Government
116-539: After the Velvet Revolution in late-1989 , Czechoslovakia adopted the official short-lived country name Czech and Slovak Federative Republic ( Czech : Česká a Slovenská Federativní Republika , Slovak : Česká a Slovenská Federatívna Republika ; ČSFR ) during the period from 23 April 1990 until 31 December 1992, after which the country was peacefully dissolved into the Czech Republic and
232-502: A parliamentary republic . On 17 November 1989 ( International Students' Day ), riot police suppressed a student demonstration in Prague . The event marked the 50th anniversary of a violently suppressed demonstration against the Nazi storming of Prague University in 1939 where 1,200 students were arrested and 9 killed (see Origin of International Students' Day ). The 1989 event sparked
348-978: A "people's democracy" (without a formal name change) under the Ninth-of-May Constitution following the 1948 coup . ČSSR; from 1969, after the Prague Spring , consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic (ČSR) and Slovak Socialist Republic (SSR). Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR . Oblast of Ukraine . 50°05′N 14°28′E / 50.083°N 14.467°E / 50.083; 14.467 Velvet Revolution [REDACTED] Opposition Supported by: [REDACTED] United States Hardliners: Moderates: Dissident leaders: The Velvet Revolution ( Czech : Sametová revoluce ) or Gentle Revolution ( Slovak : Nežná revolúcia )
464-797: A Foreign Ministry spokesman replied, "Nineteen years." Dubček lent his support to the Velvet Revolution of December 1989. After the collapse of the Communist regime that month, Dubček became chairman of the federal assembly under the Havel administration. He later led the Social Democratic Party of Slovakia , and spoke against the dissolution of Czechoslovakia before his death in November 1992. The Warsaw Pact invasion included attacks on media establishments, such as Radio Prague and Czechoslovak Television , almost immediately after
580-414: A Soviet satellite state until 1989 when the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the communist regime; the last Soviet troops left the country in 1991. After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period known as normalization (Czech: normalizace , Slovak: normalizácia ), in which new leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of
696-467: A UN vote was taken with ten members supporting the motion; Algeria, India, and Pakistan abstained; the USSR (with veto power) and Hungary opposed. Canadian delegates immediately introduced another motion asking for a UN representative to travel to Prague and work toward the release of the imprisoned Czechoslovak leaders. By 26 August, a new Czechoslovak representative requested the whole issue be removed from
812-666: A civic initiative met with the Prime Minister, who told them he was twice prohibited from resigning his post and that change requires mass demonstrations like those in East Germany (some 250,000 students). He asked them to keep the number of "casualties" during the expected change to a minimum. About 500 Slovak artists, scientists and leaders met at the Art Forum (Umelecká beseda) in Bratislava at 17:00. They denounced
928-657: A committee in April 1968, headed by the poet Jaroslav Seifert , to investigate the persecution of writers after the Communist takeover in February 1948 and rehabilitate the literary figures into the Union, bookstores and libraries, and the literary world. Discussions on the current state of communism and abstract ideas such as freedom and identity were also becoming more common; soon, non-party publications began appearing, such as
1044-410: A compromise. While few people were happy with the name, it came into use quickly. Czech and Slovak tensions, of which this was an early sign, soon became manifest in matters of greater immediate importance which made the country's name a comparatively minor issue and at the same time even more impossible to change, so the name remained. The 1960 Constitution remained in force up to 1 January 1993. It
1160-530: A limited basis as only allowed NGOs) and published home-made periodicals ( samizdat ). Charter 77 was quashed by the government and its signed members were persecuted until the fall of the regime in Czechoslovakia. Later, with the advent of the Civic Forum, independence could truly be seen on the horizon. Until Independence Day on 17 November 1989, the populace faced persecution by the authorities from
1276-415: A loosening of restrictions on the media , speech and travel . After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics, Bohemia , Moravia – Silesia and Slovakia , Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two, the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic . This dual federation was the only formal change that survived the invasion. The reforms, especially
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#17327727848681392-601: A low-key response to the invasion. After 1968 the U.S. recognized Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, a development that was in the interests of the United States according to some analysts. In April 1969, Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák , and a period of " normalization " began. Dubček was expelled from the KSČ and given a job as a forestry official. Husák reversed Dubček's reforms, purged
1508-537: A major scandal. Like the Italian and French Communist parties, the majority of the Communist Party of Finland denounced the occupation. Nonetheless, Finnish president Urho Kekkonen was the first Western politician to officially visit Czechoslovakia after August 1968; he received the highest Czechoslovak honours from the hands of President Ludvík Svoboda , on 4 October 1969. A schism occurred between
1624-449: A mass demonstration on 17 November to commemorate International Students Day and the fiftieth anniversary of the murder of student Jan Opletal by the Nazi government. Most members of SSM were privately opposed to the Communist leadership, but were afraid of speaking up for fear of persecution. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others and express their opinions. By 16:00 (4:00 pm), about 15,000 people joined
1740-598: A meeting of the Central Committee of the Party. Novotný then invited the Secretary General of the Communist Party of Soviet Union , Leonid Brezhnev , to Prague that December, seeking support; Brezhnev, however, was surprised at the extent of the opposition to Novotný and so he rather supported his removal. Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968. On 22 March, Novotný resigned and
1856-492: A more moderate Communist, was named General Secretary. Federal Television showed pictures from 17 November for the first time and presented the first television address of Václav Havel, dealing mostly with the planned general strike. Czechoslovak TV and Radio announced that they would join the general strike. A discussion with representatives of the opposition was broadcast by the Slovak section of Federal Television. The opposition
1972-580: A paramilitary organisation subordinated directly to the Communist Party) to Prague to crush the protests, but called them off. Civic Forum announced a two-hour general strike for Monday, 27 November. The first live reports from the demonstration in Wenceslas Square appeared on Federal Television (and were quickly cut off, after one of the participants denounced the present government in favour of Alexander Dubček). Striking students forced
2088-683: A petition that circulated in the summer of 1989 calling for the end of censorship and the beginning of fundamental political reform. The immediate impetus for the revolution came from developments in neighbouring countries and in the Czechoslovak capital. From August, East German citizens had occupied the West German Embassy in Prague and demanded exile to West Germany . In the days following 3 November, thousands of East Germans left Prague by train to West Germany. On 9 November,
2204-562: A proclamation by the students and artists to the audience, calling for a general strike on 27 November. Home-made posters and proclamations were posted. As all media (radio, TV, newspapers) were strictly controlled by the Communist Party (see Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia ), this was the only way to spread the message. In the evening, Radio Free Europe reported that a student (named as Martin Šmíd )
2320-515: A request for intervention to the Soviets. The invasion was followed by a previously unseen wave of emigration , which was stopped shortly thereafter. An estimated 70,000 citizens fled the country immediately with an eventual total of some 300,000. Until recently there was some uncertainty as to what provocation , if any, occurred to make the Warsaw Pact armies invade. Preceding the invasion
2436-475: A return to the city's normal business. An interview with Martin Šmíd was broadcast to persuade the public that nobody had been killed, but the quality of the recording was low and rumours continued. It would take several more days to confirm that nobody was killed, and by then the revolution had gained further momentum. The leaders of the Democratic Initiative presented several demands, including
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#17327727848682552-489: A sense of trust among the media, the government, and the citizens. It was under Goldstücker that the journal's name was changed to Literární listy , and on 29 February, the Union published the first copy of the censor-free journal. By August, Literární listy had a circulation of 300,000, making it the most published periodical in Europe. At the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia's " Victorious February ", Dubček delivered
2668-437: A series of demonstrations from 17 November to late December and turned into an anti-communist demonstration. On 20 November, the number of protesters assembled in Prague grew from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated 500,000. The entire top leadership of the Communist Party, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš , resigned on 24 November. On 27 November, a two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia
2784-423: A small fraction of the union sympathized with radical socialists, especially Ludvík Vaculík , Milan Kundera , Jan Procházka , Antonín Jaroslav Liehm , Pavel Kohout and Ivan Klíma . A few months later, at a meeting of Party leaders, it was decided that administrative actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a small group of the union held these beliefs,
2900-430: A speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. He emphasized the need to "enforce the leading role of the party more effectively" In April, Dubček launched an " Action Programme " of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of movement, with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the possibility of a multiparty government. The programme
3016-473: The Berlin Wall fell, removing the need for the detour. By 16 November, many of Czechoslovakia's neighbours were beginning to shed authoritarian rule. The citizens of Czechoslovakia watched these events on TV through both foreign and domestic channels. The Soviet Union also supported a change in the ruling elite of Czechoslovakia, although it did not anticipate the overthrow of the Communist regime. On
3132-495: The Bratislava Declaration . The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism , declared an implacable struggle against "bourgeois" ideology and all "anti-socialist" forces. The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in any Warsaw Pact country if a "bourgeois" system—a pluralist system of several political parties representing different factions of
3248-631: The Brezhnev Doctrine . On the night of 20–21 August, Eastern Bloc armies from four Warsaw Pact countries—the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary—invaded the ČSSR. That night, 165,000 troops and 4,600 tanks entered the country. They first occupied the Ruzyně International Airport , where air deployment of more troops was arranged. The Czechoslovak forces were confined to their barracks, which were surrounded until
3364-639: The Civic Forum (Občanské fórum, an equivalent of the Slovak Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement for reforms. They called for the dismissal of top officials responsible for the violence, and an independent investigation of the incident and the release of all political prisoners . College students went on strike. On television, government officials called for peace and
3480-489: The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April, Dubček announced a political programme of " socialism with a human face ". At the time of the Prague Spring, Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness, and Dubček's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing planned and market economies . Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule. Freedom of
3596-543: The Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic . The dissolution of Czechoslovakia occurred mainly due to national governance issues between the Slovaks and Czechs (the two major ethnicities comprising the former Czechoslovakia). The Communist Party seized power on 25 February 1948. No official opposition parties operated thereafter. Dissidents (notably Charter 77 and Civic Forum ) created Music Clubs (on
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3712-574: The East German Communist Party and the Icelandic Socialist Party because of the latter's disapproval of the invasion and occupation of Czechoslovakia, causing relations between Iceland and East Germany to deteriorate. The Portuguese communist secretary-general Álvaro Cunhal was one of few political leaders from western Europe to have supported the invasion for being counter-revolutionary , along with
3828-535: The Eastern Bloc after having been heavily criticized, led to a partial opening up of the regime and influenced the relaxation of censorship . It also had an international impact as a representative from all Eastern Bloc countries were invited to the Conference; only the Soviet Union did not send any representative. This conference had a revolutionary effect and paved the way for the reforms while making Kafka
3944-689: The Luxembourg party and conservative factions of the Greek party . Most countries offered only vocal criticism following the invasion. The night of the invasion, Canada, Denmark, France, Paraguay, the United Kingdom, and the United States requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council . At the meeting, the Czechoslovak ambassador Jan Mužík denounced the invasion. Soviet ambassador Jacob Malik insisted
4060-620: The Second Czechoslovak Republic (when the official name was "Czecho-Slovak Republic"—which had also been used from 1938 to 1939)—when the country had been mutilated by the Munich Agreement and was slipping toward its final dismemberment at the hands of Nazi Germany a year later. The resultant compromise, after much behind-the-scenes negotiation, was Constitutional Law 101/1990, passed on 20 April and in force since its declaration on 23 April. The law changed
4176-627: The Slovak Republic . Since 1960, Czechoslovakia's official name had been the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic ( Československá socialistická republika , ČSSR). In the aftermath of the Velvet Revolution , newly elected President Václav Havel announced that "Socialist" would be dropped from the country's official name. Conventional wisdom suggested that the country would resume the name used from 1919 to 1938 and from 1945 to 1960, Czechoslovak Republic ( Československá republika ). However, Slovak politicians objected that
4292-529: The Slánský trial , may have been considered as early as 1963, but did not take place until 1967. In the early 1960s , Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn. The Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia since the country was already quite industrialized before World War II while the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies. Novotný's attempt at restructuring
4408-570: The border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non- communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. In June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946 . On 31 December 1992, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries ,
4524-569: The hardliners grew concerned about the reforms, which they feared might weaken the position of the Bloc in the Cold War . At a meeting in Dresden, East Germany on 23 March, the leaders of the "Warsaw Five" ( USSR , Hungary , Poland , Bulgaria and East Germany ) questioned the Czechoslovak delegation over the planned reforms, suggesting any talk of "democratization" was a veiled criticism of
4640-506: The "capitalist classes"—was ever established. After the conference, the Soviet troops left Czechoslovak territory but remained along its borders. As these talks proved unsatisfactory, the Soviets began to consider a military alternative. The Soviet policy of compelling the socialist governments of its satellite states to subordinate their national interests to those of the Eastern Bloc (through military force if needed) became known as
4756-590: The Bohemian lands, declared his support for the students and issued a declaration criticising the current government's policies. For the first time during the Velvet Revolution, the "radical" demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the "leading role" of the Communist Party was expressed by Ľubomír Feldek at a meeting of Public Against Violence. In the evening, Miloš Jakeš ,
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4872-399: The KSČ. Gustáv Husák , who replaced Dubček as First Secretary and also became President , reversed almost all of the reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature including the work of Václav Havel , Karel Husa , Karel Kryl and Milan Kundera 's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being . The process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in
4988-822: The Kremlin's approval. Mao Zedong saw the Brezhnev Doctrine as the ideological basis for a Soviet invasion of China, and launched a massive propaganda campaign condemning the invasion of Czechoslovakia, despite his own earlier opposition to the Prague Spring. Speaking at a banquet at the Romanian embassy in Beijing on 23 August 1968, the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai denounced the Soviet Union for "fascist politics, great power chauvinism, national egoism and social imperialism", going on to compare
5104-740: The Prague Communist Secretary. The military informed the Communist leadership of its readiness to act (ultimately, it was never used against demonstrators). The military and the Ministry of Defense were preparing for actions against the opposition. Immediately after the meeting, however, the Minister of Defence delivered a TV address announcing that the army would never undertake action against the people and called for an end to demonstrations. The entire Presidium, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš , resigned, and Karel Urbánek ,
5220-549: The Realistic Theatre was declared and other theatres quickly followed. The theaters opened their stages only for public discussions. At the initiative of students from the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague , the students in Prague went on strike. This strike was joined by university students throughout Czechoslovakia. Theatre employees and actors in Prague supported the strike. Instead of going on stage, actors read
5336-608: The Romanian Communist Party , already a staunch opponent of Soviet influences and a self-declared Dubček supporter, gave a public speech in Bucharest on the day of the invasion, depicting Soviet policies in harsh terms. Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in opposition, calling the invasion an act of " social imperialism ". In Finland, a country under some Soviet political influence, the occupation caused
5452-685: The Security Council's agenda. Shirley Temple Black visited Prague in August 1968 to prepare for becoming the US Ambassador for reformed Czechoslovakia. However, after the 21 August invasion, she became part of a U.S. Embassy-organized convoy of vehicles that evacuated U.S. citizens from the country. In August 1989, she returned to Prague as U.S. Ambassador, three months before the Velvet Revolution that ended 41 years of Communist rule. The United States, West Germany and NATO maintained
5568-493: The Soviet border. The Soviets were represented by almost the full Politburo that met for the first time outside the territory of the Soviet Union; also the Czechoslovak delegation included the full membership of the Presidium, but the main agreements were reached at the meetings of the "fours" – Brezhnev, Alexei Kosygin , Nikolai Podgorny , Mikhail Suslov – Dubček, Ludvík Svoboda , Oldřich Černík , Josef Smrkovský . At
5684-515: The Soviet model. The Polish Party leader Władysław Gomułka and János Kádár were less concerned with the reforms themselves than with the growing criticisms levelled by the Czechoslovak media, and worried that the situation might be "similar to...the 'Hungarian counterrevolution' ." Some of the language in the Action Programme may have been chosen to assert that no "counterrevolution" was planned, but Kieran Williams suggests that Dubček
5800-432: The Warsaw Pact actions were "fraternal assistance" against "antisocial forces". The British government strongly condemned the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, although it cautiously avoided making any diplomatic moves that may have provoked a Soviet counter-response and a jeopardisation of détente . The United Kingdom's foreign policy toward the Soviet Union was minimally impacted in the long-term, and quickly reverted to
5916-622: The Warsaw Pact and promised to curb "anti-socialist" tendencies, prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party and control the press more effectively. The Soviets agreed to withdraw their armed forces still in Czechoslovakia after manoeuvres in June and permit the 9 September Party Congress . On 3 August representatives from the "Warsaw Five" and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed
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#17327727848686032-528: The West, having supported Alexander Dubček during the Prague Spring , opposing Soviet military occupation , promoting religion, boycotting (rigged) parliamentary elections or signing Charter 77 or associating with those who did. These rules were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and businesses belonged to the state. They were under direct supervision and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals. The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after
6148-479: The attack against the students in Prague on 17 November and formed Public Against Violence , which would become the leading force behind the opposition movement in Slovakia. Its founding members included Milan Kňažko , Ján Budaj and others. Actors and members of the audience in a Prague theatre, together with Václav Havel and other prominent members of Charter 77 and other dissident organisations, established
6264-555: The chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, gave a special address on Federal Television. He said that order must be preserved, that socialism was the only alternative for Czechoslovakia, and criticised protest groups. Government officials, especially the Head of the Communist Party Miloš Jakeš, kept their hard-line position. During the night, they had summoned 4,000 members of the " People's Militias " ( Lidové milice ,
6380-449: The communist leaders from the secret police or prisons where they were held. Most importantly, this new self-called freedom and the introduction of television into the lives of everyday Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialogue from the intellectual to the popular sphere. Initial reaction within the Communist Bloc was mixed. Hungary 's János Kádár was highly supportive of Dubček's appointment in January, but Leonid Brezhnev and
6496-400: The country's name to "Czech and Slovak Federative Republic"; unlike the previous one, it also explicitly listed both versions and stated they were equal. The name breaks the rules of Czech and Slovak orthography , which do not generally use capitalization for descriptive words such as "federative" and "republic", nor for adjectives derived from proper nouns. Both rules were broken at once as
6612-541: The country, involving attempted fraternization , sabotage of street signs, defiance of curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country, the resistance held out for almost eight months until diplomatic maneuvers finally circumvented it. It became a high-profile example of civilian-based defense ; there were sporadic acts of violence and several protest suicides by self-immolation (the most famous being that of Jan Palach ), but no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained
6728-443: The day to allow for a "day of reflection" for the editorial staffs. Writers and reporters agreed with Dubček to support a limited reinstitution of the censorship office, as long as the institution was to only last three months. Finally, by September 1968, the Czechoslovak Communist Party plenum was held to instate the new censorship law. In the words of the Moscow-approved resolution, "The press, radio, and television are first of all
6844-416: The decentralization of administrative authority, were not received well by the Soviets, who, after failed negotiations, sent half a million Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. The New York Times cited reports of 650,000 men equipped with the most modern and sophisticated weapons in the Soviet military catalogue. A massive wave of emigration swept the nation. Resistance was mounted throughout
6960-400: The demonstration. In the end, however, the students moved through the city peacefully and sent a delegation to the Slovak Ministry of Education to discuss their demands. New movements led by Václav Havel surfaced, invoking the idea of a united society where the state would politically restructure. The Socialist Youth Union (SSM/SZM, proxy of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia ) organised
7076-458: The demonstration. They walked (per the strategy of founders of Stuha movement, Jiří Dienstbier and Šimon Pánek ) to Karel Hynek Mácha 's grave at Vyšehrad Cemetery and – after the official end of the march – continued into the centre of Prague, carrying banners and chanting anti-Communist slogans. At about 19:30 (7:30pm), the demonstrators were stopped by a cordon of riot police at Národní Street. They blocked all escape routes and attacked
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#17327727848687192-414: The economy, the 1965 New Economic Model , spurred increased demand for political reform as well. The liberalization of 1960s enabled a partial reclaiming of the political and cultural legacy of the First Czechoslovak Republic and its figures such as Tomáš Masaryk , which was ideologically suppressed in the Stalinist era as bourgeois nationalist and liberal capitalist . This reclamation can be seen in
7308-405: The end of August. When the weeklies Reporter and Politika responded harshly to this threat, even going so far as to not so subtly criticize the Presidium itself in Politika , the government banned Reporter for a month, suspended Politika indefinitely, and prohibited any political programs from appearing on the radio or television. The intellectuals were stuck at an impasse; they recognized
7424-438: The eve of International Students Day (the 50th anniversary of Sonderaktion Prag , the 1939 storming of Prague universities by the Nazis), Slovak high school and university students organised a peaceful demonstration in the centre of Bratislava . The Communist Party of Slovakia had expected trouble, and the mere fact that the demonstration was organised was viewed as a problem by the Party. Armed forces were put on alert before
7540-437: The first demonstrations in Bratislava occurred. The first official meeting of the Civic Forum with the Prime Minister took place. The Prime Minister agreed to personally guarantee that no violence would be used against the people; however he would "protect socialism, about which no discussion is possible". An organised mass demonstration took place in Wenceslas Square in central Prague (demonstrations recurred there throughout
7656-405: The first signs of thawing relations began to appear between Communist Czechoslovakia and Israel , with meetings held on shared issues, including Jewish religious freedom, the memory of the Holocaust and ties of remaining Czechoslovak Jews with the Diaspora , including the strong Jewish community in the United States. Reform-minded attitudes were also reflected by the many individuals who signed
7772-399: The first time. The editorial staff of Slovakia's Pravda , the central newspaper of the Communist Party of Slovakia, joined the opposition. A successful two-hour general strike led by the civic movements strengthened what were at first a set of moderate demands into cries for a new government. The strike took place throughout the country between 12:00 and 14:00, supported by a reported 75% of
7888-458: The following days). Actors and students travelled to factories inside and outside Prague to gain support for their colleagues in other cities. A mass demonstration erupted in Hviezdoslav Square in downtown Bratislava (in the following days, it moved to the Square of the Slovak National Uprising). The students presented demands and asked the people to participate in the general strike planned for Monday, 27 November. A separate demonstration demanded
8004-489: The government's increasing normalization, but they were unsure whether to trust that the measures were only temporary or demand more. For example, still believing in Dubcek's promises for reform, Milan Kundera published the article "Cesky udel" (Our Czech Destiny) in Literarni listy on 19 December. He wrote: "People who today are falling into depression and defeatism, commenting that there are not enough guarantees, that everything could end badly, that we might again end up in
8120-405: The initial tanks rolled into Prague on 21 August 1968 . While both the radio station and the television station managed to hold out for at least enough time for initial broadcasts of the invasion, what the Soviets did not attack by force they attacked by reenacting party censorship . In reaction to the invasion, on 28 August 1968, all Czechoslovak publishers agreed to halt production of newspapers for
8236-410: The instruments for carrying into life the policies of the Party and state." While that was not yet the end of the media's self-called freedom after the Prague Spring, it was the beginning of the end. During November, the Presidium, under Husak, declared that the Czechoslovak press could not make any negative remarks about the Soviet invaders or they would risk violating the agreement they had come to at
8352-505: The introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev 's policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) in 1985. The Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about the Prague Spring of 1968 was taboo. The first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the Candle Demonstration , for example) and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by
8468-593: The invasion of Czechoslovakia to the American war in Vietnam and more pointedly to the policies of Adolf Hitler towards Czechoslovakia in 1938–39. Zhou ended his speech with a barely veiled call for the people of Czechoslovakia to wage guerrilla war against the Red Army. The next day, several countries suggested a United Nations resolution condemning the intervention and calling for immediate withdrawal. Eventually,
8584-461: The late 1950s and early 1960s, but had progressed more slowly than in most other states of the Eastern Bloc . Following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev , Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism , and the new constitution accordingly adopted the name change from "Czechoslovak Republic" to "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic". The pace of de-Stalinization, however, was sluggish; the rehabilitation of Stalinist-era victims, such as those convicted in
8700-492: The maintenance of good relations with Western countries and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations. It spoke of a ten-year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of democratic socialism would replace the status quo. Those who drafted the Action Programme were careful not to criticize the actions of the post-war Communist regime, only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness. Although it
8816-435: The meeting Dubček defended the proposals of the KSČ's reformist wing while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon . The KSČ leadership, however, was divided between vigorous reformers (Smrkovský, Černík, and František Kriegel ) and hardliners ( Vasil Biľak , Drahomír Kolder , and Oldřich Švestka ) who adopted an anti-reformist stance. Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to
8932-533: The opposition. The new Communist leadership held a press conference, including Miroslav Štěpán while excluding Ladislav Adamec, but did not address the demands of the demonstrators. Later that day, Štěpán resigned as Prague Secretary. The number of participants in the regular anti-government demonstration in Prague-Letná reached an estimated 800,000 people. Demonstrations in Bratislava peaked at around 100,000 participants. Prime Minister Adamec met with Havel for
9048-453: The party of its liberal members, and dismissed from public office professional and intellectual elites who openly expressed disagreement with the political transformation. (Many of those purged would later become the dissidents of Czechoslovak underground culture , active in Charter 77 and related movements which eventually met success in the Velvet Revolution .) Husák worked to reinstate
9164-459: The police. By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and economic inadequacy gave way to popular support for economic reform. Citizens began to challenge the system more openly. By 1989, citizens who had been complacent were willing to openly express their discontent with the regime. Numerous important figures as well as ordinary workers signed petitions in support of Václav Havel during his imprisonment in 1989. Already in early 1989,
9280-416: The population. The Ministry of Culture released anti-Communist literature for public checkouts in libraries, effectively ending decades of censorship . Civic Forum demonstrated its capacity to disrupt the political order and thereby establish itself as the legitimate voice of the nation in negotiations with the state. The civic movements mobilised support for the general strike. The Federal Assembly deleted
9396-421: The power of the police and strengthen ties with the rest of the Communist bloc. He also sought to re- centralize the economy, as a considerable amount of freedom had been granted to industries during the Prague Spring. Commentary on politics was forbidden in mainstream media, and political statements by anyone not considered to have "full political trust" were also banned. The only significant change that survived
9512-529: The press opened the door for the first look at Czechoslovakia's past by Czechoslovakia's people . Many of the investigations centered on the country's history under communism, especially in the instance of the Stalinist -period. In another television appearance, Goldstücker presented both doctored and undoctored photographs of former communist leaders who had been purged, imprisoned, or executed and thus erased from communist history. The Writers' Union also formed
9628-480: The provision in the constitution referring to the " leading role " of the Communist Party, officially ending Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. President Gustáv Husák swore in the first government in 41 years that was not dominated by the Communist Party. He resigned shortly afterward. The victory of the revolution was topped off by the election of rebel playwright and human rights activist Václav Havel as President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. The event
9744-531: The release of the political prisoner Ján Čarnogurský (later Prime Minister of Slovakia) in front of the Palace of Justice. Alexander Dubček addressed this demonstration – his first appearance during the Velvet Revolution. As a result, Čarnogurský was released on 23 November. Further demonstrations followed in all major cities of Czechoslovakia. Cardinal František Tomášek , the Roman Catholic primate of
9860-519: The remaining members were relied upon to discipline their colleagues. Control over Literární noviny and several other publishers was transferred to the Ministry of Culture, and even some leaders of the Party who later became major reformers—including Dubček—endorsed these moves. As President Antonín Novotný was losing support, Alexander Dubček, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Slovakia , and economist Ota Šik challenged him at
9976-476: The renewed suppression of free speech. The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary. Dubček, who had been arrested on the night of 20 August, was taken to Moscow for negotiations. There, under heavy psychological pressure from Soviet politicians, Dubček and all the highest-ranked leaders but František Kriegel signed the Moscow Protocol . It
10092-613: The representatives of the Slovak government and of the Communist Party of Slovakia to participate in a dialogue, in which the official representatives were immediately put on the defensive. Employees of the Slovak section of the Federal Television required the leaders of the Federal Television to provide true information on the events in the country; otherwise they would initiate a strike of TV employees. Uncensored live reports from demonstrations in Bratislava began. The evening news showed factory workers heckling Miroslav Štěpán ,
10208-427: The resignation of the government, effective 25 November, and the formation of a temporary government composed of non-compromised members of the current government. Students and theatres went on "permanent" strike. Police stopped a demonstration from continuing toward Prague Castle, which would have entered the striking theatres. Civic Forum representatives negotiated unofficially with Adamec without Havel, and Adamec
10324-422: The same day) only after an informal agreement on the Slovak form which would be explicitly codified by a future law on state symbols. This was met with general disapproval and another round of haggling, dubbed "the hyphen war " ( pomlčková válka/vojna ) after Slovaks' wish to insert a hyphen into the name ( Česko-Slovensko ). However, aggrieved Czechs vehemently opposed it as too reminiscent of such practice during
10440-661: The scholar Eduard Goldstücker became chairman of the Union of Czechoslovak Writers and thus editor-in-chief of Literární noviny , which under Novotný had been filled with party loyalists. Goldstücker tested the boundaries of Dubček's devotion to freedom of the press when on 4 February he appeared in a television interview as the new head of the union. During the interview he openly criticized Novotný, exposing all of Novotný's previously unreported policies and explaining how they were preventing progress in Czechoslovakia. Goldstücker suffered no repercussions, Dubček instead began to build
10556-509: The secret police. Thus, the general public did not openly support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work or school. Writers or filmmakers could have their books or films banned for a "negative attitude towards the socialist regime". They also did not allow Czechs and Slovaks to travel to other non-communist countries. Following this they banned music from foreign countries. This blacklisting included children of former entrepreneurs or non-Communist politicians, having family members living in
10672-413: The status quo that existed prior to the Prague Spring following the brief period of intense criticism. One of the nations that most vehemently condemned the invasion was China, which objected furiously to the so-called "Brezhnev Doctrine" that declared the Soviet Union alone had the right to determine what nations were properly Communist and could invade those Communist nations whose communism did not meet
10788-455: The students. Once all the protesters dispersed, one of the participants, secret police agent Ludvík Zifčák, was lying on the street. Zifčák was not physically hurt or pretending to be dead; he simply fainted . Policemen carried his motionless body to an ambulance. The atmosphere of fear and hopelessness gave birth to a hoax about a dead student named Martin Šmíd . The story was made up by Drahomíra Dražská as she awaited treatment after she
10904-502: The success of publications such as Tomáš G. Masaryk (1968) by Milan Machovec . In May 1963, some Marxist intellectuals organized the Liblice Conference that discussed Franz Kafka 's life, marking the beginning of the cultural democratization of Czechoslovakia which ultimately led to the 1968 Prague Spring , an era of political liberalization. This conference was unique because it symbolized Kafka's rehabilitation in
11020-424: The symbol of the renaissance of Czechoslovak artistic and intellectual freedom. As the strict regime eased its rules, the Union of Czechoslovak Writers ( Czech : Svaz československých spisovatelů ) cautiously began to air discontent. In Literární noviny , the union's previously hard-line communist weekly, members suggested that literature should be independent of the Communist Party doctrine. In June 1967,
11136-623: The threat of a counter-attack was assuaged. By the morning of 21 August Czechoslovakia was occupied. Romania and Albania refused to take part in the invasion. Soviet command refrained from drawing upon East German troops for fear of reviving memories of the Nazi invasion in 1938. During the invasion 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of those in Slovakia), 266 severely wounded and another 436 slightly injured. Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. Nevertheless, there
11252-837: The trade union daily Práce (Labour). This was also helped by the Journalists' Union, which by March 1968 had already persuaded the Central Publication Board, the government censor, to allow editors to receive uncensored subscriptions to foreign papers, allowing for a more international dialogue around the news. The press, the radio, and the television also contributed to these discussions by hosting meetings where students and young workers could ask questions of writers such as Goldstücker, Pavel Kohout , and Jan Procházka and political victims such as Josef Smrkovský , Zdeněk Hejzlar, and Gustáv Husák . Television also broadcast meetings between former political prisoners and
11368-433: The traditional name subsumed Slovakia's equal status in the federal state too much. The first compromise was Constitutional Law 81/1990, which changed the country's name to Czechoslovak Federative Republic ( Czech : Československá federativní republika , Slovak : Česko-slovenská federatívna republika ; ČSFR ), explicitly acknowledging the federal nature of the state. It was passed on 29 March 1990 (coming into force on
11484-549: The ČSSR government, but the Soviet Press printed an unsigned request—allegedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders—for "immediate assistance, including assistance with armed forces". At the 14th KSČ Party Congress (conducted secretly, immediately following the intervention), it was emphasized that no member of the leadership had invited the intervention. More recent evidence suggests that conservative KSČ members (including Biľak, Švestka, Kolder, Indra, and Kapek) did send
11600-407: Was a non-violent transition of power in what was then Czechoslovakia , occurring from 17 November to 28 November 1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia included students and older dissidents. The result was the end of 41 years of one-party rule in Czechoslovakia , and the subsequent dismantling of the command economy and conversion to
11716-495: Was a rather calm period without any major events taking place in Czechoslovakia. In Czechoslovakia, especially in the week following the invasion, popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of nonviolent resistance . Civilians purposely gave wrong directions to invading soldiers, while others identified and followed cars belonging to the secret police . On 16 January 1969, student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest against
11832-686: Was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and a programme of moderate reform would continue. On 25 August citizens of the Soviet Union who did not approve of the invasion protested in Red Square ; seven protesters opened banners with anti-invasion slogans. The demonstrators were brutally beaten and arrested by security forces, and later punished by a secret tribunal; the protest was dubbed "anti-Soviet" and several people were detained in psychiatric hospitals. A more pronounced effect took place in Romania, where Nicolae Ceaușescu , General Secretary of
11948-410: Was also heavily amended to remove its Communist character. Work on a permanent constitution was still underway at the time of the dissolution of Czechoslovakia . ČSR; boundaries and government established by the 1920 constitution . Annexed by Nazi Germany . ČSR; included the autonomous regions of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia. Annexed by Hungary (1939–1945). ČSR; declared
12064-416: Was based on the view that "Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations, but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy." It would limit the power of the secret police and provide for the federalization of the ČSSR into two equal nations. The programme also covered foreign policy, including both
12180-506: Was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), and continued until 21 August 1968, when the Soviet Union and most Warsaw Pact members invaded the country to suppress the reforms. The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization . The freedoms granted included
12296-492: Was held. In response to the collapse of other Warsaw Pact governments and the increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November that it would relinquish power and end the one-party state . Two days later, the federal parliament formally deleted the sections of the Constitution giving the Communist Party a monopoly of power. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from
12412-487: Was highly choreographed and symbolically significant, including on account of with religious elements, as historian Martin Wein has analyzed in detail. Prague Spring Incidents The Prague Spring ( Czech : Pražské jaro , Slovak : Pražská jar ) was a period of political liberalization and mass protest in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic . It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Alexander Dubček
12528-495: Was hurt during the riot. Dražská worked at the college and shared her hoax with several people the next day, including the wife of journalist Petr Uhl , a correspondent for Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . This incident mobilised the people and triggered the revolution. That same evening, students and theatre actors agreed to go on strike. Two students visited Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec at his private residence and described to him what happened on Národní Street. The strike at
12644-415: Was killed by the police during the previous day's demonstration. Although the report was false, it heightened the feeling of crisis, and persuaded some hesitant citizens to overcome their fear and join the protests. Theatres in Bratislava , Brno , Ostrava and other towns went on strike. Members of artistic and literary associations as well as organisations and institutions joined the strike. Members of
12760-596: Was perhaps surprised at, but not resentful of, Soviet suggestions. In May, the KGB initiated Operation Progress, which involved Soviet agents infiltrating Czechoslovak pro-democratic organizations, such as the Socialist and Christian Democrat parties. The Soviet leadership tried to stop, or at least limit, the changes in the ČSSR through a series of negotiations. The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia from 29 July to 1 August at Čierna nad Tisou , near
12876-512: Was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda , who later gave consent to the reforms. Early signs of change were few. In an interview with KSČ Presidium member Josef Smrkovský published in the Party newspaper Rudé Právo with the title "What Lies Ahead", he insisted that Dubček's appointment at the January Plenum would further the goals of socialism and maintain the working class nature of the Party. However, right after Dubček assumed power,
12992-562: Was represented by Ján Budaj, Fedor Gál and Vladimír Ondruš, while the Communists were represented by Štefan Chudoba (director of Bratislava automotive company), Peter Weiss (secretary of the Institute of Marx-Leninism of the Communist party of Slovakia) and the director of Steelworks Košice . It was the first free discussion on Czechoslovak television since its inception. As a result, the editorial staff of Slovak newspapers started to join
13108-487: Was scattered resistance in the streets. Road signs in towns were removed or painted over—except for those indicating the way to Moscow. Many small villages renamed themselves "Dubček" or "Svoboda"; thus, without navigational equipment, the invaders were often confused. On the night of the invasion the Czechoslovak Presidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossed the border without the knowledge of
13224-403: Was stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately. Radical elements became more vocal: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press on 26 June 1968, and new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged repressive measures, but Dubček counselled moderation and re-emphasized KSČ leadership. At the Presidium of
13340-442: Was sympathetic to the students' demands. However, he was outvoted in a special cabinet meeting the same day. The government, in an official statement, made no concessions. Civic Forum added a demand: the abolition of the "ruling position" of the Communist Party from the Constitution. Non-Communist newspapers published information that contradicted the Communist interpretation. The first mass demonstration in Prague (100,000 people) and
13456-485: Was the federalization of the country , which created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic in 1969. In 1987, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Dubček's "socialism with a human face". When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and Gorbachev's own reforms,
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