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131-519: The history of the district is the same as that of Odisha owing to the strategic location of Cuttack city. The city in some form or the other has been an administrative centre since the Kesari kings of the 10th century. The fort at Barabati continued to be the capital of the Mughals who started revenue settlement of Coastal Odisha – thus giving it the vernacular name of Mughalbandi. Occupied successively by

262-525: A Timurid chieftain from Transoxiana , who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires to defeat the Sultan of Delhi , Ibrahim Lodi , in the First Battle of Panipat , and to sweep down the plains of North India . The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar . This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after

393-604: A sarkar could turn into a subah , and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars . The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess

524-480: A thin section using a method like the Gazzi-Dickinson Method . This yields the relative percentages of quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains and the amount of clay matrix. The composition of a sandstone can provide important information on the genesis of the sediments when used with a triangular Q uartz, F eldspar, L ithic fragment ( QFL diagrams ). However, geologist have not been able to agree on

655-653: A Block Development Officer who reports directly to the project director and the collector. Policing is the responsibility of the Superintendent of Police or SP who is nominally under the District Magistrate but is independent in practice. Each block has one or more police stations headed by an Inspector or Sub Inspector in-charge. After the introduction of the Bhubaneswar–Cuttack Police Commissionerate , Magisterial powers in

786-705: A central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context. The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs. Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the qadi . The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance in documents, as

917-402: A century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century but, once gone, their imperial overstretch became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as

1048-833: A connection with the Board of Secondary Education , Odisha. The oldest school near Odisha, Ravenshaw Collegiate School , is situated in the city and boasts renowned alumni including Harekrushna Mahatab , Biju Patnaik , and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose . Secondary Board High School , Ravenshaw Girls' High School , Stewart School , and Delhi Public School Kalinga were a few other renowned schools. Ranihat High School, Nua Bazar High School, Odisha Police High School, Sri Aurobindo Institute of Higher Studies and Research Matrubhaban , Christ Collegiate School, Kamalakanta Vidayapitha , Peary Mohan Academy, Badambadi New Colony High School, Buckley Girls School , Sri Aurobindo School Of New Thought, CRRI High School. Cuttack's higher learning system, known as

1179-472: A highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a diwan , was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of

1310-426: A kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps. After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became

1441-868: A local shrine where the presiding female deity or Gram Thakurani is worshipped. Odia Muslims are about 5.38% of the population and are primarily concentrated in Cuttack city as well as the blocks of Mahanga , Salepur , Niali and Nischintakoili . As noted above, they are distinguished by the use of Odia Hindustani as their mother tongue. Almost all are Sunnis of the Hanafi school. Small communities of Shia – mainly Bohra and Ismaili from Gujarat are found in Cuttack city while Ahmadiyya are found in Tigiria block. Large mosques are to be found in Cuttack, Raisunguda and Mahanga areas. Christians number about 0.46% of

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1572-509: A new religion, Din-i-Ilahi , with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Jahangir (born Salim, reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani , an Indian Rajput princess. Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti . He "was addicted to opium, neglected

1703-407: A new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing

1834-478: A sandstone goes through as the degree of kinetic processing of the sediments increases. Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many such schemes used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system. The philosophy behind combining Gilbert's and R. L. Folk's schemes

1965-462: A set of boundaries separating regions of the QFL triangle. Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics of a sandstone. For example, a QFL chart can be marked with a provenance model that shows the likely tectonic origin of sandstones with various compositions of framework grains. Likewise, the stage of textural maturity chart illustrates the different stages that

2096-712: A severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Mughal Deccan plummeted. Aurangzeb is considered the most controversial Mughal emperor, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples , employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims . Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeb enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims. A major rebellion by

2227-467: A station at Cuttack. Lines to Paradip and Sambalpur via Talcher take off from the district. Almost all trains passing through have a stop at Cuttack. Waterways were formerly extremely important but are almost extinct now. Limited boating takes place for pleasure or fishing on the Mahanadi. The nearest airport, Biju Patnaik International Airport is about 30 km away from Cuttack city. Cuttack

2358-458: A syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb ( r.  1658–1707 ), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666. Aurangzeb brought

2489-473: A system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour . While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants. Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley , and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium . By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from

2620-445: A twofold classification: Cement is what binds the siliciclastic framework grains together. Cement is a secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone. These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals, such as calcite. Sandstone that becomes depleted of its cement binder through weathering gradually becomes friable and unstable. This process can be somewhat reversed by

2751-871: A university, Bhubananda Odisha School of Engineering (BOSE) , and the Institute of Management and Information Technology (IMIT). One of the first teacher training institutions in Odisha is the Radhanath Institute of Advanced Studies in Education (RNIASE), which was established in 1869. Urdu teacher training is offered by the Muslim Minority Govt Elementary Teacher Education Institution in Sheikh Bazar. Cuttack's location places it at

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2882-465: A very significant place in the logistics map of the country. It connects the upper mineral-advanced districts and states to the Kolkata - Chennai corridor at the meeting point of NH-42 and NH-5 at Manguli Square. The proximity to Paradip Port comes as an added advantage. OSL Group, one of the leading stevedore firms of the country is headquartered in Cuttack. Cuttack, being the largest business hub of

3013-516: A year later, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the combined Rajput armies of Rana Sanga of Mewar , with his native cavalry employing traditional flanking tactics. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who

3144-837: Is a distinction that can be recognized in the field . In turn, the distinction between an orthoquartzite and a metaquartzite is the onset of recrystallization of existing grains. The dividing line may be placed at the point where strained quartz grains begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a mortar texture that can be identified in thin sections under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces foam texture , characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then porphyroblastic texture , characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains ( porphyroblasts .) Sandstone has been used since prehistoric times for construction, decorative art works and tools. It has been widely employed around

3275-406: Is common and standard Urdu is always used for writing and formal communication. Most Muslims also speak Odia as a second language. Standard Hindi is the language of recent migrants from North India to Cuttack city. Cuttack city also has small Bengali and Telegu communities who migrated during the late 19th century. The former were government officials or employed in the courts and offices while

3406-559: Is divided into a total of 15 Tahsils each headed by a Tahsildar for land revenue purposes. Development activities in the district under the Panchayati Raj Department are overseen by the project director, District Rural Development Agency. The Collector is the ex-officio CEO of this agency. A total of 14 blocks under the Orissa Panchayat Samiti Act are operational in the district each headed by

3537-630: Is headed by a collector and district magistrate, usually from the Indian Administrative Service . The collector combines revenue collection functions with law and order responsibilities under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. He is also the lynchpin of development activities in the district and chairs numerous committees to oversee the same. In his day-to-day functions, he is assisted by two additional district magistrates who look after Revenue and General Administration. The district

3668-523: Is likely formed during eogenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. Compaction takes place as the sand comes under increasing pressure from overlying sediments. Sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as mica grains) are deformed, and pore space is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under

3799-431: Is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. Mechanical compaction takes place primarily at depths less than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft). Chemical compaction continues to depths of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft), and most cementation takes place at depths of 2,000–5,000 meters (6,600–16,400 ft). Unroofing of buried sandstone is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces

3930-443: Is that it is better able to "portray the continuous nature of textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain composition". Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains. In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition, Dott also breaks up

4061-671: Is the Indo-Persian form of Mongol . The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks and not Mongols. The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. The term remains disputed by Indologists . In Marshall Hodgson's view, the dynasty should be called Timurid / Timuri or Indo-Timurid . The Mughal Empire

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4192-542: Is the language of the Odia Muslims who speak it as their mother tongue. In its general construction, the dialect is almost indistinguishable from the standard Hindi/Urdu of cities in Eastern India like Kolkata and Patna . However, the spoken dialect has a number of peculiar features due to the influence of Odia. The grammar is somewhat simplified and significant features of a patois are seen. Code switching

4323-507: Is the language of the Odia people and is spoken throughout the district. It is often the only language spoken outside the urban areas. Cuttack dialect of Odia language is widely considered to be the standard form of the Odia language and is frequently used in Odia newspapers, medium of the instruction in schools and colleges, cinemas and literary works. Urdu , or more properly Odia Hindustani,

4454-430: Is widely known as the commercial capital of Odisha. It is believed to have the largest GDP among all cities in Odisha due to its large business houses and wide range of industries ranging from ferrous alloys, steel and logistics to agriculture and traditional industries like textiles and handicrafts. There are many trading houses in the city renowned nationally and internationally. The Port of Paradip around 85 km from

4585-523: The kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials. Self-regulating tribunals operating at

4716-479: The British East Indies Company , played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in

4847-481: The Industrial Revolution . Modern historians and researchers generally agree that the character of the Mughal Empire's economic policy resembles the laissez-faire system in dealing with trade and billions to achieve the economic ends. The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system and creating a uniform currency. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to

4978-484: The Khyber Pass . Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi , Sultan of Delhi , in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Through his use of firearms and cannons, he was able to shatter Ibrahim's armies despite being at a numerical disadvantage, expanding his dominion up to the mid Indo-Gangetic Plain . After the battle, the centre of Mughal power shifted to Agra . In the decisive Battle of Khanwa , fought near Agra

5109-519: The Marathas took place following this change, precipitated by the unmitigated state-building of its leader Shivaji in the Deccan. Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I , repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended

5240-744: The Nawab of Bengal and the Maratha Empire , it finally fell to the British. Simultaneously, a number of petty princely states existed along the north and south bank of the Mahanadi upstream from Cuttack. After the present Sadar subdivision of the district was conquered along with the rest of Coastal Odisha by the East India Company in 1803, a magistrate and judge were appointed for the newly conquered areas with headquarters at Puri which

5371-684: The Second Anglo-Maratha War . Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of the British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India

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5502-593: The Sikh guru Arjan , whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Sikh community. Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain , a Rajput princess. His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture . During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal . The cost of maintaining

5633-775: The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Ahmad Shah Durrani ) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from the Rohillas , and in 1784 the Marathas officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until

5764-449: The mir saman . Of these ministers, the diwan held the most importance, and typically acted as the wazir (prime minister) of the empire. The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar . The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi , sadr as-sudr , and finance minister that reported directly to

5895-513: The zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb. Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at

6026-436: The 10+2+3/4 plan, provides for students to complete 10 years of formal schooling, two years of junior college, and possibly general or professional degree courses following that. Amongst the top colleges are Sailabala Women's College , the oldest in Odisha, Stewart Science College , and Ravenshaw College . Additionally, Cuttack is linked to professional and technical schools such as Madhusudan Law College , which will soon be

6157-419: The 1720s. Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion , as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India. The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to

6288-508: The Americas, maize and tobacco. The Mughal administration emphasised the agrarian reform that began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance. The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased

6419-622: The Collector in his jurisdiction. His police counterpart is the Subdivisional Police Officer. The Sub Collector exercises both direct and indirect control over the Tahsils, Blocks and Police Stations in his jurisdiction. The urban areas of Cuttack, Banki, Athagad and Choudwar are constituted as municipal bodies. Cuttack Municipal Corporation is usually headed by a senior Indian Administrative Service officer called

6550-599: The Junior Engineer and the Gram Rozgar Sewak. Most of Cuttack district is a part of the Cuttack (Lok Sabha constituency) with the exception of Niali which is a part of Jagatsinghpur (Lok Sabha constituency) along with Salepur and Mahanga which form a part of Kendrapara Lok Sabha constituency . The following are the 9 Vidhan sabha constituencies of Cuttack district and their elected members of that area Mughals The Mughal Empire

6681-700: The Mahanadi river. Most of the hills are of low height and present a rounded appearance reaching a maximum of around 2500 feet along the border with Hindol . Occasional fertile, narrow valleys formed by riverine action are also found – especially near Khurda district . Numerous small streams run down these hills to join the Mahanadi. Substantial forested tracts are still to be found in the Dampada block and Narasinghpur blocks while Athagad, Tigiria and Badamba blocks are largely agricultural. A thick layer of sandstone underlies these subdivisions while occasional laterite stone outcrops can be seen at many places. The district

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6812-441: The Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority. Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges. The Mughal Empire followed

6943-427: The Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India , where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy. In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to

7074-557: The Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms, textiles, and architecture , especially during the reign of Shah Jahan . Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort , Fatehpur Sikri , Red Fort , Humayun's Tomb , Lahore Fort , Shalamar Gardens , and the Taj Mahal , which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of

7205-670: The Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as

7336-489: The affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably

7467-491: The application of tetraethyl orthosilicate (Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 4 ) which will deposit amorphous silicon dioxide between the sand grains. The reaction is as follows. Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil. The pore space in a rock has a direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the way the sand grains are packed together. Sandstones are typically classified by point-counting

7598-587: The associated princely states also had his headquarters at Cuttack. The subdivision of Banki comprising the feudatory state of Banki and zamindari of Dampada was added to the district in 1840 after the Raja was deposed for murder. The district reached its greatest extent after 1948 when the princely states of Narasinghpur , Baramba , Athagad and Tigiria were added to the district post their accession to India. Subdivisions like Gram Panchayats and Community Developments blocks were introduced in 1962. A small portion of

7729-417: The central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas , and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region. The Mughal Empire had

7860-533: The central government rather than the subahdar . Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars , which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas . Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal Empire. Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example,

7991-476: The centre of the road and railway network in Odisha. National Highway 16 connecting Kolkata and Chennai passes through the district. Major State Highways to Dhenkanal , Banki, Sambalpur and Puri take off from this road. Other important roads connect to Bhubaneswar , Khurda , Jagatsinghpur and Kendrapara. The main-line of the East Coast Railway connecting Howrah to Chennai Central has

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8122-454: The city facilitates the process. There are 11 large-scale industries in and around Cuttack mostly in Choudwar and Athagarh and many more in the pipeline. These industries include steel, power, automobile, alloys, fireclay, etc. Indian Metals & Ferro Alloys, the country's largest producer of ferrous alloys is in Choudwar , Cuttack. A mega-auto complex is in implementation stages on

8253-519: The city for their livelihood, contributing to the service sector and, thus, the floating population. The presence of Odisha High Court and the SCB Medical & College , the largest medical institution in the state, further nourishes the service sector. The Oriya film industry, Ollywood , is based in Cuttack and adds to its economy. Education is a major industry due to large number of universities, colleges, schools and coaching centres and caters to

8384-485: The city's outskirts. The legacy of Cuttack in traditional industries is enviable. The city is second-largest hub for textiles in eastern India after Raipur . The city's annual textile trade generates over a billion dollars. A large textile park is planned by giving a facelift to the erstwhile Orissa Textile Mills on city outskirts. Cuttack is famous for its glory of craftsmanship of handicraft work in silver filigree. These fine and unique handicraft works add significantly to

8515-462: The city. The presence of Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), the largest rice research institute in Asia, adds to the importance of Cuttack in the agricultural map of the country. Being the former capital of the state and a big business hub, many central and state government and corporate offices are in Cuttack. The service sector is quite large. The people of nearby districts are heavily depended on

8646-525: The common minerals most resistant to weathering processes at the Earth's surface, as seen in the Goldich dissolution series . Framework grains can be classified into several different categories based on their mineral composition: Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between the framework grains. The nature of the matrix within the interstitial pore space results in

8777-436: The community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era. The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization , like that of 18th-century Western Europe before

8908-474: The cost of establishing a new capital was marginal. Situations where two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan . Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681. The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as

9039-541: The court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal Empire to the Deccan by ending the Ahmadnagar Sultanate and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute. Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh , became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed

9170-422: The cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in

9301-524: The death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb , during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress

9432-424: The decade 2001–2011 was 11.86%. Cuttack has a sex ratio of 940 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 84.2%, both higher than the all India average. 28.05% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 19.00% and 3.57% of the population respectively. The child sex ratio of 914 is lower than the overall district average. Hindus are the overwhelming majority of

9563-456: The depositional environment, older sand is buried by younger sediments, and it undergoes diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the sand. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in the sands, with only slight compaction. The red hematite that gives red bed sandstones their color

9694-407: The depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the sandstone, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Framework grains are sand-sized (0.0625-to-2-millimeter (0.00246 to 0.07874 in) diameter) detrital fragments that make up the bulk of a sandstone. Most framework grains are composed of quartz or feldspar , which are

9825-446: The different types of framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains. When sandstone is subjected to the great heat and pressure associated with regional metamorphism , the individual quartz grains recrystallize, along with the former cementing material, to form the metamorphic rock called quartzite . Most or all of the original texture and sedimentary structures of

9956-459: The district adjoining Bhubaneswar was transferred to Puri district that year. Before the division of the district in 1992, it was the largest in Odisha by population. It had no less than 42 blocks and six subdivisions with headquarters at Banki, Athagad, Cuttack, Jajpur , Jagatsinghpur and Kendrapada . The last three were split off to form separate districts that year. The district covers an area of 3,932 km. The geographical location of

10087-498: The district is 10 °C. The district is divided into two distinct geographic regions. The Sadar subdivision mostly consists of the alluvial delta formed by the River Mahanadi and its distributaries. The width of the delta stretches to about 60–75 kilometres from the coast. The land is mostly flat and is intersected by numerous channels, active and abandoned, of the Mahanadi system. Few isolated hillocks near Cuttack form

10218-415: The district is 20,4625° N latitude and 85.8830° E longitude. The average annual precipitation over the district is about 1,440 mm, most of which occurs during south-west monsoon period (June to September). The temperature seems moderate for the area throughout the year except for the summer season (March to mid-June), where the average maximum temperature is 41 °C. The average minimum temperature over

10349-490: The district's population with more than 93.65% of the population practising Hinduism . Scheduled Castes constitute 19% of the overall population while Scheduled Tribes are about 3%. Religion plays an important role in the lives of people and temples are present in every habitation. Like much of Odisha, Jagannath is the preferred deity of worship while other gods and goddesses like Durga , Ganesha and Shiva also have large shrines dedicated to them. Almost every village has

10480-492: The district. It has 46 members including a president and a vice president. The collector is the ex-officio CEO of the Zila Parishad with the project director as the executive officer. The Panchayat Samitis are similar bodies at the block level with the block development officer as CEO. Gram Panchayats occupy the lowest rung and are headed by a Sarpanch assisted by an executive officer. Other Panchayat level officials include

10611-432: The economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct. The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in

10742-479: The economy, respectively. According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. However, in

10873-432: The emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities). The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi . Such officials included

11004-565: The empire as Hindustan ( Héndūsītǎn ). In the west, the term " Mughal " was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The Mughal designation for their dynasty was Gurkani ( Gūrkāniyān ), a reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur , who took the title Gūrkān 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess. The word Mughal (also spelled Mogul or Moghul in English)

11135-528: The empire to its greatest territorial extent, and oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri , a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur , leading to the militarization of the Sikh community. From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into

11266-433: The greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points

11397-442: The hardness of individual grains, uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to make grindstones , for sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone . A type of pure quartz sandstone, orthoquartzite, with more of 90–95 percent of quartz, has been proposed for nomination to

11528-687: The headquarters. At the subdivision level, the Sub Divisional Judicial Magistrate heads the criminal justice system. Cuttack, a city in Odisha, India, has a rich educational landscape featuring schools run by the Cuttack Municipal Corporation as well as private entities. The city's schools provide courses in Bengali, Telugu, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, English, and Odia. While English-medium schools follow CBSE or ICSE curricula, Odia-medium schools have

11659-579: The huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms. But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as

11790-565: The independence of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. The Indian campaign of Nader Shah , who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance

11921-425: The king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor. He led campaigns from 1682 in the Deccan, annexing its remaining Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda, though engaged in a prolonged conflict in the region which had a ruinous effect on the empire. The campaigns took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence led to

12052-441: The latter were mostly labourers and menial workers. They speak their respective languages with significant Odia admixture. Under the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj , the district is divided into three Lok Sabha constituencies, 9 Vidhan Sabha constituencies, 1 Zila Parishad, 14 Panchayat Samitis and 373 Gram Panchayats. The Zila Parishad is an elected body entrusted with the responsibility to oversee development activities in

12183-411: The local economy. The number of medium- and small-scale industries concentrated around Cuttack is by far the largest among the cities in the state. The industrial estates in and around Cuttack numbers around eight. Jagatpur and Khapuria are industrial estates inside the city. A large chunk of these serve as ancillary industries for the big industrial houses in Odisha and other states. Cuttack occupies

12314-414: The military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi , who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by

12445-442: The most resistant minerals to the weathering processes at the Earth's surface. Like uncemented sand , sandstone may be imparted any color by impurities within the minerals, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Because sandstone beds can form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain colors of sandstone have become strongly identified with certain regions, such as

12576-493: The much lower temperatures and pressures associated with diagenesis of sedimentary rock, but diagenesis has cemented the rock so thoroughly that microscopic examination is necessary to distinguish it from metamorphic quartzite. The term orthoquartzite is used to distinguish such sedimentary rock from metaquartzite produced by metamorphism. By extension, the term orthoquartzite has occasionally been more generally applied to any quartz-cemented quartz arenite . Orthoquartzite (in

12707-414: The municipal commissioner who is independent from the collector in his day-to-day functioning. The other three urban bodies have executive officers who report to the project director, District Urban Development Authority and the Collector. The district and Sessions Judge of Cuttack handles both civil and criminal cases. He is assisted by a number of additional district judges, civil judges and magistrates at

12838-464: The narrow sense) is often 99% SiO 2 with only very minor amounts of iron oxide and trace resistant minerals such as zircon , rutile and magnetite . Although few fossils are normally present, the original texture and sedimentary structures are preserved. The typical distinction between a true orthoquartzite and an ordinary quartz sandstone is that an orthoquartzite is so highly cemented that it will fracture across grains, not around them. This

12969-553: The neighboring districts. According to the 2011 census Cuttack district has a population of 2,624,470, roughly equal to the nation of Kuwait or the US state of Nevada . This gives it a ranking of 156th in India (out of a total of 640 ). The population is divided among 579,170 families. About 10% of the total population is of children below the age of 10 years. The district has a population density of 667 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,730/sq mi). Its population growth rate over

13100-536: The net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt . He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane , tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under

13231-609: The only break in the plain. The land is often waterlogged during the Monsoon and an elaborate system of canals, embankments and weirs is used for both flood control and irrigation. Paddy is the primary crop and is grown throughout the year. The villages are located on an artificial high ground and are usually surrounded by copses of banyan , mango and other large trees. Most villages have one or more tanks called pokharis that supply their fresh water needs. The Athagad and Banki subdivisions consist of broken hill country on either side of

13362-547: The only indigenous Buddhists to have survived outside the Himalayas in mainland India. Small communities of Sikhs and Jains are also found in Cuttack city. They are mostly traders and maintain strong links with their brethren in other parts of India. Languages of Cuttack district (2011) At the time of the 2011 Census of India , 91.36% of the population in the district spoke Odia , 4.66% Urdu , 1.24% Hindi , 0.86% Bengali and 0.78% Telugu as their first language. Odia

13493-504: The population and are almost all descendants of converts from Hinduism. They are concentrated in Cuttack city and a couple of nearby villages in Athagad block. The population is mostly Roman Catholic with a large number of Church of North India adherents as well. The community also runs a number of well regarded educational institutions throughout the district. A small community of Mahayana Buddhists numbering around 6,000 are found in

13624-638: The product of physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Weathering and erosion are most rapid in areas of high relief, such as volcanic arcs , areas of continental rifting , and orogenic belts . Eroded sand is transported by rivers or by the wind from its source areas to depositional environments where tectonics has created accommodation space for sediments to accumulate. Forearc basins tend to accumulate sand rich in lithic grains and plagioclase . Intracontinental basins and grabens along continental margins are also common environments for deposition of sand. As sediments continue to accumulate in

13755-533: The production of piece goods , calicos , and muslins . The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century, and it represented the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka . The production of cotton

13886-712: The red rock deserts of Arches National Park and other areas of the American Southwest . Rock formations composed of sandstone usually allow the percolation of water and other fluids and are porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers and petroleum reservoirs . Quartz-bearing sandstone can be changed into quartzite through metamorphism , usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts . Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to either organic , like chalk and coal , or chemical , like gypsum and jasper ). The silicate sand grains from which they form are

14017-417: The sandstone are erased by the metamorphism. The grains are so tightly interlocked that when the rock is broken, it fractures through the grains to form an irregular or conchoidal fracture. Geologists had recognized by 1941 that some rocks show the macroscopic characteristics of quartzite, even though they have not undergone metamorphism at high pressure and temperature. These rocks have been subject only to

14148-417: The seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi . More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army). Qadis were usually appointed by

14279-472: The sovereign of India. Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during conflicts such as the Carnatic wars and Bengal War . The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. Delhi was sacked by the Afghans, and when

14410-414: The state is the nodal point of trade and transport. It also has the largest wholesale commodities market of the state at Malgodown and Chatrabazar catering to the whole state. Agriculture is a mainstay of Cuttack's economy. The nearby villages are known for their high-quality and surplus production of crops, vegetables and fruits. These are usually sold at the largest mandi of the state at Chatrabazar inside

14541-479: The territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys. The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of Agra , Delhi , Lahore , and Fatehpur Sikri . Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals. Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because

14672-607: The throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara , whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers , became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress

14803-625: The time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing , by the 17th century. South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies coveted by the Europeans before the Industrial Revolution . Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of

14934-711: The universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage." The closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan , which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari . Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ( Wilāyat-i-Hindustān ), "country of Hind" ( Bilād-i-Hind ), "Sultanate of Al-Hind" ( Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah ) as observed in the epithet of Emperor Aurangzeb or endonymous identification from emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as "Land of Hind" ( Hindostān ) in Hindustani . Contemporary Chinese chronicles referred to

15065-599: The urban area covered under it have been vested in the Commissioner of Police who exercises them through deputy and Assistant Commissioners of Police. The SP and senior officers of the Commissionerate are usually from the Indian Police Service . The three subdivisions of Banki, Athagad and Sadar are each headed by a Sub Collector cum Sub Divisional Magistrate who exercises most of the powers of

15196-475: The villages of Maniabandh and Nuapatna in Baramba and Tigiria blocks. This is the last remnant of a much larger Buddhist community that dominated Odisha for close to a thousand years till the 14th century. Almost all of them are weavers and produce the well regarded Maniabandh sarees . Apart from the usual Buddhist deities, a large number of Hindu deities are also a part of their pantheon. They are unique in being

15327-417: The walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in

15458-484: The well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. There was more conspicuous consumption among

15589-491: The well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of the Mughal Empire were around 99,000,000 rupees. The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee ( rupiya , or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until

15720-626: The world in constructing temples, churches, homes and other buildings, and in civil engineering . Although its resistance to weathering varies, sandstone is easy to work. That makes it a common building and paving material, including in asphalt concrete . However, some types that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst sandstone used in North West England , have had poor long-term weather resistance, necessitating repair and replacement in older buildings. Because of

15851-482: The world's industrial output. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization , similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution. In early modern Europe , there

15982-420: Was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments. Sandstone Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate grains, cemented together by another mineral. Sandstones comprise about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks . Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar , because they are

16113-403: Was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era. The Bengal Subah province

16244-673: Was an early modern empire in South Asia . At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India . The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur ,

16375-600: Was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad in the Rajput Umarkot Fort , to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum , a Persian princess. Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River . He created

16506-517: Was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium. The province

16637-542: Was forced into exile in Persia by the rebellious Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545). Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year. Akbar (reigned 1556–1605)

16768-852: Was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Persianized Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire ) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through

16899-501: Was later shifted to Cuttack city. Further reorganisation took place in 1828 and three districts of Balasore , Puri and Cuttack with headquarters at towns of the same name were constituted. Each district was headed by an officer known as the Collector and District Magistrate who was a member of the Indian Civil Service . The Commissioner of Orissa division with superintendence powers over these three districts as well as

17030-432: Was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo , silks, and saltpetre (for use in munitions ). European fashion , for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing , particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included

17161-476: Was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which he nominally led, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar , was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 to Rangoon , Burma. Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after

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