147-680: Eglin AFB Site C-6 is a United States Space Force radar station which houses the AN/FPS-85 phased array radar, associated computer processing system(s), and radar control equipment designed and constructed for the U. S. Air Force by the Bendix Communications Division, Bendix Corporation . Commencing operations in 1969, the AN/FPS-85 was the first large phased array radar. The entire radar/computer system
294-497: A ballistic shield . Below 2,000 km (1,200 mi), pieces of debris are denser than meteoroids . Most are dust from solid rocket motors, surface erosion debris like paint flakes, and frozen coolant from Soviet nuclear-powered satellites . For comparison, the International Space Station (ISS) orbits in the 300–400 kilometres (190–250 mi) range, while the two most recent large debris events,
441-648: A Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force in the mid-term, which would evolve into a Department of the Space Force in the long-term. The Rumsfeld Commission expected the transition from Air Force Space Command to a fully independent Space Force to occur in between 2006 and 2011. Air Force leadership reacted extremely poorly to the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations. The day after
588-596: A U.S. Space Force were first seriously considered during the Reagan Administration as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. Congress began exploring establishing a Space Corps or Space Force in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The idea of establishing a Space Force was resurrected in the late 2010s in response to Russian and Chinese military space developments, resulting in the Space Force's establishment on 20 December 2019 during
735-564: A USSF facility. United States Space Force As U.S. Space Force The United States Space Force ( USSF ) is the United States Armed Forces ' space service and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . It is one of two independent space forces in the world. The United States Space Force traces its origins to the Air Force, Army, and Navy's military space programs created during
882-399: A commission to examine the organization and management of national security space. The Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, better known as the 2001 Space Commission or the Rumsfeld Commission, released its report in 2001. The Rumsfeld Commission noted the strong risk of a "Space Pearl Harbor," harking back to Imperial Japan's surprise attack on
1029-410: A day, in a rapid repeating cycle 50 milliseconds long (called a "resource period") during which it transmits up to 8 pulses and listens for an echo. In its surveillance mode it repeatedly scans a predetermined path called a "surveillance fence" along the horizon across a wide azimuth to detect orbiting objects as they rise above the horizon into the radar's field of view. 1950s missile testing over
1176-539: A different direction in milliseconds, allowing it to track many incoming missiles at the same time. The AN/FPS-85 could track 200 objects simultaneously. This capability is now useful for tracking the thousands of manmade pieces of space debris currently in orbit. The phased array technology pioneered in the AN/FPS-85 was further developed in the AN/FPS-115 PAVE PAWS radars, and is now used in most military radars and many civilian applications. In 1975
1323-457: A full color U.S. flag , sparking jokes about fighting on the forest moon of Endor from Star Wars: Return of the Jedi , while its distinctive service dress drew comparisons to Colonial Fleet uniforms from Battlestar Galactica or Starfleet uniforms from Star Trek . While the Space Force noted that its camouflage combat uniform was appropriate since space operators deploy to combat zones on
1470-505: A fully independent Department of the Space Force, led by a civilian secretary of the Space Force. Secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space. The Space Force's statutory responsibilities are outlined in 10 U.S.C. § 9081 and originally introduced in the United States Space Force Act , the Space Force is organized, trained, and equipped to: The Department of Defense further defines
1617-501: A fully independent Space Force by 2011. While the United States' focus shifted from space to counterterrorism, the Russian Armed Forces and Chinese People's Liberation Army realized the military benefits that could be gleaned from space, as well as the incredible reliance the United States put on its space forces. Throughout the 2000s, Russian and Chinese space and counterspace capabilities began to increase. In 2001,
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#17327796828441764-543: A global space. Through space, the U.S. military and its allies can see, communicate, and navigate. Global mission operations also protect U.S. forces on Earth through early warning of incoming missiles and other types of attack. The Space Force describes global mission operations as allowing the rest of the U.S. military to defend the air, land, and sea. Missions that support global mission operations include missile warning , satellite communications , and positioning, navigation, and timing . Assured space access ensures that
1911-596: A ground-based missile. He stated that the operation, part of Mission Shakti , would defend the country's interests in space. Afterwards, US Air Force Space Command announced they were tracking 270 new pieces of debris but expected the number to grow as data collection continues. On 15 November 2021, the Russian Defense Ministry destroyed Kosmos 1408 orbiting at around 450 km, creating "more than 1,500 pieces of trackable debris and hundreds of thousands of pieces of un-trackable debris" according to
2058-470: A military responsibility until the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was created in 1958. The military shifted from conducting their own space exploration programs to supporting NASA's, providing the agency with its astronauts and space launch vehicles , while also conducting astronaut recovery and supporting space launches from the Air Force's Eastern Range . The Air Force
2205-519: A new military service...would be a dramatic step. Perhaps a "Space Corps" would be a step toward a Space Force. Maybe the Air Force will preempt these dramatic changes by truly becoming the "Space and Air Force." The idea of a separate service for space originated in the 1960s. Military space activities were briefly consolidated under the Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1958, loosely centralizing space activities under
2352-671: A number of Sun-synchronous satellites that keep a constant angle between the Sun and the orbital plane , making Earth observation easier with consistent sun angle and lighting. Sun-synchronous orbits are polar , meaning they cross over the polar regions. LEO satellites orbit in many planes, typically up to 15 times a day, causing frequent approaches between objects. The density of satellites – both active and derelict – is much higher in LEO. Orbits are affected by gravitational perturbations (which in LEO include unevenness of
2499-459: A range-extension upgrade enabling integration of many pulses." After a contractor protest was denied in 1993, a "new radar control computer" was installed at the site in 1994 (upgraded software was installed in 1999.) The original central monitoring system that tested for failing transmitter modules was replaced by a PC -based system in March 1994. In 1994 when the "amplifier and mixing functions on
2646-734: A result of space weather . These longer-term effects can increase drag at lower altitudes; the 1990s expansion was a factor in reduced debris density. Another factor was fewer launches by Russia; the Soviet Union made most of their launches in the 1970s and 1980s. At higher altitudes, where air drag is less significant, orbital decay takes longer. Slight atmospheric drag , lunar perturbations , Earth's gravity perturbations, solar wind , and solar radiation pressure can gradually bring debris down to lower altitudes (where it decays), but at very high altitudes this may take centuries. Although high-altitude orbits are less commonly used than LEO and
2793-472: A separate military department, to be known as the Department of the Space Force. The Space Force is currently organized as a service under the Department of the Air Force , more closely mirroring the concept of a Space Corps rather than a fully independent Space Force. Senator Bob Smith , the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, and 2008 Allard Commission each envisioned that a Space Corps would first be created under
2940-410: A single orbit that is widely used by over 500 satellites ). There is currently 85% pollution in LEO (Low Earth Orbit). This was beginning to change in 2019, and several companies began to deploy the early phases of satellite internet constellations , which will have many universal orbits in LEO with 30 to 50 satellites per orbital plane and altitude. Traditionally, the most populated LEO orbits have been
3087-519: A single organization. The Air Force, Army, and Navy feared that it would evolve into a "fourth service" for space, before authorities were returned to the service. The first direct call for a U.S. Space Force occurred in 1982, prior to Air Force Space Command 's establishment or the Strategic Defense Initiative 's public announcement. As part of a report recommending the acceleration U.S. space-based laser weapon development,
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#17327796828443234-597: A study calling for its transfer to the Space Force. Space debris Space debris (also known as space junk , space pollution , space waste , space trash , space garbage , or cosmic debris ) are defunct human-made objects in space – principally in Earth orbit – which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecraft (nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch vehicle stages), mission-related debris, and particularly numerous in-Earth orbit, fragmentation debris from
3381-518: A wrench, and a toothbrush. Sunita Williams of STS-116 lost a camera during an EVA. During an STS-120 EVA to reinforce a torn solar panel, a pair of pliers was lost, and in an STS-126 EVA, Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper lost a briefcase-sized tool bag. A significant portion of debris is due to rocket upper stages (e.g. the Inertial Upper Stage ) breaking up due to decomposition of unvented fuel. The first such instance involved
3528-455: Is an historic event and a strategic imperative for our Nation. Space has become so important to our way of life, our economy and our national security that we must be prepared as a Nation to protect it from hostile actions. As the U.S. Space Force was established on 20 December 2019, General Jay Raymond , commander of U.S. Space Command and Air Force Space Command , became its first member and chief of space operations . Air Force Space Command
3675-429: Is c. 3 mm (0.12 in). As of 2020 , there were 8,000 metric tons of debris in orbit, a figure that is expected to increase. In the orbits nearest to Earth – less than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) orbital altitude , referred to as low-Earth orbit (LEO) – there have traditionally been few "universal orbits" that keep a number of spacecraft in particular rings (in contrast to GEO ,
3822-643: Is located at a receiver/transmitter building and is supported by the site's power plant, fire station, 2 water wells (for 128 people), and other infrastructure for the system. As part of the US Space Force's Space Surveillance Network its mission is to detect and track spacecraft and other manmade objects in Earth orbit for the Combined Space Operations Center satellite catalogue . With a peak radiated power of 32 megawatts
3969-427: Is only 0.8° wide, but is split into 9 subbeams or sublobes at slightly different angles, surrounding the target. By determining which of the 9 sublobes receives the strongest return signal, the computer can determine which direction the target is moving, facilitating tracking. The operation of the radar is completely automated, controlled by 3 computers, including two IBM ES-9000 mainframes. The radar operates 24 hours
4116-456: Is theorized that a sufficiently large collision of spacecraft could potentially lead to a cascade effect, or even make some particular low Earth orbits effectively unusable for long term use by orbiting satellites, a phenomenon known as the Kessler syndrome . The theoretical effect is projected to be a theoretical runaway chain reaction of collisions that could occur, exponentially increasing
4263-585: The Air Force Research Laboratory . The Space Force also began incorporating space personnel transfers from the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps. In 2022, it the Naval Satellite Operations Center and Army's Satellite Operations Brigade transferred to the Space Force, putting satellite communications under a single service for the first time in history. In 2023, it assumed responsibility for
4410-498: The Army Air Forces , tasked General Bernard Schriever to integrate with the scientific community to identify and develop technologies that could be beneficial for the new U.S. Air Force in the next global conflict. Identifying the importance of space, the U.S. Army , U.S. Navy , and U.S. Air Force each started their own separate space and rocket programs. The U.S. Air Force created the first military space organization in
4557-504: The Department of the Navy . The Space Force's three field commands (FLDCOM) are purpose-built for specific activities, aligning to the various institutional responsibilities to organize, train, and equip Guardians. Component field commands (C-FLDCOM) coordinate and integrate space forces into planning and current operations within unified combatant commands . Direct reporting units (DRU) are hubs of innovation and intelligence expertise within
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4704-502: The Government Accountability Office recommended the U.S. Air Force be reorganized as the U.S. Aerospace Force or that an independent U.S. Space Force be created. Ultimately, a Congressional proposal to rename the U.S. Air Force as the U.S. Aerospace Force and speculation that President Ronald Reagan may announce the creation of a U.S. Space Force accelerated Air Force plans to create a space command within
4851-995: The Gulf of Mexico used radar sites on federal land assigned to Eglin AFB (e.g., the Anclote Missile Tracking Annex through 1969 at the mouth of the Anclote River near Tampa , the 1959 Cudjoe Key Missile Tracking Annex , and the Carrabelle Missile Tracking Annex that "transferred from RADC to Eglin AFB" on 1 October 1962.) "Following the launching of Sputnik I on 4 October 1957, the Air Force's Missile Test Center at Patrick AFB , Florida, set up·a project to observe and collect data on satellites." Eglin AFB had its "first satellite tracking facility…operational fall 1957", and
4998-520: The Kosmos 1408 and putting the International Space Station at risk. The Space Force is organized into a headquarters staff that provides leadership and guidance for the force; field commands that are responsible for organizing, training, and equipping Guardians; deltas that support field commands and are specialized by mission area; and squadrons which specialize in acquisitions, cyberspace operations, engineering, intelligence, and space operations. At
5145-669: The Russian Space Forces were reestablished as an independent arm and in 2007, China conducted a destructive anti-satellite missile test causing the single largest space debris generating event in history. In the aftermath of the Chinese ASAT test, Congress tasked the Allard Commission to reevaluate the Defense Department's space organization and management. The Allard Commission noted that
5292-608: The Secretary of Defense to conduct a periodic review to determine when to recommend the President seek legislation to establish the Department of the Space Force. Following the Space Force's establishment there have been a number of calls to rename the Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Air and Space Forces to reflect its composition of the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force. Congress previously explored renaming
5439-556: The Soviet Union (now Russia ) developed a system to deliver nuclear weapons with missiles in Earth orbit, called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS). The United States had early-warning radar systems for missiles such as BMEWS , but it could only detect threats incoming from the north, because a nuclear strike against the US from the Soviet Union using conventional intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) would come by
5586-596: The Space and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command and establishing the National Security Space Institute . Ultimately, the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations remained unfulfilled because of the higher priority placed on counterterrorism after the September 11 attacks , canceling plans for a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force or
5733-561: The Trump Administration . The Space Force is organized as part of the Department of the Air Force alongside the U.S. Air Force , its coequal sister service. The Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian secretary of the Air Force , while the U.S. Space Force is led by the Chief of Space Operations . The U.S. Space Force's status as part of the Department of the Air Force is intended to be an interim measure towards
5880-509: The UHF band, just below the UHF television broadcast band, with a 10 MHz bandwidth and a peak output power of 32 megawatts. The radar has separate transmitting and receiving array antennas mounted side-by-side on the sloping face of its transmitter building, pointing south at an elevation angle of 45° (modern phased array radars use a single antenna array for both transmitting and receiving, but at
6027-849: The US Space Surveillance Network reported 25,857 artificial objects in orbit above the Earth, including 5,465 operational satellites. However, these are just the objects large enough to be tracked and in an orbit that makes tracking possible. Satellite debris that is in a Molniya orbit , such as the Kosmos Oko series, might be too high above the Northern Hemisphere to be tracked. As of January 2019 , more than 128 million pieces of debris smaller than 1 cm (0.4 in), about 900,000 pieces of debris 1–10 cm, and around 34,000 of pieces larger than 10 cm (3.9 in) were estimated to be in orbit around
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6174-806: The USAF Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Flight 13 (DMSP-F13) exploded on orbit, creating at least 149 debris objects, which were expected to remain in orbit for decades. Later that same year, NOAA-16 which had been decommissioned after an anomaly in June 2014, broke apart on orbit into at least 275 pieces. For older programs, such as the Soviet-era Meteor 2 and Kosmos satellites, design flaws resulted in numerous break-ups – at least 68 by 1994 – following decommissioning, resulting in more debris. In addition to
6321-563: The Vietnam War , with Air Force weather and communications spacecraft supporting ground, sea, and air operations. During Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, satellite communications were used to conduct command and control for the first time, while Operation El Dorado Canyon and Operation Just Cause marked the first time that major U.S. forces incorporated information from space-based intelligence systems. The Persian Gulf War marked
6468-422: The radio waves from each separate transmitting antenna element combine ( superimpose ) in front of the antenna to produce a beam of radio waves ( plane waves ) traveling in a specific direction. By altering the relative phase of the radio waves emitted by the individual antennas, the computer can instantly steer the beam to a different direction. The beam of radio waves reflects off the target object, and some of
6615-766: The unified combatant commands , assuming space component responsibility from the U.S. Air Force. One of the primary reasons the Space Force was created was to consolidate space forces from across the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, and U.S. Navy. In 2020, the Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional) was established to form the foundation for Space Training and Readiness Command and incorporate Air Force space units spread across Air Combat Command and Air Education and Training Command , while Space Systems Command incorporated space acquisitions activities across Air Force Materiel Command , although, notably it did not incorporate space research and development conducted by
6762-525: The "separate faces for transmitting and receiving" began in 1967, with the destroyed analog phase shifters and vacuum tube receivers replaced by low-loss diode phase shifters and transistor receivers. Eglin Site C-6's squadron of the 9th Aerospace Defense Division activated in September 1968 (now the 20th Space Control Squadron ) and after "technical problems"; the site with radar and computer systems
6909-610: The 2007 Chinese antisatellite weapon test and the 2009 satellite collision , occurred at 800 to 900 kilometres (500 to 560 mi) altitude. The ISS has Whipple shielding to resist damage from small MMOD. However, known debris with a collision chance over 1/10,000 are avoided by maneuvering the station. Space debris began to accumulate in Earth orbit with the launch of the first artificial satellite , Sputnik 1 , into orbit in October, 1957. But even before this event, humans might have produced ejecta that became space debris, as in
7056-572: The 496L System Program Office formed in early 1959. Bendix Corporation was contracted and built a linear array at their Baltimore facility, followed by a prototype "wideband phased array radar ( EPS 46-XW 1 )" with IBM computer from Spring 1959 through November 1960. The Bendix AN/FPS-46 Electronically Steerable Array Radar (ESAR) using L-band began transmitting in November 1960 as "the first full-size pencil-beam phased-array radar system." "HQ AFSC decided to give full technical responsibility for
7203-600: The AN/FPS-85 represents the 85th design of an Army-Navy "Fixed, Radar, Search" electronic device. The AN/FPS-85 radar constructed at Eglin Site C-6 in the 1960s during the Cold War as a cutting edge phased array radar and computer system originally designed to detect and track orbital nuclear missiles. During the 1960s, to counter the growing threat from the West's nuclear missiles on their borders in Turkey, Europe, and Asia,
7350-446: The AN/FPS-85 was designed for this mission. Its south-facing radar antenna with 120° azimuth coverage was well situated for monitoring low-inclination (equatorial) orbits in addition to detecting FOBS attacks, and could reportedly see 80% of satellites orbiting the Earth. Construction of the radar began in 1962, but a fire during predeployment testing destroyed it in 1965. It was rebuilt and became operational in 1969. The AN/FPS-85
7497-547: The AN/FPS-85 was returned to full-time spacewatch duties. Today other radars share the spacetracking duties, but the AN/FPS-85 is still the primary surveillance radar in the US Space Surveillance Network due to its high power and good coverage, reportedly handling 30% of the SSN workload. The Space Force claims it is the only phased array radar that can track spacecraft in deep space, can detect an object
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#17327796828447644-508: The Air Force did successfully field the Program 437 anti-satellite weapon system, which used nuclear Thor missiles to intercept enemy spacecraft. Although most military space forces were organized under the Air Force, they were still fragmented within several different major commands. Recognizing rapid growth of space forces and the need to centralize them under one command, the Air Force established Air Force Space Command in 1982. This
7791-455: The Air Force or a separate Department of the Space Force to unify national security space. It took until 2017 for members of Congress to act on the recommendations of the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force. Representatives Mike Rogers and Jim Cooper unveiled a bipartisan proposal to establish a Space Corps within the Department of
7938-570: The Air Force's major commands. It also consolidated Air Force wings and groups into mission deltas, a formation roughly equivalent to an Army Brigade Combat Team or Air Force expeditionary wing, and space base deltas (briefly known as garrisons), equivalent to an Army garrison or Air Force air base wing. It also began to rename former Air Force bases and station to Space Force bases and station, starting with Patrick Space Force Base and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station . It also established component field commands to serve as Space Force components at
8085-465: The Air Force, however it experienced significant opposition from the Air Force and Defense Department, failing in the Senate. However, the proposal was resurrected in 2018 when President Donald Trump publicly endorsed the creation of a Space Force and directed the Defense Department to reverse its opposition and develop plans for its establishment. The Trump Administration plan for the U.S. Space Force
8232-542: The Army's Joint Tactical Ground Station , putting all space-based missile warning under the Space Force. The Space Force's first significant combat action occurred less than a month after its establishment, providing missile warning when Iran launched missile strikes against U.S. troops at Al Asad Airbase on 7 January 2020. In 2021, the Russian Federation conducted an anti-satellite weapons test, destroying
8379-646: The August 1957 Pascal B test . Going back further, natural ejecta from Earth has entered orbit. After the launch of Sputnik, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) began compiling a database (the Space Object Catalog ) of all known rocket launches and objects reaching orbit, including satellites, protective shields and upper-stages of launch vehicles . NASA later published modified versions of
8526-552: The Chinese interception of FY-1C , Russian trials of its PL-19 Nudol , the American interception of USA-193 and India's interception of an unstated live satellite . Space debris includes a glove lost by astronaut Ed White on the first American space-walk (EVA), a camera lost by Michael Collins near Gemini 10 , a thermal blanket lost during STS-88, garbage bags jettisoned by Soviet cosmonauts during Mir 's 15-year life,
8673-526: The Commission was publicly released Air Force Chief of Staff General Michael E. Ryan declared "an independent Space Force or Corps was not warranted for at least another 50 years." General Ryan doubled down over the following year, stating that a Space Force should only be considered once space operations moved beyond Earth orbit. Despite the Air Force's hostility to the idea of a Space Corps or Space Force, they did meet some recommendations by transferring
8820-399: The Department of the Air Force as an interim measure as it grew into a fully independent Space Force. In 2019, Space Policy Directive-4 directed the Space Force be initially established under the Department of the Air Force as the first step towards an independent Department of the Space Force, which would take over the entire space mission from the Department of the Air Force. It also directed
8967-491: The Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Aerospace Force in 1981 and congressional efforts were made in the 2000s to rename the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Navy and Marine Corps, however both of these proposals failed under opposition from the Defense Department. Space Force advocates have also called for the creation of an undersecretary of the Air Force for space . This provision
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#17327796828449114-636: The Earth alongside the rest of the joint force and it saved money, it did not have a similar response for its service dress uniform, which were described as a "futuristic-looking" design by General Raymond. The Space Force's seal and delta insignia were also incorrectly derided as a rip-off of Star Trek' s Starfleet logo, despite being first adopted as a space symbol by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division in 1962, four years before Star Trek first aired on television in 1966. Star Trek actor William Shatner settled
9261-558: The Earth's gravitational field due to variations in the density of the planet), and collisions can occur from any direction. The average impact speed of collisions in Low Earth Orbit is 10 km/s with maximums reaching above 14 km/s due to orbital eccentricity . The 2009 satellite collision occurred at a closing speed of 11.7 km/s (26,000 mph), creating over 2,000 large debris fragments. These debris cross many other orbits and increase debris collision risk. It
9408-486: The Earth. When the smallest objects of artificial space debris (paint flecks, solid rocket exhaust particles, etc.) are grouped with micrometeoroids , they are together sometimes referred to by space agencies as MMOD (Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris). Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft. The smallest objects cause damage akin to sandblasting , especially to solar panels and optics like telescopes or star trackers that cannot easily be protected by
9555-582: The European Space Agency altered the orbit of one of its three Swarm mission spacecraft, based on data from the US Joint Space Operations Center , to lower the risk of collision from Cosmos-375, a derelict Russian satellite. Crewed flights are particularly vulnerable to space debris conjunctions in the orbital path of the spacecraft. Occasional avoidance maneuvers or longer-term space debris wear have affected
9702-635: The Persian Gulf War being coined "the first Space War." While U.S. space forces supported all U.S. military operations in the 1990s, Operation Allied Force marked the first use of Global Positioning System -aided munitions in a conflict, ushering in a new era of precision bombing. Following the September 11 attacks , U.S. space forces mobilized to respond as part of the Global War on Terrorism Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and Operation Inherent Resolve . Creating
9849-522: The Russian Ekspress-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable. On 13 October 2009, Terra suffered a single battery cell failure anomaly and a battery heater control anomaly which were subsequently considered likely the result of an MMOD strike. On 12 March 2010, Aura lost power from one-half of one of its 11 solar panels and this was also attributed to an MMOD strike. On 22 May 2013, GOES 13
9996-524: The Space Force and the Center for Strategic and International Studies has also proposed moving missile defense into the Space Force. The Army also continues to maintain a cadre of Functional Area 40 space operations officers, although over 85% indicated they would transfer to the Space Force if able. The Army is also maintaining the 1st Space Brigade , however the RAND Corporation has conducted
10143-455: The Space Force can deploy and sustain equipment in outer space. This includes space launches as well as controlling and steering spacecraft out of the way of oncoming space debris to avoid collisions. The Space Force describes assured access to space as being able to make sure it can continue launching and conducting space operations 24/7. Missions supporting space access include launch , range control, cyber , and space domain awareness . In
10290-514: The Space Force claims it is the most powerful radar in the world, and can track a basketball-sized object up to 22,000 nautical miles (41,000 km) from Earth. Under the Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS), all U.S. military radar and tracking systems are assigned a unique identifying alphanumeric designation. The letters "AN" (for Army-Navy) are placed ahead of a three-letter code. Thus,
10437-506: The Space Force establish control of the domain. The Space Force describes that at a time and place of the United States' choosing it must be able to assure continued use of spacecraft and deny adversaries use of their spacecraft or space-enabled capabilities. Mission that support space superiority include orbital warfare , electromagnetic warfare , and space battle management . Global mission operations integrates joint functions across all domains (land, air, maritime, space, cyberspace) on
10584-551: The Space Force, providing new ideas or deep knowledge about highly specialized issues. While the Space Force's headquarters is in Washington, D.C., the rest of the service is spread across the United States and abroad, across 18 states and territories and 46 bases and installations as of 2024. As the United States Space Force matures, and as national security requires, it will become necessary to create
10731-524: The Space Shuttle's solid rocket boosters or the Apollo program 's Saturn IB launch vehicles, do not reach orbit. Examples: A former source of debris was anti-satellite weapons (ASATs) testing by the U.S. and Soviet Union during the 1960s and 1970s. North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) only collected data for Soviet tests, and debris from U.S. tests were identified subsequently. By
10878-429: The Sun, wear from low-mass impacts. Even small impacts can produce a cloud of plasma which is an electrical risk to the panels. Satellites are believed to have been destroyed by micrometeorites and (small) orbital debris (MMOD). The earliest suspected loss was of Kosmos 1275 , which disappeared on 24 July 1981 (a month after launch). Kosmos contained no volatile fuel, therefore, there appeared to be nothing internal to
11025-400: The U.S. Pacific Fleet in 1941. It was extremely critical of the Air Force's treatment of space, with few witnesses expressing confidence that the Air Force would address the requirement to provide space capabilities to the other services or move beyond treating space as just a support capability for air operations. The most significant recommendation of the Rumsfeld Commission was the creation of
11172-717: The U.S. launched an SM-3 missile from the USS Lake Erie to destroy a defective U.S. spy satellite thought to be carrying 450 kg (1,000 lb) of toxic hydrazine propellant. The event occurred at about 250 km (155 mi), and the resulting debris has a perigee of 250 km (155 mi) or lower. The missile was aimed to minimize the amount of debris, which (according to Pentagon Strategic Command chief Kevin Chilton) had decayed by early 2009. On 27 March 2019, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that India shot down one of its own LEO satellites with
11319-553: The US State Department. The vulnerability of satellites to debris and the possibility of attacking LEO satellites to create debris clouds has triggered speculation that it is possible for countries unable to make a precision attack. An attack on a satellite of 10 t (22,000 lb) or more would heavily damage the LEO environment. Space junk can be a hazard to active satellites and spacecraft. It has been suggested that Earth orbit could even become impassable if
11466-416: The United States' dependence on space had increased, but comparatively little...[had] been achieved to make them more secure." It also noted, despite the recommendations of the Rumsfeld Commission, authority and responsibility for national security space remained fragmented and unfocused. Like the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, the 2008 Allard Commission recommended establishing a Space Corps within the Department of
11613-510: The accidental creation of debris, some has been made intentionally through the deliberate destruction of satellites. This has been done as a test of anti-satellite or anti-ballistic missile technology, or to prevent a sensitive satellite from being examined by a foreign power. The United States has conducted over 30 anti-satellite weapons tests (ASATs), the Soviet Union / Russia has performed at least 27, China has performed 10 and India has performed at least one. The most recent ASATs were
11760-687: The appropriate DEFCON ", and the specifications for the Avco 474N SLBM Detection and Warning System contracted 9 December 1965 required the AN/GSQ-89 processing system for networking the AN/FSS-7 SLBM Detection Radar to also process Site C-6 data. By June 1966 the Site C-6 system was planned "to have the capability to operate in the SLBM [warning] mode simultaneously with the [space] surveillance and tracking modes ". Rebuilding of
11907-501: The beginning of the Cold War . US military space forces first participated in combat operations during the Vietnam War and have participated in every U.S. military operation since, most notably in the Persian Gulf War , which has been referred to as the "first space war." The Strategic Defense Initiative and creation of Air Force Space Command in the 1980s marked a renaissance for military space operations. Proposals for
12054-483: The booster move away from its payload and vent any propellant remaining in its tanks. This eliminated one source for pressure buildup in the tanks which had previously caused them to explode and create additional orbital debris. Other countries were slower to adopt this measure and, due especially to a number of launches by the Soviet Union , the problem grew throughout the decade. A new battery of studies followed as NASA, NORAD, and others attempted to better understand
12201-449: The breakup of derelict rocket bodies and spacecraft. In addition to derelict human-made objects left in orbit, space debris includes fragments from disintegration, erosion , or collisions ; solidified liquids expelled from spacecraft; unburned particles from solid rocket motors; and even paint flecks. Space debris represents a risk to spacecraft. Space debris is typically a negative externality . It creates an external cost on others from
12348-419: The cascade would begin about 2015. The National Academy of Sciences, summarizing the professional view, noted widespread agreement that two bands of LEO space – 900 to 1,000 km (620 mi) and 1,500 km (930 mi) – were already past critical density. In the 2009 CEAS European Air and Space Conference, University of Southampton researcher Hugh Lewis predicted that
12495-650: The database in two-line element sets , and beginning in the early 1980s, they were republished in the CelesTrak bulletin board system . NORAD trackers who fed the database were aware of other objects in orbit, many of which were the result of in-orbit explosions. Some were deliberately caused during anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) testing in the 1960s, and others were the result of rocket stages blowing up in orbit as leftover propellant expanded and ruptured their tanks. More detailed databases and tracking systems were gradually developed, including Gabbard diagrams, to improve
12642-506: The deployment by the Soviet Union of submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), which were also not limited to a northern trajectory and were a greater threat because of the smaller warning time due to their shorter flight path, caused the Air Force to change the primary mission of the radar to SLBM detection and tracking. By 1987 the construction of two south-facing PAVE PAWS radar sites in Georgia and Texas took over this workload, and
12789-582: The development of a sensor for the 496L Space Track System to RADC…after the Soviet lead in satellite technology in October 1957 and the subsequent failure to locate Explorer XII for six months after it was launched" on 16 August 1961. Gen. J. Toomay was program manager after the phased array program transferred to RADC and based on the Bendix Radio Division's ESAR success, the FPS-85 contract
12936-539: The economic benefit of reducing debris more aggressively than existing government mandates require. In 1979, NASA founded the Orbital Debris Program to research mitigation measures for space debris in Earth orbit. During the 1980s, NASA and other U.S. groups attempted to limit the growth of debris. One trial solution was implemented by McDonnell Douglas in 1981 for the Delta launch vehicle by having
13083-677: The end of its lifespan, studies suggest this is insufficient. Since GEO orbit is too distant to accurately measure objects under 1 m (3 ft 3 in), the nature of the problem is not well known. Satellites could be moved to empty spots in GEO, requiring less maneuvering and making it easier to predict future motion. Satellites or boosters in other orbits, especially stranded in geostationary transfer orbit , are an additional concern due to their typically high crossing velocity. Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1
13230-548: The end of their life. The satellites are then either boosted into a higher, graveyard orbit or a lower, short-term orbit. Nonetheless, satellites that have been properly moved to a higher orbit have an eight-percent probability of puncture and coolant release over a 50-year period. The coolant freezes into droplets of solid sodium-potassium alloy, creating more debris. Despite the use of passivation, or prior to its standardization, many satellites and rocket bodies have exploded or broken apart on orbit. In February 2015, for example,
13377-431: The establishment of a Space Force if the Air Force could not, or would not, embrace spacepower. An independent Department of the Space Force would ensure that space got its fair share of resources within the Defense Department, with Senator Smith calling for the creation of a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force as a bridge to a fully independent Space Force. In 2000, Senator Smith led Congress in establishing
13524-457: The existing military space forces across the Army, Navy, and Air Force. While the Navy and Air Force gave up all of their space forces, the greatest resistance to transferring space forces came from the Army. While the Army transferred its satellite communications and missile warning assets, there are still calls for it to transfer 1st Space Brigade and 100th Missile Defense Brigade to the Space Force. The Heritage Foundation has called for
13671-489: The existing transmitters" used six vacuum tubes for each module, Southwest Research Institute was redesigning the transmitters (5 tubes were replaced by solid-state components.) By 1998, the site was providing space surveillance on "38 percent of the near-earth catalogue" of space objects ( ESC 's " SND C2 SPO was the System Program Office .) "A complete modernization…of the 1960s signal-processing system
13818-585: The first CORONA reconnaissance mission, recovering 3,000 feet of film from space and imaged 1.65 million square miles of the Soviet Union's territory. Concerned about the development of the Soviet Union's own space forces, the Air Force advocated for a military human spaceflight program. General Curtis LeMay described strong parallels between World War I aviation and 1960s space operations, noting how quickly flying evolved from chivalric and unarmed reconnaissance flights to combat efforts designed to destroy enemy air superiority . General LeMay believed that it
13965-515: The first time that military space forces were unleashed to their fullest extent. Over sixty spacecraft provided 90% of theater communications and command and control for a multinational army of 500,000 troops, weather support for commanders and mission planners, missile warning of Iraqi Scud missile launches, and satellite navigation for air and land forces moving across a featureless desert. The decisive role that space forces played directly enabled an overwhelming Coalition victory and led to
14112-433: The greatest impediment to the cleanup of near-Earth space. There has been little commercial incentive to reduce space debris since the associated cost does not accrue to the entity producing it. Rather, the cost falls to all users of the space environment who benefit from space technology and knowledge. A number of suggestions for increasing incentives to reduce space debris have been made. These would encourage companies to see
14259-481: The headquarters level, the Space Force is led by the Chief of Space Operations , a four-star general who reports to the Secretary of the Air Force and provides military advice to civilian leadership of the Department of Defense and the White House . Alongside the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force combine to form the Department of the Air Force, like how the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps combine to form
14406-427: The initial action to launch or use a spacecraft in near-Earth orbit, a cost that is typically not taken into account nor fully accounted for by the launcher or payload owner. Several spacecraft, both crewed and un-crewed, have been damaged or destroyed by space debris. The measurement, mitigation, and potential removal of debris is conducted by some participants in the space industry . As of November 2022 ,
14553-487: The inoperable spacecraft and precession of the orbital plane. Close approaches (within 50 meters) are estimated at one per year. The collision debris pose less short-term risk than from a LEO collision, but the satellite would likely become inoperable. Large objects, such as solar-power satellites , are especially vulnerable to collisions. Although the ITU now requires proof a satellite can be moved out of its orbital slot at
14700-653: The issue, recalling that Starfleet's logo was chosen as an homage to the Space Force's direct predecessors in military space operations. The service also chose the title "Guardian" to represent its personnel, becoming its counterpart to Soldier and Airman. The term "Guardian" has a long history within Air Force Space Command, originally serving as part of its motto: "Guardians of the High Frontier." The Space Force also adopted Semper Supra as its official motto and unveiled its service song , sharing
14847-635: The launch of the Transit-4a satellite in 1961. Two hours after insertion, the Ablestar upper stage exploded. Even boosters that don't break apart can be a problem. A major known impact event involved an (intact) Ariane booster. Although NASA and the United States Air Force now require upper-stage passivation, other launchers – such as the Chinese and Russian space agencies – do not. Lower stages, like
14994-506: The long haul, our safety as a nation may depend upon achieving "space superiority." Several decades from now, the important battles may not be sea battles or air battles, but space battles, and we should be spending a certain fraction of our national resources to ensure that we do not lag in obtaining space supremacy. The beginnings of the U.S. Space Force can be traced to the Aftermath of World War II . General Henry H. Arnold , commander of
15141-566: The modeling of orbital evolution and decay. When the NORAD database became publicly available during the 1970s, techniques developed for the asteroid-belt were applied to the study of known artificial satellite objects. Time and natural gravitational/atmospheric effects help to clear space debris. A variety of technological approaches have also been proposed, though most have not been implemented. A number of scholars have observed that systemic factors, political, legal, economic, and cultural, are
15288-435: The number and density of space debris in low-Earth orbit, and has been hypothesized to ensue beyond some critical density. Crewed space missions are mostly at 400 km (250 mi) altitude and below, where air drag helps clear zones of fragments. The upper atmosphere is not a fixed density at any particular orbital altitude; it varies as a result of atmospheric tides and expands or contracts over longer time periods as
15435-448: The oceans or other directions where warning facilities cannot be installed. Given global missiles, the warning system has lost its importance. Global missiles cannot be spotted in time to prepare any measures against them." The possibility of such a threat from space, as well as the increasing number of satellites in Earth orbit since Sputnik , convinced the U.S. Air Force that it needed to greatly expand its space tracking facilities, and
15582-610: The onset of the problem is slower, the numbers progress toward the critical threshold more quickly. Many communications satellites are in geostationary orbits (GEO), clustering over specific targets and sharing the same orbital path. Although velocities are low between GEO objects, when a satellite becomes derelict (such as Telstar 401 ) it assumes a geosynchronous orbit; its orbital inclination increases about 0.8° and its speed increases about 160 km/h (99 mph) per year. Impact velocity peaks at about 1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s). Orbital perturbations cause longitude drift of
15729-526: The orbit of most debris within a decade. A de facto moratorium followed the test. China's government was condemned for the military implications and the amount of debris from the 2007 anti-satellite missile test, the largest single space debris incident in history (creating over 2,300 pieces golf-ball size or larger, over 35,000 1 cm (0.4 in) or larger, and one million pieces 1 mm (0.04 in) or larger). The target satellite orbited between 850 km (530 mi) and 882 km (548 mi),
15876-573: The orbital environment, with each adjusting the number of pieces of debris in the critical-mass zone upward. Although in 1981 (when Schefter's article was published) the number of objects was estimated at 5,000, new detectors in the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance system found new objects. By the late 1990s, it was thought that most of the 28,000 launched objects had already decayed and about 8,500 remained in orbit. By 2005 this
16023-503: The portion of near-Earth space most densely populated with satellites. Since atmospheric drag is low at that altitude, the debris is slow to return to Earth, and in June 2007 NASA's Terra environmental spacecraft maneuvered to avoid impact from the debris. Brian Weeden, U.S. Air Force officer and Secure World Foundation staff member, noted that the 2007 Chinese satellite explosion created an orbital debris of more than 3,000 separate objects that then required tracking. On 20 February 2008,
16170-404: The receiving antennas, the computer can steer the receiving pattern ( main lobe ) of the antenna to the same direction as the transmitted beam. The radar beam can be deflected up to 60° from its central boresight axis, allowing it to scan an azimuth (horizontal angle) of 120° and an elevation range from the horizon to 15° past the zenith . The transmitted beam is 1.4° wide. The receive pattern
16317-400: The right consists of an octagonal array 58 m in diameter consisting of 19,500 crossed dipole antenna elements feeding 4,660 receiver modules. The transmitter module for each antenna element contains a phase shifter which can change the phase (relative timing) of the oscillating current applied to the antenna, under control of the central computer. Due to the phenomenon of interference ,
16464-451: The risk of collision becomes too great. However, since the risk to spacecraft increases with exposure to high debris densities, it is more accurate to say that LEO would be rendered unusable by orbiting craft. The threat to craft passing through LEO to reach a higher orbit would be much lower owing to the short time span of the crossing. Although spacecraft are typically protected by Whipple shields , solar panels, which are exposed to
16611-471: The risk of spacecraft failures." The report called for international regulations limiting debris and research of disposal methods. As of January 2019 there were estimated to be over 128 million pieces of debris smaller than 1 cm (0.39 in), and approximately 900,000 pieces between 1 and 10 cm. The count of large debris (defined as 10 cm across or larger ) was 34,000 in 2019, and at least 37,000 by June 2023. The technical measurement cut-off
16758-580: The same name. The decision on if the Space Force's ranks would mirror the Army, like the Air Force and Marine Corps, or the Navy, generated significant controversy, with Congressman Dan Crenshaw introducing an amendment which would force the Space Force to pattern itself after the Navy's rank structure. Ultimately, the amendment failed and the Space Force followed an Air Force/Army/Marine Corps-based rank scheme. The Space Force began to officially incorporate former Air Force Space Command units in 2020 and 2021, standing up field commands to serve as counterparts to
16905-508: The satellite which could have caused the destructive explosion which took place. However, the case has not been proven and another hypothesis forwarded is that the battery exploded. Tracking showed it broke up, into 300 objects. Many impacts have been confirmed since. For example, on 24 July 1996, the French microsatellite Cerise was hit by fragments of an Ariane 1 H-10 upper-stage booster which exploded in November 1986. On 29 March 2006,
17052-458: The service gained its first astronaut when Colonel Michael S. Hopkins swore into the Space Force aboard the International Space Station on 18 December 2020. The Space Force also began to build out its culture and identity, however, it experienced several public relations challenges due to its perceived ties to science fiction and links to President Trump. The Space Force adopted the Army and Air Force's OCP Uniform with blue stitching and
17199-519: The service. Following the Persian Gulf War , the Air Force and Defense Department declared that "space power has now become as important to the nation as land, sea, and air power." Despite this public pronouncement, a growing section of Congress believed that space was being shortchanged and used only as an auxiliary to air operations. In 1998, drawing parallels between the challenges faced by post-World War I Army Aviators and post-Gulf War Air Force space operators, Senator Bob Smith publicly called for
17346-580: The shortest ( great circle ) route, over the North Pole. FOBS missiles in contrast could orbit the Earth before beginning their reentry, so they could attack the US from any direction. In a 15 March 1962 speech during the Cuban Missile Crisis , Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev alluded to this developing capability: "We can launch nuclear missiles not only over the North Pole, but in the opposite direction too. Global rockets can fly from
17493-556: The site's "surveillance capability…became dedicated to search for SLBMs" (the USAF SLBM Phased Array Radar System was initiated In November 1972 by the JCS while the Army's MSR and PAR phased arrays for missile defense were under construction.) The FPS-85 was expanded in 1974, and "a scanning program to detect" SLBM warheads was installed in 1975. Alaska's AN/FPS-108 Cobra Dane phased array site
17640-513: The site's infrastructure (perimeter fences, etc.), By 2011 the site's "16 million observations of satellites per year" (rate of 30.4/minute) was "30 percent of the space surveillance network's total workload". A 2012 Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility opened at the site and in 2013, "new operating modes at Cavalier AFS and Eglin AFB [Site C-6 provided] more accuracy" than the 1961 VHF Space Surveillance Fence , which could not detect space objects in low altitude/high eccentricity orbits and
17787-449: The size of a basketball out to geosynchronous orbit , 35,700 km in space, and is the most powerful radar in the world. However its aging legacy technology, which uses vacuum tubes , gives it high maintenance costs. Its maintenance crew must repair an average of 17 of its 5000 modular transmitter units daily, at an annual cost of $ 2 million. The AN/FPS-85 radar operates at a frequency of 442 MHz (a wavelength of 68 cm) in
17934-408: The specified functions of the Space Force to: The Space Force further breaks down its mission into three core functions, which align directly to its mission statement to "secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space:" Space superiority defends against space and counterspace threats by protecting spacecraft in space or protecting against attacks enabled by adversary spacecraft, requiring that
18081-486: The threat from space debris would rise 50 percent in the next decade and quadruple in the next 50 years. As of 2009 , more than 13,000 close calls were tracked weekly. A 2011 report by the U.S. National Research Council warned NASA that the amount of orbiting space debris was at a critical level. According to some computer models, the amount of space debris "has reached a tipping point, with enough currently in orbit to continually collide and create even more debris, raising
18228-400: The time it was built this was the simplest design). The transmitting antenna (on the left in the pictures) was a square 72x72 array of 5,184 crossed-dipole antenna elements spaced 0.55 wavelength (37 cm) apart, which was later upgraded to 5928 elements. Each antenna element receives power from a separate transmitter module having an output power of 10 kW. The receiving antenna on
18375-489: The time the debris problem was understood, widespread ASAT testing had ended. The U.S. Program 437 was shut down in 1975. The U.S. restarted their ASAT programs in the 1980s with the Vought ASM-135 ASAT . A 1985 test destroyed a 1-tonne (2,200 lb) satellite orbiting at 525 km (326 mi), creating thousands of debris larger than 1 cm (0.39 in). At this altitude, atmospheric drag decayed
18522-535: The transmitter/receiver building and contents (the system was insured.) On 22 June 1965 the Joint Chiefs of Staff directed CONAD to prepare a standby plan to also use Site C-6 computer facilities "as a backup" to the NORAD / ADC Space Defense Center "prior to the availability of the AN/FPS-85." By December 1965 NORAD decided to use the future Site C-6 radar "for SLBM surveillance on an "on-call" basis" "at
18669-560: The upper stage of Vanguard 1's launch rocket and associated piece of debris, are the oldest surviving artificial space objects still in orbit and are expected to be until after the year 2250. As of May 2022 , the Union of Concerned Scientists listed 5,465 operational satellites from a known population of 27,000 pieces of orbital debris tracked by NORAD. Occasionally satellites are left in orbit when they're no longer useful. Many countries require that satellites go through passivation at
18816-402: The waves return to the receiving array. Like the transmitting antennas, each receiving antenna element has a phase shifter attached, through which the current from the antenna must pass to get to the receiver. The currents from the separate antennas add together in the receiver with the correct phase that the receiver is sensitive to waves coming from only one direction. By altering the phase of
18963-538: The wholesale transfer of United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command , to include the 100th Missile Defense Brigade and the 1st Space Brigade . The 100th Missile Defense Brigade operates the Ground Based Interceptor system and is located at Schriever Space Force Base , Vandenberg Space Force Base , and Fort Greely . Former Air Force space officers have called to move the missile defense and intercontinental ballistic missile mission to
19110-604: The world, establishing the Western Development Division in 1954 and placing it under the command of General Schriever. The Army followed a year later, creating the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under the leadership of General John Bruce Medaris and Dr. Wernher von Braun . The Army led the United States into space, launching the first American spacecraft, Explorer 1 , on 31 January 1958. Space exploration continued to be
19257-671: Was about 11.7 km/s (7.3 mi/s), or about 42,120 km/h (26,170 mph). Both satellites were destroyed, creating thousands of pieces of new smaller debris, with legal and political liability issues unresolved even years later. On 22 January 2013, BLITS (a Russian laser-ranging satellite) was struck by debris suspected to be from the 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test , changing both its orbit and rotation rate. Satellites sometimes perform Collision Avoidance Maneuvers and satellite operators may monitor space debris as part of maneuver planning. For example, in January 2017,
19404-475: Was adjusted upward to 13,000 objects, and a 2006 study increased the number to 19,000 as a result of an ASAT and a satellite collision. In 2011, NASA said that 22,000 objects were being tracked. A 2006 NASA model suggested that if no new launches took place, the environment would retain the then-known population until about 2055, when it would increase on its own. Richard Crowther of Britain's Defence Evaluation and Research Agency said in 2002 that he believed
19551-580: Was being studied in 1999", and in 2002 Site C-6 was tracking "over 95 percent of all earth satellites daily." In 2008, the site's squadron won the General Lance W. Lord Award for mission accomplishment (new "3-D modeling software" had been implemented.) In 2009, the site had been included in a computer model of the February 2009 satellite collision , and GCC Enterprises was contracted for completing "AntiTerrorism and Force Protection Improvements" to
19698-622: Was completed in 1968, were turned over to Air Force Systems Command on 20 September 1968, and "became operational in December 1968, Eglin Site C-6 was assigned to Aerospace Defense Command on 20 December 1968, and the site - using the FORTRAN computer language--became operational during the week of 9 February 1969. Site C-6 was the 1971-84 location of the Alternate Space Surveillance Center. In 1972 20% of
19845-399: Was completed in 1976 and from 1979 until 1983, Site C-6 was assigned to Strategic Air Command 's Directorate of Space and Missile Warning Systems (SAC/SX)--as were the new PAVE PAWS phased array sites operational in 1980. In 1983 Eglin Site C-6 transferred to Space Command (later renamed Air Force Space Command ), and the "FPS-85 assumed a deep space role in November 1988 after receiving
19992-534: Was decommissioned by November 2013. In September 2019, L3Harris Technologies was awarded a $ 12.8 million in a contract for sustainment support of the radar in the Air Force Space Command Space Surveillance Network. In December 2019, with the establishment of the U.S. Space Force (USSF) as an independent U.S. military service under the Department of the Air Force , Eglin Site C-6 and its assigned squadron became
20139-438: Was followed by the establishment of the joint United States Space Command in 1985, aligning Air Force Space Command, Naval Space Command , and Army Space Command under a single operational commander. These two moves, along with the Strategic Defense Initiative 's establishment by President Ronald Reagan , led to a renaissance of military space operations in the 1980s. Space forces were first used in combat operations during
20286-463: Was hit by an MMOD which caused it to lose track of the stars that it used to maintain an operational attitude. It took nearly a month for the spacecraft to return to operation. The first major satellite collision occurred on 10 February 2009. The 950 kg (2,090 lb) derelict satellite Kosmos 2251 and the operational 560 kg (1,230 lb) Iridium 33 collided, 500 mi (800 km) over northern Siberia. The relative speed of impact
20433-575: Was immediately redesignated as United States Space Force, however, the command and its 16,000 Airmen technically remained part of the Air Force. On 3 April 2020, Chief Master Sergeant Roger A. Towberman became the Space Force's second member and was appointed its first senior enlisted leader . The service gained its first new second lieutenants when 86 members of the U.S. Air Force Academy class of 2020 became Space Force members 3 through 88 on 18 April 2020. Currently serving Air Force space operators began to become Space Force members in September 2020 and
20580-492: Was included in the Trump Administration's original legislative proposal to give the Space Force additional independence and autonomy but was removed by the Senate. There have also been numerous calls from inside and outside the Space Force for it to have its own public affairs and judge advocate generals, independent from Air Force. When the Space Force was established in 2019 it was intended to consolidate
20727-575: Was naive to believe that the same trends were not expected to be seen in space and must be prepared for. Although the Air Force made significant progress in developing the X-20 spaceplane , Manned Orbiting Laboratory , and Blue Gemini , opposition from the Department of Defense prevented operational fielding. The Air Force was also forced to cancel Project SAINT , a satellite inspector with satellite neutralization capabilities, when details were leaked to The New York Times in 1962. Despite these setbacks,
20874-572: Was outlined in Space Policy Directive-4, initially organizing the U.S. Space Force as part of the Department of the Air Force, but with plans to build out a separate Department of the Space Force in the future. In 2019, Congress passed legislation establishing the U.S. Space Force as a military service under the Department of the Air Force. On 20 December 2019, the National Defense Authorization Act
21021-419: Was recognized as the lead military service for space by the early 1960s, with the Army and Navy operating in supporting roles. Early military space efforts were focused on developing and fielding spacecraft to accomplish national objectives, with a focus on weather , reconnaissance and surveillance , communications , and navigation . On 18 August 1961, the Air Force and National Reconnaissance Office launched
21168-399: Was signed into law and the U.S. Space Force was established as the sixth armed service, meeting the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions' recommendations to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force, but still falling short of creating a separate Department of the Space Force. We are at the dawn of a new era for our Nation’s Armed Forces. The establishment of the U.S. Space Force
21315-543: Was signed on 2 April 1962. Site C-6 construction began in October 1962 for a system "providing for the possibilities of numerous tube failures by arranging for a large number of people to do replacements" during operations. On 5 November 1964, DDR&E recommended the Site C-6 system be used for submarine-launched ballistic missile detection. Before radar testing planned in May 1965, a 5 January 1965 fire due to arcing that ignited dielectric material "almost totally destroyed"
21462-510: Was struck by a meteoroid on 11 August 1993 and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit . On 29 March 2006, the Russian Express-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable; its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 1958, the United States of America launched Vanguard I into a medium Earth orbit (MEO). As of October 2009 , it,
21609-428: Was the world's first large phased array radar. The Air Force developed phased array technology because conventional mechanically rotated radar antennas could not turn fast enough to track multiple ballistic missiles. A nuclear strike on the US would consist of hundreds of ICBMs incoming simultaneously. The beam of a phased array radar is steered electronically without moving the fixed antenna, so it can be pointed in
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