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104-399: Lead is a main ingredient in lead–acid battery, which were in short supply after World War II , this led to great public demand to improve the life span of automotive batteries. Jess M. Ritchie saw that there was a possibility of making a business out of this. Since World War I , NBS has tested numerous battery additives, also known as "battery dopes". Those tests had been done for

208-658: A Bureau circular, but in the meantime we see no reason to modify Letter Circular 302. This is the first time that the NBS has mentioned a brand name. That statement was never made before, nor has it been since. In the same leaflet, Ritchie was permitted to rebut NBS's findings, and he brought up field tests, which sparked a nationwide issue about the National Bureau of Standards versus the "little guy" called "The AD-X2 Controversy" or "The AD-X2 Affair". It has been mentioned many times by both Dr. Randall and ourselves that it

312-433: A density of 11.34 g/cm , which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm ), copper (8.93 g/cm ), and zinc (7.14 g/cm ). This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon . Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm , and osmium —the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm , almost twice that of lead. Lead

416-406: A dilemma; in order to resolve the issue, they would either have to abandon a fundamental NBS policy about not mentioning commercial products in its publications, or remain silent and thereby give implicit approval to AD-X2. This also led to questions about the impartiality and objectivity of the NBS whether they are biased against the "little guy". The NBS decided to break their policy. NBS permitted

520-492: A few radioactive isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years, small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise from

624-555: A letter to the NBS and told them that AD-X2 is actually beneficial and told them to test the product because Letter Circular 302 was then outdated, since it was written in 1931. Also, the company had the support of the Oakland Better Business Bureau (OBBB) in Oakland, California , since apparently his customers in the area were satisfied. In 1948, George W. Vinal, chief of the electrochemistry section of

728-706: A more structured committee, with specific requirements on a quorum of members needed for the committee to conduct its business, and its own committee staff. S. Res. 58 stipulated that beginning with the 95th Congress , the Small Business Committee would be granted jurisdiction over all legislation relating to the Small Business Administration . This ability was granted S. Res. 104, agreed to on April 29, 1976, provided for this new jurisdiction, granting not only authority over small business legislation but additional oversight over

832-558: A neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209. In

936-466: A polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair . They may be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium . Lead can form multiply-bonded chains , a property it shares with its lighter homologs in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb bond energy

1040-437: A significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp hybridization

1144-438: A single decay chain). In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220. Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.70 × 10  years. The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes. Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. Lead(II) carbonate

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1248-452: A structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent. Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases , as either free lead anions, as in Ba 2 Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV), or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal bipyramidal Pb 5 ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0). In such anions, each atom is at

1352-590: Is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony . The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F) —is very low compared to most metals. Its boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F) is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The electrical resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm -meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m ; gold 20.51 nΩ·m ; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m ). Lead

1456-521: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Pb (from Latin plumbum ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable , and also has a relatively low melting point . When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements. Lead

1560-520: Is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes , causing neurological disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems. Lead's toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead poisoning , but became widely recognized in Europe in

1664-401: Is a superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19  K ; this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors. Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208, and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive. The high number of isotopes

1768-420: Is a common constituent; the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime settings. This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air. Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is pyrophoric , and burns with a bluish-white flame. Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride . The reaction with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as

1872-780: Is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; anglesite , PbSO 4 , is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO 3 , is a decomposition product of galena. Arsenic , tin , antimony , silver , gold , copper , bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals. World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, Russia 6.4 million. Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m in

1976-420: Is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal . Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases , and it tends to form covalent bonds . Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group . Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds . Like

2080-426: Is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas. This is because the expected PbCl 4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl 2 and Cl 2 . Analogously to lead monoxide , lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions. Lead disulfide and lead diselenide are only stable at high pressures. Lead tetrafluoride , a yellow crystalline powder,

2184-404: Is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail. It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile. The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8  GPa . In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa. Lead's tensile strength , at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium

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2288-445: Is common for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon , minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead. This is attributable to relativistic effects , specifically the inert pair effect , which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead and oxide , halide , or nitride anions, leading to

2392-408: Is consistent with lead's atomic number being even. Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus. Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable. With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208

2496-403: Is difficult to make a really definitive laboratory test of Battery AD-X2 and that the only practical means of determining the value of the product is through field test. This controversy has now made it into the news. In December 1950, Newsweek published an article reporting the favorable military results and the satisfaction of AD-X2 customers. Ritchie's sales skyrocketed. The FTC examiner that

2600-414: Is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds. Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions. Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb 3 O 4 . It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide , or structurally 2PbO·PbO 2 , and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. Lead dioxide

2704-450: Is harmful. He, together with Merle Randall , changed the formula of Protecto Charge and released it under the new name "Battery AD-X2". AD-X2 was launched by the company Pioneers, Inc. on the market in 1947. They never patented the product; they have chosen to keep it a trade secret instead. In 1948, Ritchie learned about a pamphlet named Letter Circular 302 by NBS, which was being circulated among battery users. Pioneers, Inc. wrote

2808-412: Is in fact valuable, and give complete support to the claims of the manufacturer. The MIT statement was widely reported by radio and in the press. The NBS, MIT, and indeed the whole scientific community, were in an awkward situation. Two of the nation's most highly respected laboratories had apparently arrived at conflicting conclusions on what appeared to be a simple problem. The scientific method itself

2912-502: Is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40. Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes . In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay . A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture

3016-650: Is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals . The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species. Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO 2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb 12 O 19 at 293 °C, Pb 12 O 17 at 351 °C, Pb 3 O 4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further sesquioxide , Pb 2 O 3 , can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such

3120-741: Is over three and a half times lower than that of the C–C bond . With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three. With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak). This makes the organometallic chemistry of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin. Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 and plumbocene . The lead analog of

3224-415: Is stable, but less so than the difluoride . Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable. Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state

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3328-413: Is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds. There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in

3432-525: Is that following the directions on the package and giving the battery a long, slow charge improves the battery regardless of whether the AD-X2 is added or not. Jess M. Ritchie died on July 2, 1965, in San Leandro, California . On December 9, 2023, The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) released a documentary entitled The AD-X2 Controversy. Lead Lead (pronounced "led")

3536-448: Is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to bismuth , with an atomic number of 83, until its only primordial isotope , bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.) The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 10 to 10 years (at least 10 times

3640-538: Is the origin of the English word " plumbing ". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare. Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder , Columella , and Pliny the Elder , recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for

3744-525: Is the so-called inert pair effect : the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead unusually long. Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp orbitals. In lead,

3848-568: Is to us. Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler "Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992 United States Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship The U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship is a standing committee of the United States Senate . It has jurisdiction over the Small Business Administration and is also charged with researching and investigating all problems of American small business enterprises. On October 8, 1940,

3952-446: Is usefully exploited: lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis. Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound, and is still widely used in fuel for small aircraft . Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable. For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist. Lead's per-particle abundance in

4056-400: The 96th Congress , the committee acted on legislation to reauthorize the Small Business Administration that expanded the agency to include loan programs for employee ownership, Small Business Development Centers, and increased export development assistance for small businesses. Since its creation, the committee has held hearings on paperwork reduction and elimination (which eventually led to

4160-542: The National Better Business Bureau (NBBB) in New York publishing Facts About Battery Dopes , which uses the findings of Letter Circular 302, condemning battery additives. Jess M. Ritchie was an entrepreneur who came from rags. In 1947, he brought a partnership to the company Pioneers, Inc., which is making a battery additive named Protecto Charge. Ritchie found out that Protecto Charge

4264-519: The Paperwork Reduction Act ), capital formation, tax and securities law reform for small business, steel plant shutdowns, and the impact of inflation on governmental actions on the housing industry. The committee was changed from small business to Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship beginning in 1981. Initially, the Small Business Committee only had limited oversight over the Small Business Administration . The committee

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4368-630: The Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula ; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus , Greece , and Sardinia . Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the classical era , with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors,

4472-575: The Post Office Department and for the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), since they are concerned about protecting consumers against fraudulent advertising claims. None of those battery additives were found to be beneficial, which led to NBS publishing Letter Circular 302: Battery Compounds and Solutions in 1931, laying out its findings and warning the public against the use of battery additives. This also led to

4576-671: The Solar System is 0.121  ppb (parts per billion). This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum , eight times more than mercury , and seventeen times more than gold . The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead. The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%. The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number,

4680-804: The fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution . Lead played a crucial role in the development of the printing press , as movable type could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys. In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction , plumbing , batteries , bullets , shots , weights , solders , pewters , fusible alloys , lead paints , leaded gasoline , and radiation shielding . Lead

4784-401: The nucleus , and more shielded by smaller orbitals. The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin, contrary to what periodic trends would predict. This is explained by relativistic effects , which become significant in heavier atoms, which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons. A consequence

4888-468: The +4 state. Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF 2 and PbCl 2 . Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH) and finally [Pb 4 (OH) 4 ] (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands ), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for identifying

4992-424: The AD-X2 affair and all its other operations. But Astin never saw Weeks. Weeks had placed the whole matter in the hands of Sheaffer. Astin later tried again to see Weeks, with the same result. As a result of his assistant secretary investigations, Sheaffer came to the conclusion that there were sufficient grounds to question the reliability of the NBS tests, and on March 24, 1953, Weeks asked Astin to resign. Although

5096-617: The Director of the National Bureau of Standards serves at the pleasure of the President, it is a post in which the incumbent is traditionally not replaced at the change of administration, but Astin, apparently feeling that this action was part of Weeks’ general housecleaning and not personal, resigned. On March 31, 1953, his letter of resignation was at the White House. It was found out that the reason why AD-X2 has positive testimonials

5200-626: The Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in fishing nets , glazes , glasses , enamels , ornaments . Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material , as coins , and as a construction material . Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a stimulant , as currency , as contraceptive , and in chopsticks . The Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans used it for making amulets ; and

5304-524: The Electricity Division at NBS, who learned the thing about battery additives over and over again, put the letter written by Pioneers, Inc., aside. The NBBB, which has written about Facts About Battery Dopes , put pressure on Vinal to issue an up-to-date revision of Letter Circular 302. Meanwhile, the OBBB, which is where Pioneers, Inc. was based, put pressure on Vinal to test AD-X2. Also in

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5408-561: The FTC made a formal request for a test to be conducted at NBS. Since the NBS requirement of requiring another agency of the Government to request for the test has been fulfilled, NBS has conducted its first official test on AD-X2. Tests were conducted, the results of the previous tests Vinal had made were incorporated, and the NBS reported to the FTC on May 11, 1950, that these tests had failed to demonstrate any significant beneficial effect on

5512-535: The FTC, responding to the pressure from Ritchie and from the Senate, and feeling that it needed more tests to uphold its position against Pioneers, Inc., asked NBS to conduct more tests. In early March, the Post Office Department notified Ritchie that it was accusing him of “conducting an unlawful enterprise through the mails” and scheduled a hearing for April 26, which it subsequently delayed, awaiting

5616-475: The NBBB about the validity of its battery additive publication Facts About Battery Dopes , and it further pressed Vinal for a revision of Letter Circular 302. Since a new revision takes some time, and in view of the pressing interest in AD-X2 and other additives, NBS reissued Letter Circular 302 with a letter signed by Edward U. Condon which summarized Letter Circular 302. Neither AD-X2 nor any other battery additive

5720-536: The NBBB to publish in August 1950 a leaflet entitled Battery Compounds and Solutions containing a long statement in which NBS referred specifically to AD-X2: In view of the tests made here and in competent laboratories elsewhere, it is our belief that AD-X2 is not essentially different from other preparations containing magnesium sulfate and sodium sulfate, and that as a class these materials are not beneficial. The results of recent tests are being prepared for issuance as

5824-603: The NBS issued a mimeographed leaflet which stated that the results in Circular 504 were unambiguous: Battery additives were worthless. Allen V. Astin, as an acting director of the NBS, were affected by this heated controversy. He was immediately involved with the AD-X2 problem and attempted to bring it under control. He entered into correspondence with Ritchie. Ritchie went to the Senate Select Committee on Small Business to demonstrate AD-X2. In February 1952,

5928-468: The NBS, did carry out a limited test of AD-X2 along with other tests he performed for the FTC. The results showed that AD-X2 was a simple mixture of sodium and magnesium sulfate, and it showed no beneficial effect on the battery. Vinal did not disclose these results. In 1949, five military installations tested AD-X2; three found it without any effect, but two, using methods that Vinal considered not rigorous , reported positive results. This led to concerns from

6032-413: The NBS. In August 1951, Ritchie urged his distributors to write to Congress, with the aim of causing a congressional investigation of NBS. His position was that he, a small businessman, was being unfairly harassed and persecuted by an agency of the Government. Congress was flooded by mail. Senators and members of Congress wrote to NBS several times. The volume of mail became so great that in the fall of 1951,

6136-475: The Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting. Lead mining occurred in central Europe , Britain , Balkans , Greece , Anatolia , Hispania , the latter accounting for 40% of world production. Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient Judea . Lead

6240-574: The Senate Small Business Committee caused the suspension of the halted mail a few days later. Weeks ordered his assistant secretary Craig R. Sheaffer to investigate the AD-X2 affair. In January 1953, Astin wrote a memorandum to Weeks containing a proposal that was to prove crucial for the future of the NBS. He proposed that the National Academy of Sciences be enlisted to evaluate the NBS with respect to both

6344-874: The Senate established the Special Committee to Study and Survey Problems of Small Business Enterprises (also known as the Special Committee to Study Problems of American Small Business ). The committee was chaired by James E. Murray ( Montana . The other members of the special committee were: Bertram Myron Gross was the Chief of Research and Hearings. With funding from the Carnegie Foundation of New York , he took responsibility for producing The Fate of Small Business in Nazi Germany , written by A. R. L. Gurland , Otto Kirchheimer and Franz Neumann . On January 31, 1949, this special committee

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6448-520: The agency as well. The committee has also been granted the right of re-referral of legislation from other standing committees, where appropriate. Today, the jurisdiction of the committee is roughly the same as it was when it was first established, chiefly the Small Business Administration and the Small Investment Act. However, by tradition, the committee reviews all matters that apply to small business that are not by themselves subject to

6552-607: The atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation, 5 μg/L in fresh water and seawater. The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes from the Middle English leed and Old English lēad (with the macron above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long). The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic * lauda- ('lead'). According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly

6656-402: The battery. Ritchie had continued his advertising claims that the NBBB and NBS statements did not apply to AD-X2 because it had not been tested, and told that NBBB and NBS have a bias against the "little guy" and are conspiring with the big battery companies. This brought intense pressure to Vinal, who saw that identifying AD-X2 by name as the only way of resolving the issue. The NBS was now in

6760-489: The course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 36th most abundant element in the crust. The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores. Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite , Pb 5 Sb 4 S 11 ,

6864-419: The current age of the universe). Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains : lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 , respectively. These decay chains are called the uranium chain , the actinium chain , and the thorium chain . Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on

6968-453: The dead wood". Weeks' mail was flooded by letters from Ritchie and his supporters claiming that Pioneers, Inc., was being unfairly persecuted by an antagonistic bureaucracy. Ritchie's case was strengthened when on February 24, 1953, the Post Office Department, in spite of the MIT tests, halted Ritchie's mail because of fraudulent advertising. Political pressure on the Post Office Department from

7072-428: The diiodide . Many lead(II) pseudohalides are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate . Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes , such as [PbCl 4 ] , [PbCl 6 ] , and the [Pb 2 Cl 9 ] n chain anion. Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations . Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this

7176-408: The discussions. The Senate Small Business Committee ignored the results and issued a press release stating that the MIT results completely supported AD-X2 claims. Keith J. Laidler , an expert on chemical kinetics, then issued a statement: The MIT tests … constitute by far the most thorough scientific tests of the effectiveness of AD-X2. They demonstrate without reasonable doubt that this material

7280-525: The eastern and southern Africans used lead in wire drawing . Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the Aegean and Laurion . These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until c.  1200 BC . Beginning c. 2000 BC,

7384-578: The element its chemical symbol Pb . The word * ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic * bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei . The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic * laidijan- ('to lead'). Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent

7488-413: The first example of metal smelting . At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance. The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral). The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;

7592-430: The group. Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael Faraday ). The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially

7696-449: The inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization. Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb ions. Lead consequently has a face-centered cubic structure like

7800-427: The late 1948, Senator William Knowland from Oakland, also requested tests to Vinal. The NBS has two policies, stating that it should not conduct commercial testing of materials unless requested by another agency of the Government, and never mention commercial products in its publications, this is why Vinal did not conduct testing of the said additive. Nevertheless, Vinal, on his own initiative separate from its work on

7904-447: The late 19th century AD. A lead atom has 82 electrons , arranged in an electron configuration of [ Xe ]4f 5d 6s 6p . The sum of lead's first and second ionization energies —the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin , lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group . This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from

8008-560: The latter being stable only above around 488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead. There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation. Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a semiconductor , a photoconductor , and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector . The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride , are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down

8112-441: The latter is not; this allows for lead–lead dating . As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead dating . Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance , a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state, including in the human body. Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are trace quantities of

8216-461: The lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself ; it can form chains and polyhedral structures. Since lead is easily extracted from its ores , prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it . Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome . Lead production declined after

8320-522: The name of the committee to the Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship. The committee's jurisdiction has been changed several times since it was first created, through additional powers or by changing the manner in which committee members are appointed. While first established as a select committee with limited responsibilities, it now possesses virtually all the characteristics of a standing committee, as outlined under Senate Rule 25. During

8424-539: The neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them. When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium , iridium , platinum . Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt classification , meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur. It rarely occurs in its native , metallic form. Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over

8528-418: The preparation of sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ( lead(II) acetate ), whereas copper vessels imparted a bitter flavor through verdigris formation. This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic

8632-414: The presence of the Pb ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution. Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs , litharge α-PbO (red) and massicot β-PbO (yellow),

8736-422: The presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores; for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place. As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while

8840-432: The r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two neutron stars . The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 10 neutrons per square centimeter per second. The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process. It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons. At this point,

8944-541: The resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements. Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides. Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid ; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt. Organic acids, such as acetic acid , dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen. Concentrated alkalis dissolve lead and form plumbites . Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state

9048-458: The results of NBS tests. The tests conducted by the NBS were extensive, and as expected, they also showed AD-X2 to be useless. But the results were immediately attacked by Ritchie as being technically flawed because the charging procedure was inappropriate, despite the fact that it was the same one used by Randall. Astin decided to resolve the situation by performing a public test using a procedure that would be agreed to by all parties. A procedure

9152-419: The results of new laboratory tests, with the same results as previously: no battery additive was found to be useful. No battery additives were identified by name. These results were published in the trade press, which refused to publish Ritchie's side of the story, and in many cases, refused to accept his advertising. Ritchie's sales plummeted. Knowing that Pioneers, Inc. sales plummeted, Ritchie began to attack

9256-497: The results of the MIT tests were delivered to the committee. The report did find differences attributable to the introduction of AD-X2, but the differences are minuscule and they refrained from concluding whether such differences were practical real-world significance. In fact, it turned out later that these differences were only observable when using an electrolyte that was so dilute that it has no relationship to actual use conditions. Astin went to MIT to discuss this, but nothing came of

9360-518: The same meaning. There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic * lauda- . One hypothesis suggests it is derived from Proto-Indo-European * lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron). Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic * ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the Latin plumbum , which gave

9464-491: The similarly sized divalent metals calcium and strontium . Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue. It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic properties of lead include high density , malleability, ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to passivation . Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in

9568-588: The simplest organic compound , methane , is plumbane . Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen. Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead , are the best-known organolead compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light. With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as tetraethyllead. The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds

9672-436: The technician to leave the room, and he personally affixed numbers to all the cells. Only Astin knew which numbers corresponded to the treated cells. The tests were run by the laboratory personnel over the next few weeks. On July 15, 1952, the NBS reported its results. AD-X2 showed no beneficial effects. Ritchie also said that the tests were not properly done, he had never agreed to the permitted increase in specific gravity, and

9776-475: The tests were flawed in ten other ways. It was now clear to Astin, who believed that he had obtained Ritchie's agreement on the conduct of the tests, that any tests conducted by the NBS, were not acceptable to Ritchie. The Senate Small Business Committee took Ritchie's side on the validity of the tests. On September 29, at a meeting in Astin's office, it was agreed that further tests were necessary, but no decision

9880-403: The very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in uranium ores. Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in

9984-487: Was agreed upon in writing, except for one point, which turned out to be crucial. This concerned the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Ritchie had wanted to add water if, during charging, the specific gravity rose above 1.280; the NBS did not want to add water at all. Astin finally thought he had a compromise in which the specific gravity would not be allowed to rise above 1.325, and the tests were performed in June 1952. Astin

10088-579: Was being called into question, as were the motivations and objectivity of the NBS scientists. The NBS itself was at the lowest point in its history. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected as the 34th president of the United States, vowed to "clean up the mess in Washington". He then appointed Sinclair Weeks, a businessman from Boston , as the Secretary of Commerce and promised to "cut out

10192-438: Was directed to report to the Senate from time to time with its recommendations regarding small business matters. With the adoption of S. Res. 272 during the 82nd Congress , the committee was granted subpoena power, and the ability to "sit and act at such times during the sessions, recesses, and adjourned periods of the Senate." These abilities are common to the other standing committees in the Senate. S. Res. 272 also provided for

10296-725: Was made about who was to conduct the tests. Blake O’Connor, one of the staff members of the Senate Select Committee on Small Business, asked the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to carry out the tests. MIT, contrary to their policy, agreed to do the tests. Astin decided that because of Ritchie's attitude toward the NBS, it would be better if MIT carried out their tests independently. Harold C. Weber, professor of chemical engineering at MIT, started their test in October 1952. On December 17, 1952,

10400-422: Was mentioned by name. The NBBB, having the reissued Letter Circular 302 from NBS, asked FTC to take action against Pioneers, Inc. on the grounds that its advertising claims for AD-X2 were false, and notified Vinal that it was doing so. This led to the FTC to send an examiner to Oakland, and they found out that there is a wide satisfaction among AD-X2 users, including the military. Because of this, on March 22, 1950,

10504-500: Was now fully in charge of the public testing of AD-X2. Some battery cells were treated and some are controls . But which cells were which was not known to the personnel conducting the tests, only Astin knows. The NBS statisticians developed a random sampling scheme . Astin and a technician assistant went alone into the laboratory. Consulting a chart prepared by the statisticians, Astin told the technician which cells were to have AD-X2 added and which were not. During this procedure, he asked

10608-471: Was sent to Oakland, feeling the NBS report was not definitive because of the lack of field tests and because of the satisfactory experience of users in the area, recommended that the FTC drop its case against Pioneers, Inc. The FTC did not accept the recommendation and pushed the case forward against Pioneers, Inc. On January 10, 1951, NBS issued its revision of Letter Circular 302, entitled NBS Circular 504 on Battery Additives . It showed in considerable detail

10712-593: Was terminated. On February 20, 1950, the Select Committee on Small Business was created with approval of Senate Resolution 58 during the 81st Congress . That first committee had just nine members. It was the first select committee created by the Senate that still operates today. The select committee was terminated on March 25, 1981, when it became the Committee on Small Business , a standing committee. On June 29, 2001, Sen. John F. Kerry (D-Mass.) changed

10816-534: Was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The Balearic slingers , used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy. Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire ; the Latin word for the metal, plumbum ,

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