Cuicuilco is an important archaeological site located on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco in the southeastern Valley of Mexico , in what is today the borough of Tlalpan in Mexico City .
166-676: Construction of the Cuicuilco pyramid began a few centuries BCE, during the Late Preclassic period of Mesoamerican history. The site was occupied until its destruction by the eruption of Xitle , sometime between 245 and 315 CE. Based on its date of occupation, Cuicuilco may be the oldest city in the Valley of Mexico and was roughly contemporary with, and possibly interacting with, the Olmecs of Mexico's Gulf Coast region (also known as
332-459: A Franciscan monastery. The Chamber of Deputies building contains murals done by Leopoldo Flores , which together are known as Construction: Images and Flight depicting man constructing buildings and himself at the same time. The municipal palace and the Chamber of Deputies are decorated with Neoclassic façades, but the other government buildings, built in the 1960s are faced with tezontle in
498-568: A first collapse c. 100 CE, and resurged c. 250 in the Classic period. Some population centers such as Tlatilco , Monte Albán , and Cuicuilco flourished in the final stages of the Preclassic period. Meanwhile, the Olmec populations shrank and ceased to be major players in the area. Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to the population centers in
664-518: A 4,200-metre (13,800-foot) runway and is located 15 kilometres (9 miles) from Toluca and 60 kilometres (37 miles) from the country's capital, thus serving as an overflow airport for Mexico City. This airport has started a development initiative of the Federal and State Governments, as well as the private sector, which provided an investment of almost 3,200 million U.S. dollars in the last 2 years. This airport has created 4,500 jobs and has contributed to
830-471: A Mexican painter who graduated from the San Carlos Academy. It is located in downtown Toluca on Jose Ma. Morelos street. Los Portales represent the social and commercial life of the city. They are a composed of three sets of arches or portals that extend on the 3 sides of the city block that extends behind the main cathedral. Behind the sets of arches there is walking space that takes you around
996-735: A State one and a Municipal one. The one from the State is the Orquesta Sinfónica del Estado de México . Higher education institutions have marching bands, and in some towns there are wind bands. The dancing institutions include the Instituto Mexiquense de Cultura. There are also schools of dance such as the Escuela de Bellas Artes and the UAEM . There is also a youth marching band of Toluca called "Eagles of Anahuac". This band
1162-513: A body of water, which demonstrate the presence of settlements or villages from approximately 200 to 950 CE, according to the preliminary analysis of ceramic layer Features of archaeological materials allow inferring the context of the natural and cultural training processes. Inhabitants discarded vases and fragments in the vicinity of the body of water, and many pots were trapped in the lava, especially domestic pieces such as pans, pots, pitchers, dishes, boxes and comales , even if it does not preclude
1328-568: A few centuries. The Postclassic was a period of rapid movement and population growth—especially in Central Mexico post-1200—and of experimentation in governance. For instance, in Yucatan, 'dual rulership' apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, while oligarchic councils operated in much of central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca (merchant class) and military orders became more powerful than
1494-665: A former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance . Although not all parts of Mesoamerica were brought under control of the Spanish Empire immediately, the defeat of the Aztecs marked the dramatic beginning of an inexorable process of conquest in Mesoamerica and incorporation that Spain completed in the mid-seventeenth century. Indigenous peoples did not disappear, although their numbers were greatly reduced in
1660-510: A geographical extent of 420.14 km (162.2 sq mi), includes numerous communities other than Toluca de Lerdo, the largest of which are the municipalities of San Pablo Autopan and San José Guadalupe Otzacatipan. The municipality is bordered by the municipalities of Almoloya de Juárez , Temoaya , Otzolotepec , Xonacatlán , Lerma , San Mateo Atenco , Metepec , Calimaya , Tenango del Valle , Villa Guerrero and Zinacantepec . The Lerma River flows from Lake Almoloya del Río through
1826-555: A large part of the Cuicuilcas and incorporated many features of their culture. It is considered that the Cuicuilco's decline (100 BCE to 1 CE) had a minor recovery in 1–150 CE, due to the presence of representations of fire deities. Also, according to some other sources, a series of volcano eruptions and the destruction of Cuicuilco took place in the 1st century BC. In spite of the abandonment of Cuicuilco as an important ceremonial center, people continued making offerings even after
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#17327731652681992-639: A leather workshop on Avenida Juárez. The Plaza de Fray Andrés de Castro is located next to Los Portales and connected to the older arches by means of a passageway with a transparent roof. It is a semi-enclosed space which was once the sacristy of the La Asunción Franciscan Monastery. The sacristy was built by Felipe de Ureña and José Rivera and is essentially a reproduction of the Santa María del Puerto hermitage in Madrid and
2158-463: A little over half of the municipality's territory. Livestock raising is a greater source of income with 10,286 sites producing cattle, pigs, sheep and domestic fowl. Tourism is based on the Nevado de Toluca volcano and the archeological zone of Calixtlahuaca. Despite being little known internationally, they manage to represent about 50% of the state's tourism income. Toluca lies in the southern part of
2324-578: A matter of vital significance because of its importance for agriculture, the economic basis of Mesoamerican society, and to predict events in the future such as lunar and solar eclipses, an important feature for the rulers, proving to the commoners their links with the heavenly world. The Middle Classic period ended in Northern Mesoamerica with the decline of Teotihuacan. This allowed other regional power centers to flourish and compete for control of trade routes and natural resources. In this way
2490-477: A milestone of Mesoamerican history, as various characteristics that define the region first appeared there. Among them are the state organization, the development of the 260-day ritual calendar and the 365-day secular calendar, the first writing system, and urban planning. The development of this culture started 1600 to 1500 BCE, though it continued to consolidate itself up to the 12th century BCE. Its principal sites were La Venta , San Lorenzo , and Tres Zapotes in
2656-562: A nearby volcano, Xitle , although the territory was reoccupied at a much later date. Pottery and other evidence suggest that refugees from the volcanic disaster migrated north and became part of the population pool of Teotihuacan, near the northern shore of the Lake Texcoco. The site of Cuicuilco is covered by a dense volcanic lava field known as the Pedregal de San Ángel . The lava covers an area of approximately 80 km, including
2822-593: A path from south to north. Toluca Toluca [toˈluka] , officially Toluca de Lerdo [toˈluka ðe ˈleɾdo] , is the state capital of the State of Mexico as well as the seat of the Municipality of Toluca. Toluca has a population of 910,608 as of the 2020 census. The city forms the core of the Greater Toluca metropolitan area, which with a combined population of 2,347,692 forms
2988-483: A path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. By the 15th century, the Mayan 'revival' in Yucatan and southern Guatemala and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the 'Pueblan-Mexica' style in pottery, codex illumination, and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, and the botanical institutes established by
3154-493: A population estimated at 20,000 inhabitants, comparable with Teotihuacan at that time (cf. Sanders, 1981). Cuicuilco's development was affected by the eruption of the Xitle volcano, which formed a layer of lava that partially or completely covered the city's structures, whose extension is inferred to have reached nearly 400 hectares (cf. ibid.). The inhabitants had round heads affected by direct or oblique tubular cranial deformation,
3320-471: A rival of the Teotihuacan which was also located in the Valley of Mexico (about 60 km to the northeast). Their interactions were mostly hostile and was personified by both cities taking defensive positions against each other throughout the Valley of Mexico. It was destroyed and abandoned following the eruption of the volcano Xitle , causing migrations and changes to the population and culminating in
3486-515: A series of conical formations, a group called Cuicuilco B, where more than 300,000 ceramic pots were rescued (Müller, 1990). Based on analysis of archaeological ceramics of Cuicuilco B, Florence Müller determined that the occupation of the settlement continued after the Xitle eruption, during the Classical, Epiclassical, postclassical periods until the Spanish conquest, even though the importance of
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#17327731652683652-747: A site that also shows Olmec influences, ceded dominance of the Oaxacan plateau to Monte Albán toward the end of the middle Preclassic Era. During this same time, the Chupícuaro culture flourished in Bajío , while along the Gulf the Olmecs entered a period of decline. One of the great cultural milestones that marked the Middle Preclassic period is the development of the first writing system, by either
3818-423: A small dominant group ruled over the majority of the population. This majority was forced to pay tribute and to participate in the building of public structures such as irrigation systems, religious edifices, and means of communication. The growth of the cities could not have happened without advances in agricultural methods and the strengthening of trade networks involving not only the peoples of Mesoamerica, but also
3984-789: A step-wise fashion. The Teotihuacan architectural style was reproduced and modified in other cities throughout Mesoamerica, the clearest examples being the Zapotec capital of Monte Alban and Kaminal Juyú in Guatemala. Centuries later, long after Teotihuacan was abandoned c. 700 CE, cities of the Postclassic era followed the style of Teotihuacan construction, especially Tula , Tenochtitlan , and Chichén Itzá . Many scientific advances were also achieved during this period. The Maya refined their calendar, script, and mathematics to their highest level of development. Writing came to be used throughout
4150-624: Is a project to directly connect the Toluca-Mexico City highway to the east of the city to the Toluca-Atlacomulco highway the extends north. It will permit easier access to the airport as well as a bypass route for traffic heading from Mexico City to the west and northwest. The libramiento is already complete, but it is not used by many people because of the high tolls. The highways that connect Toluca with Mexico City and Guadalajara are being expanded and modernized due to
4316-495: Is a pyramidal basement built about 800–600 BCE. Although this site produced a new ceramic tradition (around 600–200 BCE), it is considered that the overall site area was developed over several generations of inhabitants. Archaeological evidence, ceramic and structures, indicate that Cuicuilco developed during the first millennium BCE, during the Preclassic , as a small settlement, its inhabitants interacting with other sites in
4482-527: Is a restricted area where deposits were affected by activities of the 20th century, fragments found of Aztec ceramics from the end of the late postclassical, materials of the colonial period (native and Spaniards) as well as 19th-century European fine earthenware. This material provides evidence of a settlement or village in Cuicuilco from the Tepaneca - Aztec empire, before the Spaniards' arrival, continuing
4648-476: Is also referred to in a number of Aztec codices as Tolutépetl , meaning hill of the god, Tolo, an allusion to the nearby volcano . The name Toluca de Lerdo was adopted in 1861 in honor of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada . The Valley of Toluca was known as Matlatzinco Valley in ancient times and home to at least four linguistic groups: the Matlatzinca , Otomi , Mazahua , and Nahua peoples. In
4814-559: Is approximate only and different timescales may be used between fields and sub-regions. Before 2600 BCE During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region and permanent villages were established. Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of the basic technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling, pottery etc. were established during this period. 2000 BCE – 250 CE During
4980-408: Is based on archaeological, ethnohistorical, and modern cultural anthropology research dating to the early twentieth century. Archaeologists, ethnohistorians, historians, and cultural anthropologists continue to work to develop cultural histories of the region. 18000–8000 BCE The Paleo-Indian (less frequently, Lithic ) period or era is that which spans from the first signs of human presence in
5146-429: Is called "20 de Noviembre" or "Constitución"; the southern one, with 44 arches, is called "Madero" and the western one, with 35 arches, is called "Reforma". There are four additional arches at the entrance to Avenida Independencia. Near Los Portales are some of the city's oldest businesses, some of which date from the 19th century such as the pharmacy on Calle Santos Degollado, a brass and iron workshop on Avenida Lerdo and
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5312-471: Is closely tied to the growth and changes in economic activities that have occurred in the Mexico City metropolitan area. Most industrial enterprises are on the small and micro-level but the city has attracted a large number of international corporations. Major products produced include food processing, metals and machinery, paper products, printed matter as well as auto production. The industrial base of
5478-506: Is compounded by urbanization of the area, with constructions directly above the archaeological site, such as the Telmex building and the Cuicuilco commercial Plaza in 1997. The existing Cuicuilco Site Museum is the design of renowned Mexican architect Luis Macgregor Krieger . Mesoamerican chronology#Preclassic Era or Formative Period Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of prehispanic Mesoamerica into several periods:
5644-402: Is lighted by round arched windows. The outside façade consists of two parts. The first has seven columned areas, as well as niches with the images of Saint John , Saint Thomas , Saint Peter and Saint James . The second part rises above the main doors with three columned areas containing balconies, stained-glass windows and balustrades , terminating in a rectilinear pediment with an image of
5810-473: Is located chronologically between 950 and 1150 CE. (cf. Cobean, 1990) These archaeological materials indicate strong social interaction between the Valley of Mexico and other regions under the hegemonic power of Teotihuacan, as well as the conformation of sociopolitical units after the decline of said Empire, also as evidence of socio-economic aspects associated with the emergence of the Toltec State. It
5976-475: Is located in the economic center of Mexico. Toluca has become an important economic city because of its industries and infrastructure that produce drinks, food, textiles, cars, electric products and such. Since 1944, many industries have settled in Toluca rather than in other cities. In 1965, the industrial zone of Toluca-Lerma-Tianguistenco, which is located on the north side of Toluca, began to attract industries to
6142-500: Is located. The other is called Cuicuilco B and lies West of Cuicuilco A, in the Olympic village Sports Centre. Its importance is recognized by all historians and archaeologists; however it has barely been studied, especially when compared with other archaeological sites, such as Teotihuacan and Tula. The main investigation obstacle is that the area is covered almost entirely with a lava layer of about 9 to 10 meters thick. This difficulty
6308-479: Is now a botanical garden with more than 400 species of plants from all over the world. It also features a series of stained glass windows that are considered the largest in the world. These windows were created and designed by a Mexican artist named Leopoldo Flores . Cosmovitral was inaugurated in 1980 and completed in 1990. The stained glass ceiling represents the Milky Way and joins the "Hombre Sol" (Sun Man) with
6474-406: Is now the city of Toluca were included in the concession made by King Carlos V of Spain to Hernán Cortés . In 1524, the evangelization process started in Toluca. The most notable figure of this effort is Fray Andrés Castro, from Burgos , the old capital of Castile , by making a great number of improvements to the city and being the first one to learn the native Matlatzincan language. The friar
6640-492: Is one of the few remaining buildings of the old monastery. The square in front was recently remodeled but still contains traditional stores selling garapiña, traditional candies, tacos and other regional foods. The Municipal Historic Archive is located above the passageway leading to Los Portales was begun in 1867 by José Francisco de Paula on land originally belonging to the Asunción de Toluca Franciscan monastery. The building
6806-399: Is temperate subhumid with rain in summer. Its altitude favors the practice of high-performance sports, but as it is one of the most polluted cities in the country due to the emissions of its industrial corridor and the poor motorized public transportation of the last 3 years, outdoor exercise carries some risks for health. The Deportivo Toluca Fútbol Club is the largest sports institution in
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6972-837: Is the Zócalo, also known as Plaza de los Mártires ("Plaza of the Martyrs"), which includes buildings such as the Palace of the State Government and the Justice Palace (Palacio de Justicia). The square is named after events that took place after the Battle of Tenango Hill during the Mexican War of Independence . Insurgent commander José Maria Oviedo was faced with the royalist army of Rosendo Porlier, who succeeded in driving
7138-403: Is the coolest of any large Mexican city due to its altitude (2,680 metres or 8,790 feet above sea level). Winter nights are cold and the temperature may drop below 0 °C or 32 °F. Throughout the year, the temperature is rarely below −3 °C (26.6 °F) or above 27 °C (80.6 °F). The climate is prone to extended dry periods particularly in the winter. Almost nine-tenths of
7304-615: Is the home of a famous image of "Our Lord of the Holy Cross" also known as a "Black Christ". This image was originally housed in the San Francisco Temple, but the increasing number of worshippers dictated the building of its own sanctuary. Construction began in 1753, but because of friction between the Franciscans and worshippers, it was not completed until 1797. Although the original plans included two towers, only one
7470-452: Is the only volcano in Mexico that has two lagoons and can be reached by automobile. There have been proposals to turn this mountain into a ski hill because of its accessibility and the low temperatures that exist on the mountain throughout the year, but recent reports on global warming have raised fears that the snow cap on the mountain will disappear completely within a few decades. The area
7636-525: Is unique in Mexico in that one can enter the crater by car. Sierra Morelos Park is about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the center of Toluca. This is a reforested area with a small artificial lake, a picnic area and playground. Under the Köppen climate classification , Toluca features a subtropical highland climate ( Cwb ), with relatively cool, dry winters, and mild, wet, humid summers. Freezing temperatures are common during winter. Toluca's climate
7802-409: Is unknown. According to Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History, INAH), American archaeologist and anthropologist Zelia Nuttall (1857–1933) believed that Cuicuilco means: “Place where songs and dances are made”. Cuicuilco was founded as a farming village, but provides evidence of early religious practices, including stone offerings and
7968-506: Is used as a nickname for anything (anybody) from Toluca. Other popular dishes, which must be mentioned are " tacos de carnitas" (pork tacos) and "tacos de plaza" made of barbacoa, pork, chicharron (fried pork rind), papalo ( Porophyllum ruderale ), onion, coriander, nopales , cueritos , chili sauce, salt and lime. The traditional food includes vegetables from the region such as "quelites", "quintoniles", "huazontles", spinach, "verdolagas", carrots, potatoes, tomatoes and so forth. Toluca has
8134-874: The Epi-Olmec culture between 300–250 BCE. The Zapotec civilization arose in the Valley of Oaxaca , the Teotihuacan civilization arose in the Valley of Mexico . The Maya civilization began to develop in the Mirador Basin (in modern-day Guatemala ) and the Epi-Olmec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (in modern-day Chiapas ), later expanding into Guatemala and the Yucatan Peninsula . In Central America , there were some Olmec influences,
8300-512: The Lake Texcoco basin were concentrated. The cities of this era were characterized by their multi-ethnic composition, which entailed the cohabitation in the same population centers of people with different languages, cultural practices, and places of origin. During this period the alliances between the regional political elites were strengthened, especially for those allied with Teotihuacan. Also, social differentiation became more pronounced:
8466-618: The Maya , the Olmec , or the Zapotec . During this period, the Mesoamerican societies were highly stratified . The connections between different centers of power permitted the rise of regional elites that controlled natural resources and peasant labor. This social differentiation was based on the possession of certain technical knowledge, such as astronomy , writing, and commerce. Furthermore,
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#17327731652688632-625: The Olmec heartland ). Based on known facts, it was the first important civic-religious center of the Mexican Highlands , its population probably including all the social strata and cultural traits that would characterize the altépetl (city-state) of classical Mesoamerica. Cuicuilco also represents one of the early sites in Meso America to show state formation. There is evidence of a four tier settlement hierarchy as well as having made investments in architectural projects. It became
8798-592: The Postclassic period, the valley was ruled by a large powerful capital city whose ruins are located today in the village of Calixtlahuaca , just north of the city of Toluca. In 1478 the Mexica emperor Axayacatl conquered the Toluca Valley . The capital was stripped of its dynasty and power and some lands were distributed to kings and nobles from the Valley of Mexico . One of the rivals of Calixtlahuaca
8964-551: The Preclassic Era , or Formative Period , large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, and states developed. Many of the distinctive elements of Mesoamerican civilization can be traced to this period, including the dominance of corn, the building of pyramids, human sacrifice , jaguar-worship , the complex calendar, and many of the gods. The Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , eventually succeeded by
9130-569: The Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan . Around the start of the common era, Cuicuilco had disappeared, and the hegemony over the Mexican basin had passed to Teotihuacan. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called city of the gods consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center for
9296-848: The Universidad del Valle de México . There are currently 574 schools in Toluca, with about 8,320 teachers. The illiteracy rate is 7.33%, which is considered high. UAEM, the state's public university, has its roots in the Literary Institute, later named the Scientific and Literary Institute, which was founded in 1828. It has been a prestigious institution and educated figures such as José María Heredia , Ignacio Ramírez , Felipe Sánchez Solís, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano and Adolfo López Mateos . The Institute became an autonomous university in 1956. The original building, situated downtown near Benito Juárez street, has been remodeled and houses
9462-524: The Valley of Mexico . Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco . Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in the Maya area, Oaxaca, and
9628-429: The fifth most populous metropolitan area in the country. Located 63 kilometres (39 mi) southwest of Mexico City , the city's rapid growth stems largely from its proximity to the capital. It is mainly an industrial city that borders Metepec , one of the richest municipalities in the country. The Toluca Valley has a good level of infrastructure. Its airport is considered the first option to relieve Mexico City and
9794-711: The "Heart of the Mountain" The exact causes of the Olmec decline are unknown. In the Pacific lowlands of the Maya Area, Takalik Abaj c. 800 BCE, Izapa c. 700 BCE, and Chocola c. 600 BCE, along with Kaminaljuyú c. 800 BCE, in the central Highlands of Guatemala, advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all
9960-442: The "Mexiquese Outer Loop" ( Circuito Exterior Mexiquense ) project, which aims to improve major highways leading from Mexico City to the rest of the country. One proposed highway, called Autopista Lerma - Tres Marías y Ramal Tenango (Lerma - Tres Marías and Tenango branch highway), aims to improve transit between Toluca and Cuernavaca, as well as other cities to the south. Currently, almost all major roadways serving Toluca transit in
10126-437: The Alfeñique Fair stands out, on the occasion of the annual Day of the Dead festival, and the Toluca International Film Festival. Toluca is located at 2600 meters above sea level, being the highest capital city in Mexico and North America, which makes it temperate throughout the year with average temperatures ranging between 6 and 25 degrees Celsius during spring and summer, and from −5 to 20 degrees Celsius in winter. Its climate
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#173277316526810292-408: The Ascension of the Lord. In this, the cathedral shares design elements with the Cathedral of Mexico City. Above this, there is a clock with sculptures depicting the Fathers of the Greek Orthodox Church , Saint John Chrisotomus, Saint Basil the Great , Saint Athanasius and Saint Gregory of Nyssa . The cathedral is topped by a dome with a bronze statue of Saint Joseph , who is the patron saint of
10458-463: The Aztec elite. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica. Its conquistadors , aided by numerous native allies, conquered the Aztecs. 1521–1821 CE The Colonial Period was initiated with the Spanish conquest (1519–1521), which ended the hegemony of the Aztec Empire . It was accomplished with Spaniards' strategic alliances with enemies of the empire, most especially Tlaxcala , but also Huexotzinco, Xochimilco, and even Texcoco ,
10624-407: The Aztec empire (1519–1521) marks the end of indigenous rule and the incorporation of indigenous peoples as subjects of the Spanish Empire for the 300 year colonial period . The postcolonial period began with Mexican independence in 1821 and continues to the present day. European conquest did not end the existence of Mesoamerica's indigenous peoples, but did subject them to new political regimes. In
10790-596: The Basin of Mexico as well as relatively distant regions, e.g. Chupicuaro to the west and Monte Albán southeast. Estimated occupation periods for Cuicuilco may be considered tentative at best. The earliest occupation is estimated in 1200 BCE, and included many farming villages of similar configuration and space distribution. During the period 1000–800 BCE, conical structures with an oval base were built. Specialists call these sites regional capitals, considering that they had higher hierarchy and functioned as integration centers, eventually becoming larger regional capitals. If
10956-403: The Chamber of Deputies are recent constructions, but the buildings housing the state court and the municipal palace date from the 19th century. The state court building originally was the home of the state government and was designed by Ramón Rodriguez Arangoiti, who also designed the imperial wing of the Chapultepec Castle . The municipal palace was completed in 1873 on land that once belonged to
11122-450: The Galaxy of Andromeda . It is a monumental piece measuring 3,200 square metres (34,445 square feet) with more than 30 thousand pieces and half a million glass pieces of 28 different colors coming from many different parts of the world such as Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Japan, Canada and the United States. It has a series of scenes that symbolize man's search of the light, the good and the wisdom to elevate his spirit to liberate him from
11288-449: The Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in the Valley of Oaxaca , the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture but making their own contributions as well. On the southern coast of Guatemala, Kaminaljuyú advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture, even though its links to Central Mexico and
11454-422: The Gulf plains. Whatever their origin, these bearers of Olmec culture arrived at the leeward shore some eight thousand years BCE, entering like a wedge among the fringe of proto-Maya peoples who lived along the coast, a migration that would explain the separation of the Huastecs of the north of Veracruz from the rest of the Maya peoples based in the Yucatán Peninsula and Guatemala . The Olmec culture represents
11620-401: The Gulf would initially provide their cultural models. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all the regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. The circular pyramid of Cuicuilco dates from this time, as well as the central plaza of Monte Albán, and
11786-404: The Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities. In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla , in the Pacific lowlands of Guatemala , some giant stone heads and potbelly sculptures ( barrigones ) have been found, dated at c. 1800 BCE , of the so-named Monte Alto Culture . Around 1500 BCE,
11952-490: The Maya area, Oaxaca, and the Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in Oaxaca, the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture and making their own contributions as well. In Peten, the great Classic Maya cities of Tikal , Uaxactun , and Seibal , began their growth at c. 300 BCE. Cuicuilco's hegemony over
12118-536: The Mayan area, although it was still regarded as a noble activity and practiced only by noble scribes, painters, and priests. Using a similar system of writing, other cultures developed their own scripts, the most notable examples being those of the Ñuiñe culture and the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, although the Mayan system was the only fully developed writing system in Precolumbian America. Astronomy remained
12284-412: The Middle Preclassic period saw the beginnings of the process of urbanization that would come to define the societies of the Classic period. In the Maya area, cities such as Nakbe c. 1000 BCE, El Mirador c. 650 BCE, Cival c. 350 BCE, and San Bartolo show the same monumental architecture of the Classic period. In fact, El Mirador is the largest Maya city. It has been argued that the Maya experienced
12450-421: The Olmecs is still widely debated. Based on linguistic evidence, archaeologists and anthropologists generally believe that they were either speakers of an Oto-Manguean language, or (more likely) the ancestors of the present-day Zoque people who live in the north of Chiapas and Oaxaca . According to this second hypothesis, Zoque tribes emigrated toward the south after the fall of the major population centers of
12616-545: The Paleo-Indian (first human habitation until 3500 BCE); the Archaic (before 2600 BCE), the Preclassic or Formative (2500 BCE – 250 CE), the Classic (250–900 CE), and the Postclassic (900–1521 CE ); as well as the post European contact Colonial Period (1521–1821), and Postcolonial, or the period after independence from Spain (1821–present). The periodisation of Mesoamerica by researchers
12782-569: The Postclassic era. In addition, southern peoples established themselves in the center of Mexico, including the Olmec-Xicalanca, who came from the Yucatán Peninsula and founded Cacaxtla and Xochicalco . In the Maya region, Tikal , an ally of Teotihuacan, experienced a decline, the so-called Tikal Hiatus, after being defeated by Dos Pilas , and Caracol , ally of Calakmul , lasted about another 100 years. During this hiatus,
12948-568: The Toluca industrial park. Mercedes-Benz manufactures the C-Class, E-Class, G-Class, here and upgrades the GL-Class, S-Class and CLS-Class to armored vehicles at this facility. BMW manufactures its 3, 5, 7 and X5 series and also offers armored variants. Toluca has an infrastructure of highways that connect the city with the main cities of the country as well as its international Airport, and inter-city bus Station. The Libramiento (bypass) Toluca
13114-400: The Toluca metropolitan area employs over 33% of the municipality's population and 6% of the entire state's population. Outside of the metropolitan area, the economy is still based on agriculture and livestock, with some income from tourism. Only a little over four percent of the total municipal population engages in agriculture raising corn, wheat, beans, potatoes, peas, fava beans and oats on
13280-416: The Toluca, Cuernavaca and Mexico City metropolitan areas. There are also concerns that the highway will extend development into small towns that do not want it. A commuter rail line known as Toluca–Mexico City commuter rail will connect Toluca to Mexico City. As of October 2020, it was estimated to open in 2023. Toluca is served by Licenciado Adolfo López Mateos International Airport . The airport has
13446-556: The Tula Chico occupation (cf. Cobean, 1990), as well as other important settlements in the Valley of Mexico, as Cerro de la Estrella and Azcapotzalco (altepetl) . There are also materials, although in low percentages, whose production and consumption starts in the epiclassical (based recent research made in the Tula region) but have been associated with the Tula apogee. According to ethno-historical sources and some radiocarbon dating, it
13612-574: The Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, leaving limited records in their script , which is as yet mostly undeciphered. Highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during the Classic era. In the Maya region, under considerable military influence by Teotihuacan after the "arrival" of Siyaj K'ak' in 378 CE, numerous city states such as Tikal , Uaxactun , Calakmul , Copán , Quirigua , Palenque , Cobá , and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities
13778-457: The Xitle flow suggests an earlier eruption, but another monogenetic volcano, Chichinautzin, was also active in the area prior to Xitle and is believed to have had a similarly large flow and to have resulted in similar ecological changes. The Yololica volcano also erupted at about the same time as Xitle, and its lava flows are only a few kilometers from Cuicuilco". During Byron Cummings' 1922–1925 exploration, ceramics were found from phases preceding
13944-583: The agreement signed with the United Nations Organization for the use and respect of the bicycle as a sustainable means of mass transportation. Its tourist attractions are several due to the great cultural and artistic heritage that has managed to keep alive the union of Hispanic and indigenous culture. Its traditional portals, the Cosmovitral botanical garden and multiple parks, museums, centers and cultural events stand out, among which
14110-523: The annual rainfall occurs between June and September. Just outside the heavily industrialized city, the municipality has forests with oak, pine, fir, cedar, cypress and other flora, characteristic of the temperate zone of central Mexico. In colonial times, Toluca first gained economic importance as a producer of smoked and cured meats, especially chorizo sausage. The nearby town of Lerma still carries on this tradition. However, since that time, Toluca's economy has expanded far beyond sausage to become one of
14276-679: The archaeological sites of Los Naranjos and Yarumela in Honduras stand out, built by ancestors of the Lencas , which reflect an architectural influence of this culture on Central American soil. Other sites with possible Olmec influence have been reported, such as Puerto Escondido, in the Sula Valley, near La Lima, and Hato Viejo in the department of Olancho , where a jadeite statuette has been found that shares many characteristics with those found in Mexico. 250–900 CE The Classic Period
14442-769: The area. The city now has five additional major industrial parks: Corredor Industrial Toluca, Parque Industrial Lerma, Parque Industrial Exportec I., Parque Industrial Exportec II and the Parque Industrial El Coecillo. Chrysler's Toluca Car Assembly has manufactured automobiles since 1968. The 220-acre (0.89 km ) complex employs 2300 people. Other companies located here or that have industrial parks in Toluca are BMW , Mercedes-Benz , Coca-Cola , Femsa , Grupo Bimbo , Nissan , Nestlé , Pfizer , Bayer , Crisa , Barcel , Knorr , Trelleborg Automotive, and HSBC . Many of those aforementioned companies have complete manufacturing and R&D facilities in
14608-453: The ballgame, and others that they were images of the Olmec governing elite. The Olmec are also known for their small carvings made of jade and other greenstones . So many of the Olmec figurines and sculptures contain representations of the were-jaguar , that, according to José María Covarrubias , they could be forerunners of the worship of the rain god, or maybe a predecessor of the future Tezcatlipoca in his manifestation as Tepeyolohtli,
14774-490: The best-known expressions of Olmec culture are giant stone heads, sculptured monoliths up to three meters in height and several tons in weight. These feats of Olmec stonecutting are especially impressive when one considers that Mesoamericans lacked iron tools and that the heads are at sites dozens of kilometers from the quarries where their basalt was mined. The function of these monuments is unknown. Some authors propose that they were commemorative monuments for notable players of
14940-496: The center of the municipality towards the west, flowing into Lake Chapala . From this point westward the river takes the name of Río Grande de Santiago . And it goes from this lake to the Pacific Ocean in the state of Nayarit . The river is about 1,180 km (730 mi) long; about 60% of it is known as Lerma River and 40% as Santiago River. The Nevado de Toluca or Xinantécatl is 30 km (19 mi) southwest of
15106-528: The chart below of prehispanic cultures, the dates mentioned are approximations, and that the transition from one period to another did not occur at the same time nor under the same circumstances in all societies. The Preclassic period ran from 2500 BCE to 200 CE. Its beginnings are marked by the development of the first ceramic traditions in the West, specifically at sites such as Matanchén , Nayarit , and Puerto Marqués, in Guerrero . Some authors hold that
15272-418: The cities of Dos Pilas, Piedras Negras , Caracol , Calakmul, Palenque , Copán , and Yaxchilán were consolidated. These and other city-states of the region found themselves involved in bloody wars with changing alliances, until Tikal defeated, in order, Dos Pilas, Caracol, with the help of Yaxha and El Naranjo , Waka , Calakmul's last ally, and finally Calakmul itself, an event that took place in 732 with
15438-531: The city which was founded on February 12, 1917. The club's stadium Estadio Nemesio Diez . It was officially inaugurated on August 8, 1954, and has a capacity for 30,000 spectators. Currently, the men's club has been participating in the Liga MX since 1954. It also has a women's professional soccer club Deportivo Toluca Femenil that has participated in the Liga MX Femenil since in 2017, the women's club
15604-410: The city, holding the infant Jesus . Overall the cathedral is a mix of styles, represents the various stages in which it was built and remodeled. The Tercer Orden Temple is located to the side of the main cathedral. Its façade is integrated into the main cathedral's in the popular indigenous Baroque architecture of the 18th century. It was the seat of the bishopric until 1978, when it was moved to
15770-453: The city. The god Tolo was supposed to reside in the volcano's crater. Its original indigenous name was Chignahualtecatl which means "Nine Mountains" but later was named Xinantecatl which means "naked man", because the silhouette of its crater resembles a sleeping man, before the Spaniards named it Nevado , meaning "snow-covered". It is a place of increasing sporting activity, such as mountain biking , climbing , and high altitude running. It
15936-520: The communities in the Mexico City metropolitan area. There are two "outer spheres" of the metropolitan area. The first consists of the municipalities of Almoloya del Río , Capulhuac , Mexicaltzingo , San Antonio la Isla , Tenango del Valle and Xonacatlán . The furthest sphere consists of Santiago Tianguistenco , Santa María Rayón , Santa Cruz Atizapán and Chapultepec, México . These spheres are defined not only by geographical distance but also by population growth and rate of urbanization. Toluca
16102-583: The consolidation of Teotihuacan as the ruler of the Central Highlands during the Early Classic period. At the site are eight of the many housing and religious buildings that once existed and the remains of a hydraulic system that supplied water to the city. One of the pyramids was built in a strategic position, representing early prehispanic attempts to link religious concepts with cosmic events through building construction. The etymology
16268-482: The core region. However, throughout Mesoamerica numerous sites show evidence of Olmec occupation, especially in the Balsas river basin, where Teopantecuanitlan is located. This site is quite enigmatic, since it dates from several centuries earlier than the main populations of the Gulf, a fact which has continued to cause controversy and given rise to the hypothesis that the Olmec culture originated in that region. Among
16434-530: The cultures of the West entered a period of decline, accompanied by an assimilation into the other peoples with whom they had maintained connections. As a result, the Tlatilco culture emerged in the Valley of Mexico , and the Olmec culture in the Gulf. Tlatilco was one of the principal Mesoamerican population centers of this period. Its people were adept at harnessing the natural resources of Lake Texcoco and at cultivating maize. Some authors posit that Tlatilco
16600-405: The dean's offices. The university has installations in various parts of the city, but the most noticeable is "Ciudad Universitaria" (lit. "university city"), a campus built around the hill Cerro de Coatepec. A monumental bust of Adolfo López Mateos , alumnus and former president of Mexico (1958–1964), is displayed at the top of the hill. Private schools in Toluca include: The center of the town
16766-578: The disappearance of Monte Albán around 850. Normally, the Classic period in Mesoamerica is characterized as the stage in which the arts, science, urbanism, architecture, and social organization reached their peak. This period was also dominated by the influence of Teotihuacan throughout the region, and the competition between the different Mesoamerican states led to continuous warfare. This period of Mesoamerican history can be divided into three phases. Early, from 250 to 550 CE; Middle, from 550 to 700; and Late, from 700 to 900. The early Classic period began with
16932-492: The distant cultures of Oasisamerica . The arts of Mesoamerica reached their high-point in this era. Especially notable are the Maya stelae (carved pillars), exquisite monuments commemorating the stories of the Royal families, the rich corpus of polychrome ceramics, mural painting, and music. In Teotihuacan, architecture made great advances: the Classic style was defined by the construction of pyramidal bases that sloped upward in
17098-598: The early development of pottery in this area is related to the ties between South America and the coastal peoples of Mexico. The advent of ceramics is taken as an indicator of a sedentary society, and it signals the divergence of Mesoamerica from the hunter-gatherer societies in the desert to the north. The Preclassic Era (also known as the Formative Period) is divided into three phases: the Early (2500–1200 BCE), Middle (1500–600 BCE), and Late (600 BCE – 200 CE). During
17264-657: The end of the Revolution. A monument to Father Miguel Hidalgo , the "father" of the Mexican Revolution is in the center of the square. It was created in Florence by Rivalta in 1899. The pedestal has reliefs depicting the storming of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas and the Battle of Monte de las Cruces. The central plaza is surrounded by state and municipal government buildings. The state government palace and
17430-435: The eruption. Eduardo Noguera (1939) excavated burials in the proximity of the pyramidal sector known as Cuicuilco A, corresponding to the preclassical archaeological site. In 1957, investigations by Heiser and Bennyhoff provided relevant information to refine the chronological sequence of the main building basement (cf. Schávelzon, 1983) Between 1966 and 1968, important complexes of architectural structures were found as well as
17596-420: The expansion of Teotihuacan, which led to its control over the principal trade routes of northern Mesoamerica. During this time, the process of urbanization that started in the last centuries of the early Preclassic period was consolidated. The principal centers of this phase were Monte Albán , Kaminaljuyu , Ceibal , Tikal , and Calakmul , and then Teotihuacan, in which 80 per cent of the 200,000 inhabitants of
17762-522: The first being more common. Dental mutilation was practised. The average life span was 51 years, affected mainly by diseases like osteomyelitis . From their location, inhabitants had access to natural resources, as they were located approximately 4 km from Lake Xochimilco , and near the Sierra de las Cruces and Ajusco (cf. Sanders 1981: 173); In addition there were water springs and streams. Prehispanic groups managed to produce food. The economic base
17928-459: The first phase, the manufacture of ceramics was widespread across the entire region, the cultivation of maize and vegetables became well-established, and society started to become socially stratified in a process that concluded with the appearance of the first hierarchical societies along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. In the early Preclassic period, the Capacha culture acted as a driving force in
18094-406: The first stage of the "El Insurgente" interurban train will soon come into operation, later with a maximum speed of 160 kilometers per hour and a length of 58 km it will link Toluca with Mexico City . It is connected 66 kilometers to the east with the Valley of Mexico , made up of Mexico City and its metropolitan area. Thanks to citizen pressure over the last decade, urban cycling is promoted and
18260-483: The following: Toluca is home to a series of traditional festivities such as the typical solemn "silent procession" that takes place every Holy Friday when the Catholic congregation from Toluca and its surroundings get together in the centre of the city to express their respect and devotion for Jesus Christ 's sacrifice. Easter and Lent are celebrated in a similar way. Currently, there are two official orchestras:
18426-603: The foothills of the Ajusco mountain range and extending down to a nearby lake shore. A 1956 study concluded that the uneven lava deposits, reaching a depth over 10 m in areas, were a major factor in the preservation of Cuicuilco. The site is also inside a modern urban area, and is partially covered by buildings associated with the National University of Mexico . Only partial archaeological investigation has been possible, and modern building techniques have damaged
18592-664: The great nations and cities of the Classic Era collapsed, although some continued, such as in Oaxaca , Cholula , and the Maya of Yucatan , such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal . This is sometimes thought to have been a period of increased chaos and warfare. The Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in architecture, engineering, and weaponry. Metallurgy (introduced c. 800) came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in
18758-402: The great pyramid of Cuicuilco is an expression of this growth, then this level of development was reached between 800 and 600 BC, when it was built. If true, these proto-urban characteristics might have extended into the late Preclassic, with Cuicuilco weakening between 100 BCE and 1 CE, the time when Teotihuacan began to develop, later becoming an important urban center in the Classic period. In
18924-498: The increase of commercial activity for the metropolitan area. It has also attracted many airline passengers who live in Mexico City to use the Toluca airport, which represents migration in potential consumers of 2.2 million passengers in 2007 and it is projected that for 2008 up to five millions travelers may utilize the Toluca Airport, which would make it the 4th busiest in the country. Toluca's Huizi public bike share system
19090-470: The late Classic era commenced. Political fragmentation during this era meant no city had complete hegemony. Various population movements occurred, caused by the incursion of groups from Aridoamerica and other northern regions, who pushed the older populations of Mesoamerica south. Among these new groups were the Nahua , who would later found the cities of Tula and Tenochtitlan, the two most important capitals of
19256-422: The lava were affected differently during the last 2000 years. The lava flow sealed off the northern shore of the lake and appears to have created a marshy peat deposit in the eastern section. Multiple layers of volcanic ash from Xitle and possibly from Popocatepetl have been detected in the peat. It has also been suggested that other volcanoes in the area may have played a role. "No geological evidence under
19422-501: The main cathedral. The temple contains a number of paintings, including The Three Orders and The Family Tree of Saint Francis . The Cosmovitral is located in a stone and ironwork building in the center of Toluca, designed in 1910 by engineer Manuel Arratia in order to accommodate the "16 de Septiembre" market. It was constructed in Art Nouveau and Neoclassical style, with an area of 5,000 square metres (53,820 square feet). It
19588-474: The mid-Preclassic (c. 800 BCE), settlements emerged in the area, which slowly evolved and grew, becoming cities, subsequently developing into a major civic-ceremonial urban centers in the late Preclassic (c. 100 CE). With twenty thousand inhabitants, complex ritual systems, and social stratification, comparable to Teotihuacan during the Late Formative period. Some experts theorize that the development of
19754-426: The most industrialized areas in Mexico. Its geographic position in the center of the country and proximity to Mexico City as well as its well-developed infrastructure, have allowed Toluca to grow into a major industrial zone for the state. Toluca began consolidating in the 1940s, but the most intense industrialization began in the 1950s and continued through most of the 1980s. The growth and industrialization of Toluca
19920-419: The next seven centuries. For many years, the Olmec culture was thought to be the 'mother culture' of Mesoamerica, because of the great influence that it exercised throughout the region. However, more recent perspectives consider this culture to be more of a process to which all the contemporary peoples contributed, and which eventually crystallized on the coasts of Veracruz and Tabasco . The ethnic identity of
20086-475: The north. It will allow transit from Toluca to southern and eastern destinations bypassing Mexico City but connecting the city with the Mexico City–Cuernavaca highway. However, the project is opposed by Greenpeace Mexico as well as a number of local groups, primarily due to the possible damage it can cause to the "Great Water Forest" "Gran Bosque del Agua" forest, which contains an important aquifer for
20252-401: The occupation of land owners such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo and other. Due to its location, Cuicuilco is in a difficult situation. Among the issues are modern planning and economic interests of the place, as well as disputes on conservation and legislation of the archaeological heritage. Known Cuicuilco is divided into two zones. The first is known as Cuicuilco A, where the ceremonial center
20418-482: The place where this occurred was named "Plaza of the Martires". In 1812, the first city council of Toluca was installed. In 1821, independence was proclaimed by the local authorities. After the creation of the State of Mexico in 1825, the state capital moved to different cities several times. In 1830, Toluca was designated as the constitutional capital of the State of Mexico. In 1832, the building of "Los Portales"
20584-421: The population centers in the Valley of Mexico . Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco . Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in
20750-524: The possibility that at the end of the life of these vessels, they were simply thrown into the water, considered as trash. On the other hand, the presence of braziers fragments, miniature pieces and Tlaloc vases indicates that these were thrown into the water as offerings as part of rites similar to those recorded by Spanish chroniclers as Sahagún (1989) and Duran (1967) in the twin cities of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco as well as in other settlements in late postclassical Mexico. Many ceramic materials identified in
20916-427: The pre-Hispanic city of Tollocan was destroyed and covered over by the expansion of Toluca, or else the remains of Tollocan could lie outside of the modern city. A small Postclassic site was discovered on the hill called Tolochi, which is in the north of the modern city, but the remains seem too insubstantial to have been a major provincial capital. The tree of "Las Manitas Rojas", which literally means "little red hands",
21082-491: The prehistoric city. Several 1990 archaeological finds at Cuicuilco, consisting of a circular pyramid constructed within a plaza with smaller structures associated with the agricultural system, were destroyed for the construction of a multi-storied office complex. Consequently, the true size and complexity of Cuicuilco may be difficult to ascertain. The prehispanic settlement and its surroundings, upon being covered by lava, were sealed and preserved. Archaeological materials above
21248-403: The preliminary analysis correspond to phases of Teotihuacan's apogee during the classical period (Tlamimilolpa and Xolalpan phases), between 200 and 650 CE. According to recently adjusted chronology based on radiocarbon dating (cf. Rattray, 1991); predominant types are temporarily located in the epiclassical period, 650-950 CE, Coyotlatelco tradition (cf. Rattray, 1966), and are contemporaneous with
21414-503: The process of civilizing Mesoamerica, and its pottery spread widely across the region. By 2500 BCE, small settlements were developing in Guatemala's Pacific Lowlands, places such as Tilapa, La Blanca , Ocós, El Mesak, Ujuxte , and others, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala have been found. From 2000 BCE a heavy concentration of pottery in the Pacific Coast Line has been documented. Recent excavations suggest that
21580-471: The rebels northward to Toluca. Viceroy Venegas ordered reinforcements for Porlier's army and dispersed the insurgents, causing them to lose artillery and supplies. In addition, the royalist forces took over a hundred prisoners and executed them in the main square. The bodies of the prisoners were buried in a mass grave behind what is now the Municipal Palace. A temple was built over the spot after
21746-486: The region, which many believe to have happened due to the Bering Land Bridge, to the establishment of agriculture and other practices (e.g. pottery , permanent settlements) and subsistence techniques characteristic of proto- civilizations . In Mesoamerica, the termination of this phase and its transition into the succeeding Archaic period may generally be reckoned at between 10,000 and 8000 BCE. This dating
21912-608: The regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. La Danta in El Mirador , the San Bartolo murals, and the circular pyramid of Cuicuilco date from this time, as do the central plaza of Monte Albán and the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan . Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to
22078-504: The remains of the old Temple of San Francisco. The interior of the temple exhibits neoclassical style with gold-leaf. It features oil paintings from the aforementioned times, such as the "Birth of San Pedro Nolasco", founder of the Mercenarios order. The temple became a hospice for orphans and beggars. Baroque construction style can be seen in the pilasters, niches and the order's shield. Inside, you can see paintings of Felipe Gutierrez,
22244-529: The sacrifice of Yuknom Cheen's son in Tikal. That led to construction of monumental architecture in Tikal, from 740 to 810; the last date documented there was 899. The ruin of the Classic Maya civilization in the northern lowlands, begun at La Passion states such as Dos Pilas, Aguateca , Ceibal and Cancuén , c. 760, followed by the Usumacinta system cities of Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, and Palenque, following
22410-520: The same time. The processes that gave rise to each of the cultural systems of Mesoamerica were very complex and not determined solely by the internal dynamics of each society. External as well as endogenous factors influenced their development. Among these factors, for example, were the relations between human groups and between humans and the environment, human migrations, and natural disasters. Historians and archaeologists divide pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican history into three periods. The Spanish conquest of
22576-563: The shadows of evil and the ignorance in an epic tale without beginning or end. At the spring equinox, the solar disc crosses the heart of "El hombre Sol" (the sun man), causing an explosion of light. Toluca has a lot of green areas and among them is the Sierra Morelos park, this park is one of the largest in the city that covers 302 hectares is located on the slopes of Cerro de La Teresona and houses an important population of forests of pine, eucalyptus and oak. The Santa Veracruz Temple
22742-415: The site as well as the number of inhabitants dropped radically. In 1990, in the sector known as Cuicuilco C, Rodríguez identified predominant preclassical ceramic materials, as well as, to a lesser extent, pots from later periods, including colonial and modern (Rodriguez, 1994). Stratigraphy has determined that, after the Xitle eruption, materials were deposited on a layer of lava cushions associated with
22908-399: The site was covered by lava from the Xitle volcano, which happened around 400 CE or in the range 245 to 315 AD. With Cuicuilco in ruins, Xitle erupted once again, covering much of the city in lava. This lava flow is evident based on excavation around the main pyramid. Excavations show a layer of lava separating the modern surface from the original, ancient surface. This shows much of the city
23074-406: The site, from its foundation, was due to its strategic location near the pass of Toluca , and near the shores of Lake Texcoco . Under this perspective, although the place produced (around 600–200 BCE) a new ceramic tradition, is also evident that the region was configured by successive generations. Towards the late Preclassic period, around 150 BCE, Cuicuilco became an urban regional center, with
23240-416: The sixteenth century by new infectious diseases brought by the Spanish invaders; they suffered high mortality from slave labor, and during epidemics. The fall of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of the three-hundred-year colonial period and the imposition of Spanish rule. Mesoamerican civilisation was a complex network of different cultures. As seen in the time-line below, these did not necessarily occur at
23406-594: The state and he started the most important modernization process of the city in the 19th century. In 1881, The Industrial Union was founded, the railroad was opened and the Bank of State of Mexico created the first bills in the country. In 1882, the Teachers College was founded. In 1910, people celebrated a century of Independence, and the Plaza España was inaugurated. The municipality of Toluca, which has
23572-555: The stores that are contained within. The western arches follow the perimeter of what was the La Asunción Franciscan monastery. The eastern and southern arches were completed in 1836 by José María González Arratia. The original western arches were built by the Buenaventura Merlín. Each side consists of basket-handle arches, each with a balcony. Each side has its own name. The eastern one, with 37 arches,
23738-405: The style of the 18th-century palaces in Mexico City. The Temple of La Merced is one of the most ancient convents still preserved and one of the most important founded by Spaniards. It is a beautiful building of a religious order called mercenarios , and it shows architectural styles from the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Its principal façade has 3 naves and was constructed in the 18th century on
23904-508: The use of ceramics as grave goods . The city grew around a large ceremonial center with pyramids and an associated urban area that included plazas and avenues bordering a series of small, shallow pools. These pools were fed by runoff from the nearby hills of Zacayuca and Zacaltepetl . The population at the city's peak is estimated at 20,000 people. The features of the site include terraces, various buildings, fortifications, and irrigation ditches and canals . The main known structure
24070-401: The valley and its economic influence is most strongly felt in the southern and central parts of the valley. The northern parts of the valley have closer ties to Atlacomulco . The core metropolitan area of Toluca consists of the municipalities of Toluca, Lerma, Metepec, San Mateo Atenco, Ocoyoacac and Zinacantepec. The economic interdependence of these municipalities are most similar to that of
24236-437: The valley declined in the period 100 BCE to 1 CE. As Cuicuilco declined, Teotihuacan began to grow in importance. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called City of the gods consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center in Central Mexico for the next seven centuries. The Classic period of Mesoamerica includes
24402-479: The year 400 CE, the Xitle volcano, located in the vicinity of Ajusco (Nahuatl: atl, xochitl, co, “water”, “flower”, “place”; “place of flowers in water”), and part of the Sierra de Ajusco-Chichinauhtzin , erupted, burying and destroying what still remained of Cuicuilco and Copilco (another important ceremonial center). This disaster led to the dispersion of Cuicuilca culture towards Toluca and Teotihuacan, which hosted
24568-418: The years from 250 to 900 CE. The end point of this period varied from region to region: for example, in the center of Mexico it is related to the fall of the regional centers of the late Classic (sometimes called Epiclassic) period, toward the year 900; in the Gulf, with the decline of El Tajín , in the year 800; in the Maya area, with the abandonment of the highland cities in the 9th century; and in Oaxaca, with
24734-590: Was Tollocan, a minor city-state before 1478. When Axayacatl destroyed Calixtlahuaca, he placed the imperial provincial capital in Tollocan. Calixtlahuaca and other towns in the Toluca Valley paid tribute to the Aztec Empire through Tollocan. After the Spanish conquest, the name Tollocan was changed to Toluca. Archaeologists have not yet located a major Postclassic settlement within the modern city. Either
24900-407: Was a prominent community prior to the emergence of Teotihuacan as an urban center, noting that the six small communities which some archeologists believe eventually combined to become Teotihuacan were founded and showing evidence of modest growth at the same time that Cuicuilco was building pyramids and public monuments. The city seems to have been abandoned around AD 150 to 200 after the eruption of
25066-401: Was apparently the case in Classic times. This afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility. The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 9th–10th century, then collapsed. The northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan . Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries. The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on
25232-552: Was built, containing two hexagonal bodies, pairs of columns and balconies with semicircular rails. Both bodies are topped with domes, each bearing a cross. The space that was reserved for the second tower instead has an ornate clock. Toluca, being the capital of the State of Mexico , is home of several important museums. It is second only to Mexico City in number of museums. Some of them honor important Mexican artists such as José María Velasco Gómez , Felipe Santiago Gutiérrez , and Luis Nishizawa , among others. These museums are
25398-409: Was centered on agriculture, probably supplemented by hunting, fishing and gathering; access to wood had to be simple, from nearby forests, and agricultural land in the vicinity of the nuclear portion of the site, buried today under meters of volcanic lava and modern buildings. The decline began in the early 1st century BCE, with the rise of Teotihuacan as a center of cultural and religious influence. By
25564-567: Was completely destroyed by the lava flows. This series of eruptions gave rise to Teotihuacan as the center of the Basin of Mexico. From the beginning of the last century, “El Pedregal” was an attractive place to define the predecessor cultures of the Teotihuacan y Mexica cultures in the México basin. Investigations at Cuicuilco B demonstrated that the site's development was as a consequence of internal dynamics. Archaeologists conclude that Cuicuilco
25730-616: Was converted into the Nevado de Toluca National Park in January 1936 with about 1,517 km (585.7 sq mi) in area. The park has forest land, especially of pines and obeto trees. The prevalent animals are camp rats, teporingos, squirrels, tlacuaches, lizards, snakes, and eagles. On the lower part of this mountain there are picnic tables and BBQ grills. In the higher part of the volcano (inside) there are two lagoons in which visitors can practice scuba-diving and fishing. This volcano
25896-578: Was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico and the Yucatán. Regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The city-state of Teotihuacan dominated the Valley of Mexico until the early 8th century, but little is known of the political structure of the region because the Teotihuacanos left no written records. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated
26062-400: Was formed about 35 years ago and was the first youth marching band in the country. Mexican food mixes European and Mesoamerican elements. In Toluca the most famous dish is chorizo , a regional sausage made of ground pork and tomato sauce, pumpkin mole , pipian and other ingredients such as salt, pepper, white wine, almonds, potatoes, vinegar, garlic and chile. In Mexico, the word "chorizo"
26228-420: Was founded and inhabited by the ancestors of today's Otomi people . The Olmecs, on the other hand, had entered into an expansionist phase that led them to construct their first works of monumental architecture at San Lorenzo and La Venta . The Olmecs exchanged goods within their own core area and with sites as far away as Guerrero and Morelos and present day Guatemala and Costa Rica . San José Mogote ,
26394-682: Was founded in 2017. The club plays its home games at the Estadio Nemesio Diez . When Toluca was founded by the Matlatzincas , its original name was Nepintahihui (land of corn). The current name is based on the Náhuatl name for the area when it was renamed by the Aztecs in 1473. The name has its origin in the word tollocan that comes from the name of the god, Tolo , plus the locative suffix, can , to denote "place of Tolo". It
26560-542: Was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, which fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium. Each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned. 900–1521 CE In the Postclassic Period many of
26726-627: Was launched in 2015 with 27 stations and 350 bicycles. The system is operated by PBSC Urban Solutions . Since Toluca is the capital of the State of Mexico, there are several diverse and important educational centers such as the state-funded public university , the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM). Also, it is home to major private universities, including campuses of the Universidad Tecnológica de México (UNITEC), Tecnológico de Monterrey (ITESM), and
26892-416: Was originally designed by Agustín Carrillo. However, in 1870, Ramon Rodriguez Arangoiti redesigned the cathedral, based on his experience with old Roman basilicas although the present-day building still contains a number of the elements of the original design such as the aisle that runs parallel to the façade serving as a narthex , allowing access to the central and two side naves . The straight central nave
27058-500: Was planted before the Spanish Conquest in what is now the monastery of Nuestra Señora del Carmen. This tree is significant because it shows that Toluca was important enough for the Aztecs to create a botanical garden. In 1521, the Spanish conquered the Valley of Toluca. Leading the troops was Gonzalo de Sandoval , one of Cortes' many sergeants. Toluca's first governor was Pedro Cortés Coyotzin. The Valley of Toluca and what
27224-566: Was recognized as a city as early as 1662, only in 1799, was Toluca officially named a city by the King Carlos IV of Spain on September 12. In 1810, at the beginning of the independence movement , Miguel Hidalgo stayed in Toluca for a few days on his way to the Battle of Monte de las Cruces . In 1811, a group of indigenous natives of Mexico was shot and killed by Spanish royalists. In memorial to those who were killed in this incident,
27390-465: Was started in downtown Toluca. In 1836, because of the centralization of the Mexican federal government, all branches of government were relocated to Mexico City after some were in Toluca for several years. In 1847, thanks to Ignacio Ramírez, "El Nigromante" or the Institute of Literature opened. In 1851, the "Teatro Principal" was built by González Arratia. Mariano Riva Palacio was named governor of
27556-475: Was well loved by the Matlazinca people, as he worked to protect them from the injustices of the early colonial period. He is remembered to this day with a plaza that bears his name which includes a sculpture depicting him. A Spanish community was established in 1530, but it was not until 1677 that Toluca was categorized as a town. In 1793, the construction of a road to Mexico City was started. Although Toluca
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