The Curator Aquarum was a Roman official responsible for managing Rome's water supply and distributing free grain . Curators were appointed by the emperor . The first curator was Agrippa . Another notable Curator Aquarum was Frontinus , a Roman engineer.
117-528: Before the Curator Aquarum Censors managed the water supply. Emperor Augustus , as part of an initiative to develop new positions, established the position of Curator Aquarum . The purpose of this office was to maintain the water supply of Rome. Augustus appointed Agrippa as the first Curator Aquarum. Aggripa was curator from 33 to 12 BC. He used a slave force consisting of 240 imperial slaves and 40 freedmen . During his term, he built
234-640: A pipe threader . It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas. Most typical single family home systems will not require supply piping larger than 3 ⁄ 4 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on
351-420: A " curule chair " ( sella curulis ), but some doubt exists with respect to their official dress. A well-known passage of Polybius describes the use of the imagines at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered toga praetexta , one who triumphed the embroidered toga picta , and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him, but other writers speak of their official dress as being
468-517: A Roman politician on the cursus honorum . However, the magistracy as a regular office did not survive the transition from the Republic to the Empire . The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words censor and censorship . The census was first instituted by Servius Tullius , sixth king of Rome , c. 575–535 BC. After the abolition of
585-738: A building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users . Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets ), urinals , bidets , showers , bathtubs , utility and kitchen sinks , drinking fountains , ice makers , humidifiers, air washers , fountains , and eye wash stations. Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope . Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty . Plumbing equipment includes devices often behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by
702-417: A colleague in his son Titus . Domitian assumed the title of "perpetual censor" ( censor perpetuus ), but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of Decius , the elder Valerian was nominated to the censorship, but declined the position. The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: The original business of
819-576: A copper waste pipe. The word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire . The Latin for lead is plumbum . Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes and some were also covered with lead. Lead was also used for piping and for making baths. Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome , which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts , tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes . The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft . With
936-554: A decade ago. This has led to an increase in plumbing regulatory issues not covered under current policy, and as such, many policies are currently being updated to cover these more modern issues. The updates include changed to the minimum experience and training requirements for licensing, additional work standards for new and more specific kinds of plumbing, as well as adopting the Plumbing Code of Australia into state regulations in an effort to standardise plumbing regulations across
1053-428: A general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received
1170-565: A heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage. Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility". Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera. However, "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently: Legionella pneumophila , discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are
1287-603: A law proposed by the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus . During the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased. Caecus built the first-ever Roman road (the Via Appia ) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia ), both named after him. He changed the organisation of the Roman tribes and was the first censor to draw the list of senators . He also advocated
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#17327758294791404-429: A layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water, an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink (for example as a preservative in wine). Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on
1521-464: A method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
1638-480: A mill which made the grain. Other scholars contest this point of view. As the Aqua Traiana was created after the first Curatores Aquarum et Minuciae was elected. Curatores Aquarum had the right to travel with two Lictors , but only whilst outside the city of Rome . Curatores Aquarum were entitled to the toga praetexta and the sella curulis . Procurates Aquarum, were Roman procurators that managed
1755-438: A new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word civium ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in
1872-432: A relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm , which protects them from disinfection. Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect
1989-404: A special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus , as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census, that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out
2106-412: Is a matter of sizing. For instance, PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe are measured in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC , PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand
2223-685: Is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead , plumbum , as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes . In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation . Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers although they work with piping as part of their trade and their work can include some plumbing. Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations, as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal for larger numbers of people. The Mesopotamians introduced
2340-486: Is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural. Pipe is available in rigid joints , which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid joints or flexible rolls. The temper of
2457-406: Is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves , and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as " galv " or " iron " in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of
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#17327758294792574-405: Is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned; there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by
2691-598: Is typically formed via casting or welding , whereas a tube is made through extrusion . Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing , compression fitting , crimping , or for plastics, solvent welding . These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article. Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 3 ⁄ 8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It
2808-466: The aerarium , which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers. In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors). The censors had the general superintendence of all
2925-488: The cognomen of Censorinus . The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were originally chosen for a whole lustrum (a period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of Dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus . The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity. They had no imperium , and accordingly no lictors . Their rank
3042-587: The Aqua Julia , repaired existing aqueducts, and established the Cura Aquarum . After the death of Agrippa, Messala Corvinus became the Curator Aquarum . Emperor Claudius increased the number of the staff to 460 men. Eventually this would increase to 700 men. Frontinus was also appointed as the Curator Aquarum by emperor Nerva . During the 2nd Century the Curator Aquarum largely escaped
3159-450: The Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier,
3276-664: The Hittite city of Hattusa . They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and allowed for cleaning. Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley civilization by 2700 BC. Copper piping appeared in Egypt by 2400 BCE, with the Pyramid of Sahure and adjoining temple complex at Abusir , found to be connected by
3393-486: The Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian. Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the lustrum ; Livy Periochae 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians. The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during his term of office, another
3510-441: The Roman army . Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors ( animadversio censoria ), made dictator . A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which
3627-718: The Senate , although unofficially the emperor always installed them. Curatores Aquarum , and their two Senatorial adiutores , or assistants, held mostly ceremonial power. They were officially given complete control over the Roman water supply and aqueducts . Despite this, no technical knowledge was expected of the curator, they were not even present in Rome for much of their term. The curator's subordinates were workers with knowledge of hydraulics such as engineers , pavers , plasterers , and aquarii . These workers would usually make all
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3744-891: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC) . WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing. In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead -free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with
3861-516: The historical record . However, during the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla a new position called Curator Aquarum et Minuciae was established. Lucius Novius Rufius , who was the Governor of Hispania Citerior and a supporter of Clodius Albinus , a rival of Septimius Severus, held the position of Curator Aquarum et Minuciae . The Curator Aquarum was generally a prominent Senator of Consular rank. Officially, they were chosen by
3978-499: The monarchy and the founding of the Republic in 509 BC, the consuls had responsibility for the census until 443 BC. In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but tribunes with consular power were appointed instead. This was a move by the plebeians to try to attain higher magistracies: only patricians could be elected consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians. To prevent the possibility of plebeians obtaining control of
4095-557: The 1920s in the United States, although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s, and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast iron, or lead. In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. are used in plumbing systems. Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping . Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that use water and can be connected to
4212-709: The Plumbing Regulations 2008 and the Plumbing Code of Australia, pertains to plumbing. Each Government at the state level has their own Authority and regulations in place for licensing plumbers. They are also responsible for the interpretation, administration and enforcement of the regulations outlined in the NCC. These Authorities are usually established for the sole purpose of regulating plumbing activities in their respective states/territories. However, several state level regulation acts are quite outdated, with some still operating on local policies introduced more than
4329-416: The Republic, which (excluding certain priests elected for life) had terms of 12 months or less, censors' terms were generally 18 months to 5 years (depending on the era). The censorate was thus highly prestigious, preceding all other regular magistracies in dignity if not in power and reserved with rare exceptions for former consuls . Attaining the censorship would thus be considered the crowning achievement of
4446-719: The Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls. The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly , which met under the presidency of a consul. Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly , and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but William Smith believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and
4563-412: The Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" ( nota censoria ) in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ignominia and not infamia . Infamia and the censorial verdict was not a judicium or res judicata , for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by
4680-790: The UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between
4797-525: The US during the 20th century. These pipes (used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes) were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants. Cast iron and ductile iron pipe
Curator Aquarum - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-467: The aristocracy that supported Sulla. If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus . Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate , and required that
5031-488: The behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate." The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius , and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa publica , which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus . An account of the formalities with which
5148-530: The censors be in agreement to exact this punishment. This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio , but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence. During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 23 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill
5265-457: The censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. The punishments are generally divided into four classes: It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "censor" and " censorship "—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid
5382-518: The censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the lustrum , a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification; but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word lustrum has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in
5499-516: The censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but given the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, it is likely that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury; and even if they did not enter in their books
5616-431: The censors, who were seated in their curule chairs , and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius , Salvius , Statorius , etc. The Census was conducted according to the judgement of the censor ( ad arbitrium censoris ), but the censors laid down certain rules, sometimes called leges censui censendo , in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to
5733-407: The censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the regimen morum , or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state. The censors possessed the official stool called
5850-426: The censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus , one of the most influential censors. The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter. After
5967-699: The censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census, but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero: " Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto. " This can be translated as: "The Censors are to determine
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#17327758294796084-458: The census was considered incensus and subject to the severest punishment. Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death, and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave. In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors. Whether
6201-489: The census was opened is given in a fragment of the Tabulae Censoriae , preserved by Varro. After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately, and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every pater familias had to appear in person before
6318-507: The census was still taken under the Empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the lustratio was not performed after the time of Vespasian . The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15). The word census , besides
6435-473: The census was the same thing as "having a head" ( caput habere ). A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic. The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called censitores to take the census; but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial legati . The censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called censuales , who made out the lists, etc. In Rome,
6552-424: The census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart". First he had to give his full name ( praenomen , nomen , and cognomen ) and that of his father, or if he were a libertus ("freedman") that of his patron , and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He
6669-402: The census, the patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes, and appointed for this duty two magistrates, called censores (censors), elected exclusively from the patricians in Rome. The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor. Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of
6786-606: The city's water, an epistula would have to be presented to the Curator Aquarum. The curator would pass the letter onto the procurator, who would implement the request. In Ancient Rome , free grain would be distributed to the plebeians at the Campus Martius which was by the Porticus Mincuia . It is possible that the Curator Aquarum was responsible for the distribution. However, the Curator Aquarum may have only been responsible for using water to power
6903-410: The conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits ( mos majorum )— regimen morum also encompassed this protection of traditional ways, which was called in the times of the Empire cura ("supervision") or praefectura ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in
7020-561: The contract were called conductores , mancipes , redemptores , susceptores , etc., and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae . The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract. It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far
7137-448: The conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: Keeping the public morals ( regimen morum , or in the Empire cura morum or praefectura morum ) was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded; hence they were also known as castigatores ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of
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#17327758294797254-431: The copper, whether it is a rigid joint or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing. The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in
7371-569: The country. In Norway, new domestic plumbing installed since 1997 has had to satisfy the requirement that it should be easily accessible for replacement after installation. This has led to the development of the pipe-in-pipe system as a de facto requirement for domestic plumbing. In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it
7488-416: The dangers of lead poisoning . At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes. The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are: A water pipe is a pipe or tube , frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system ), as well as inside the building. Lead
7605-566: The decisions . Although the curator still managed the salary of these workers. Curatores Aquarum had the responsibility of ensuring a constant stream of water, they could have been called to clear aqueducts, they would have fined offenders who damaged the Aqueducts, they managed the trials of people who were accused of damaging aqueducts or sewers , they would have managed the construction of new buildings and public works, and they could set up new Castella for water grants. To gain access to
7722-405: The derived sense of a period of five years, i.e., half a decennium. Plumbing Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes , valves , plumbing fixtures , tanks , and other apparatuses to convey fluids. Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal , and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it
7839-434: The dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel . Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed
7956-475: The early 20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes , but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead in order to eliminate lead hazards. Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that
8073-445: The election of the consuls and praetors , so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia . The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office; and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly ( lex centuriata ), were fully installed in their office. As
8190-403: The exercise of this branch of their duties was called nota ("mark, letter") or notatio , or animadversio censoria ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite
8307-624: The finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium , located in the Temple of Saturn ; but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis , near the Villa publica, and in later times the temple of the Nymphs. Besides the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of
8424-417: The following censors, or by a lex (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as judices by the praetor , or for serving in
8541-470: The founding of Roman coloniae throughout Latium and Campania to support the Roman war effort in the Second Samnite War . With these efforts and reforms, Appius Claudius Caecus was able to hold the censorship for a whole lustrum (five-year period), and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in
8658-457: The general public. It includes water meters , pumps , expansion tanks, back flow preventers , water filters , UV sterilization lights, water softeners , water heaters , heat exchangers , gauges, and control systems. There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make
8775-410: The generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks [of the people]; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide
8892-603: The inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners. In Australia, the national governing body for plumbing regulation is the Australian Building Codes Board . They are responsible for the creation of the National Construction Code (NCC), Volume 3 of which,
9009-453: The inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants. Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to
9126-591: The job easier. Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches , flaring pliers , pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies , and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or other problems; they also use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement. Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as
9243-448: The jurisdiction of the censors. They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia , such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc. The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum the collection of the tithes and taxes ( tax farming ). This auctioning was called venditio or locatio , and seems to have taken place in
9360-412: The land belonging to the state. It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance . The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into
9477-499: The largest and most extensive” of the state) in their public works. Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae , theatres , porticoes , fora , aqueducts , town walls , harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them
9594-515: The lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property ( Comitia Centuriata ). These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae , under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties. These lists, insofar as they were connected with
9711-454: The main and the meter). Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size. 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper. Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for
9828-422: The money, which had been granted to them by the Senate. They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called opus probare or in acceptum referre . The first ever Roman road, the Via Appia , and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia , were all constructed under
9945-496: The month of March, in a public place in Rome The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the leges censoriae , which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced. For further particulars see Publicani . The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new vectigalia , and even of selling
10062-435: The most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with. Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e.
10179-476: The most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. Judging from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it
10296-399: The name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, subscriptio censoria . This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by everyone to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within
10413-481: The occupation of private persons, and that the aqueducts , roads , drains, etc. were properly attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the vectigalia were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ultrotributa , and hence we frequently find vectigalia and ultrotributa contrasted with one another. The persons who undertook
10530-399: The office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla . Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two lustra which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) 's first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to
10647-438: The office. This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum ("prefect of the morals"). Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they held a census of the Roman people; this was the case with Claudius , who appointed the elder Lucius Vitellius as his colleague, and with Vespasian , who likewise had
10764-540: The owner to prevent water theft. Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through. The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. Wooden pipes were used in Philadelphia, Boston, and Montreal in the 1800s. Built-up wooden tubes were widely used in
10881-411: The property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment. A person who voluntarily absented himself from
10998-433: The public buildings and works ( opera publica ), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the Senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair, that no public places were encroached upon by
11115-445: The publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment. The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum , or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under
11232-401: The reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, "immorality does not equal illegality". Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character. Hence,
11349-411: The right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition
11466-404: The same as that of the other higher magistrates. The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" ( funus censorium ) was voted even to the emperors. The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement,
11583-433: The senators for the ensuing five years, or until new censors were appointed, striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the equites who received a horse from public funds ( equites equo publico ), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the princeps senatus , or appointed
11700-493: The soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken, because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been
11817-644: The supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay , lead , bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil") out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron. The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe
11934-418: The truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niebuhr's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held. The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at
12051-433: The waste disposal system had consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools . In post-classical Kilwa the wealthy enjoyed indoor plumbing in their stone homes. Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify
12168-398: The water supply. These procurator's names appear on many inscriptions in the sub cura formula, indicating an official role. However, there are a large quantity of these names. Indicating that they could not all have been procurators. Most likely, they were officials responsible for supervising public works involving the installation of a water conduit . Roman censor The censor
12285-436: The water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing using soldered fittings. The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of
12402-457: The world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna , used to remove wastewater from sites, and capture rainwater, in wells. The city of Uruk contains the oldest known examples of brick constructed Latrines , constructed atop interconnecting fired clay sewer pipes, c. 3200 BCE . Clay pipes were later used in
12519-605: Was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census , supervising public morality , and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances. Established under the Roman Republic , power of the censor was limited in subject matter but absolute within his sphere: in matters reserved for the censors, no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. Censors were also given unusually long terms of office; unlike other elected offices of
12636-497: Was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed. Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper, brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes ), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity , most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by
12753-402: Was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value. Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. It has been doubted by some modern writers whether
12870-468: Was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC. However, the Gauls captured Rome in that lustrum (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as "an offense against religion". From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them. The office of censor was limited to eighteen months by
12987-425: Was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law." In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted as
13104-412: Was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly , and not by the curiae , and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship ; it was a "sacred magistracy" ( sanctus magistratus ), to which the deepest reverence was due. The high rank and dignity which
13221-483: Was long a lower-cost alternative to copper before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes (except for terminal fittings) in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell ). Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials. The difference between pipes and tubes
13338-447: Was severely chastised by their successors. But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature. A person who had been branded with a nota censoria , might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors, and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf. The punishments inflicted by
13455-459: Was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census ( censui censendo ) as were property according to the Quiritary law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details; but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole. Land formed
13572-482: Was the favoured material for water pipes for many centuries because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum , the Latin word for lead. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality . Lead water pipes were still widely used in
13689-472: Was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any. Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads. After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it
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