained in the Five Classics , the key tenets that should be followed to promote the harmony of the family and the society as a whole. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). In the late Tang, Confucianism further developed in response to

7875-456: The original Zhou -era teachings, and are typically much more complex because of their reliance on "elaborate doctrine " and other factors such as traditions with long histories. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community, and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches . In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established

7980-419: The parents' wishes is not considered to be xiao ; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is " The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars ". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in

8085-434: The participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals. The junzi ('lord's son')

8190-454: The past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers. Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility ( renqing ) extends beyond filial piety and involves

8295-401: The practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of tian . The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. Some of

8400-459: The principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. In the Western world, the character for water is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China. However, the five phases were used as important symbols representing leadership in Han dynasty thought, including Confucianist works. Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of

8505-498: The regent, Huo Guang 霍光, having been dissatisfied with his initial selection of Prince He of Changyi, deposed Prince He and offered the throne to the commoner Bingyi instead. Bingyi accepted and took the throne as Emperor Xuan. Shi's mother Xu Pingjun was made empress. This action would cost Empress Xu her life, however, and cost Prince Shi his mother. Huo Guang's wife, Xian ( 顯 ), would not be denied her wish of making her daughter Huo Chengjun ( 霍成君 ) an empress. In 71 BC, Empress Xu

8610-414: The relationship between humanity and heaven. The principle or way of Heaven ( tian li or tian tao ) is the order of the world and the source of divine authority. Tian li or tian tao is monistic , meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self may be extended to

8715-540: The ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as

8820-416: The ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of

8925-455: The rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)." Similarly, Mencius also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy." Moreover, Mencius indicated that if

9030-483: The sacred Way". Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tian as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view. As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality

9135-578: The same family name, but otherwise unrelated to her) was an empress during the Western Han dynasty . She was the third wife of Emperor Xuan . Empress Wang's father Wang Fengguang (王奉光) was a hereditary acting marquess (關內侯) when he met Emperor Xuan while he was still a commoner, based on their common interest in cockfighting . According to legend, she was betrothed to several men in succession, but each time her fiancé died before marriage could occur. After Emperor Xuan became emperor, he took her as

9240-663: The seed of dissatisfaction was sown. As the princes grew older, Emperor Yuan and Prince Kang became closer. They shared a love of and skills in music, particularly the playing of drums. Prince Kang also showed high intelligence and diligence, while Crown Prince Ao was known for drinking and womanizing. When Emperor Yuan grew ill during 35 BC, an illness that he would not recover from, Consort Fu and Prince Kang were often summoned to his sickbed to attend to him, while Empress Wang and Crown Prince Ao rarely were. During his illness, apparently encouraged by Consort Fu, Emperor Yuan reconsidered whether he should make Prince Kang his heir instead. Only

9345-489: The study of Confucianism. In 43 BC, there were a number of unusual astronomical and meteorological signs that were considered signs of divine disapproval. Shi Xian and his allies, the Xu and Shi clans, alleged that this was a sign of divine disapproval of Zhou and Zhang's policies. Zhou and Zhang were demoted to local posts. In 42 BC, he promoted another Confucian scholar, Kuang Heng ( 匡衡 ), to be his key advisor, and Kuang, aware of

9450-460: The teenage Crown Prince Ao was not grieving sufficiently, particularly because Princes Ao and Jing were of similar age and grew up together as playmates, thus showing insufficient respect to Prince Jing. Prince Ao's head of household, Shi Dan ( 史丹 ), a relative of Emperor Yuan's grandmother and a senior official respected by Emperor Yuan, managed to convince Emperor Yuan that Crown Prince Ao was trying to stop Emperor Yuan himself from over-grieving, but

9555-403: The term has been "burdened   ... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school. The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance. This translation of

9660-517: The throne as Emperor Yuan, she held the title of empress dowager . She would outlive him as well. After Emperor Yuan died in July 33 BC, his son, Crown Prince Ao, took the throne as Emperor Cheng. Empress Wang then held the title of grand empress dowager, and she became also semi-formally known as Empress Dowager Qiongcheng (based on her father's title) to be distinguished with her daughter-in-law. She did not appear to have much political influence during

9765-482: The throne as Emperor Yuan. As emperor, Emperor Yuan immediately started a regimen of reducing governmental spending, with the objective of reducing the burdens of the people. He also started a program for social assistance to provide stipends for the poor and also for new entrepreneurs. Contrary to his father's governing philosophy, he relied heavily on Confucian scholars and put them into important governmental positions. In 48 BC, Emperor Yuan made Consort Wang Zhengjun,

9870-414: The title of Marquess of Ping'en. Huo Guang opposed these actions. Huo's wife, Lady Xian was shocked and displeased, because if her daughter ever had a son, why would he only be forever a prince and not the future emperor. She instructed her daughter to murder the crown prince. Allegedly, Empress Huo did make multiple attempts to do so, but failed each time. Around this time, the emperor also heard rumours that

9975-526: The word ru is followed by e.g. Yuri Pines. According to Zhou Youguang , ru originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius ( c. 372–289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving

10080-525: The word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'. Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use ru . These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Robert Eno argues that

10185-410: The world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis , "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. Tian may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are

10290-401: Was a great-grandson of Emperor Wu , and his grandfather Liu Ju was Emperor Wu's crown prince, until Emperor Wu's paranoia forced him into a failed rebellion in 91 BC while Bingyi was still just an infant. The aftermath of the failed rebellion was that Prince Ju committed suicide and his entire family was executed. Bingyi was spared because of his young age, but became a commoner and survived on

10395-469: Was childless and kind. He decided on Consort Wang, and created her empress on 26 March 64 BC and gave her a luxurious life. He also created her father, Wang Fengguang, the Marquess of Qiongcheng (邛成侯). Emperor Xuan put Prince Shi in her care, and she cared for him well. Despite her position, she was never one of Emperor Xuan's favourites and she rarely saw him. Of course, she had no problem with this and

10500-501: Was furious and refused her permission, but because Zhang was Xu's superior, Xu did not dare to renege on the promise. Bingyi and Pingjun were married in a ceremony entirely paid for by Zhang (because Bingyi could not afford the cost). Zhang also paid the bride price . After their marriage, Bingyi heavily depended on his wife's family for support. Shi was less than a year old when something very unusual happened to his father. Shi's great-granduncle, Emperor Zhao (漢昭帝), had died that year and

10605-465: Was grief-stricken and became ill and depressed. Emperor Xuan was concerned, so he had Empress Wang select the most beautiful of the young ladies in waiting and had them sent to Prince Shi. Wang Zhengjun was one of the ladies in waiting chosen. With her, he had his first-born son Liu Ao (劉驁, later Emperor Cheng ) c. 51 BC. Prince Ao became Emperor Xuan's favourite grandson and often accompanied him. During his years as crown prince, Prince Shi did not have

10710-560: Was his cousin-twice-removed Shi, imperial secretary Hong Gong ( 弘恭 ) and chief eunuch Shi Xian ( 石顯 ). Hong Gong and Shi Xian are recorded as being the Emperor's lovers. Yuan gave them both key administrative positions, which eventually proved disastrous as they plotted the deaths of many officials who opposed them. The Confucian faction derived their power from the fact that Emperor Yuan trusted and respected their advice. The "court faction" derived their power from their physical closeness to

10815-438: Was his first love and had been murdered by poisoning, and also how he depended on his father-in-law in his youth. Prince Shi's position therefore was not seriously threatened. In 49 BC, Emperor Xuan became seriously ill. Before his death, he commissioned his cousin-once-removed Shi Gao ( 史高 ), Prince Shi's teacher Xiao Wangzhi ( zh:蕭望之 ), and Xiao's assistant Zhou Kan ( 周堪 ) to serve as regents. After he died, Prince Shi ascended

10920-489: Was pregnant when Lady Xian came up with a plot. She bribed Empress Xu's female physician Chunyu Yan ( 淳于衍 ), under guise of giving Empress Xu medicine to help ease her pain and control blood flow after she gave birth, to poison Empress Xu. Chunyu did so, and Empress Xu died shortly after she gave birth. Her doctors were initially arrested to investigate whether they cared for the empress properly. Lady Xian, alarmed, informed Huo Guang what had actually happened, and Huo, not having

11025-411: Was satisfied with her power, which was superior to all wives, courtiers and even male relatives of the royal family. Empress Wang would have a role in Crown Prince Shi's eventual choice of a wife. In the mid-50s BC, Consort Sima, the favourite consort of Prince Shi died from an illness. Prince Shi was grief-stricken and became ill and depressed. Emperor Xuan was concerned, so he had Empress Wang select

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